International Trade in Animals and Animal Parts 227 IWT can be conceptualised as consisting of three basic stages—poaching/ collecting/harvesting; smuggling; selling Admittedly, in some cases, there is also a processing or manufacturing stage that takes place Whereas the first stage has some element of opportunity to it—a person happens upon wildlife which they kill or kidnap for profit—the other stages need to be more organised to ensure success This is fulfilled by both structured or organised criminal actors and also organised crime groups (Wyatt 2013c) The latter are drawn to IWT in increasing numbers because of a variety of factors Profit entices organised criminals into particular black markets Certain wildlife markets are very profitable, and in turn, there is evidence that organised crime plays a role here For example, organised crime is documented in the smuggling of caviar and whale meat, as well as rhino horn—all of which are highly profitable (Wyatt 2013c) Other factors which are favourable for organised crime are the scarcity or abundance of the wildlife Endangered or rare wildlife are typically worth more, and therefore, offer more profit for organised crime groups who have the resources to access these species—the trade in rhinos exemplifies this In contrast, other more prevalent wildlife markets, like that in fur-bearing mammals or pangolins, may be organised in the sense the trafficking is structured, but this is not necessarily facilitated by organised crime groups (Wyatt 2013c) Another factor affecting the involvement of organised crime is the location of the wildlife habitat in relation to the location of the consumer If the two are in close proximity, the smuggling is fairly straightforward and handled by local people In contrast, if there is a considerable distance between the two—as in the rhino in Africa and the use of the horn in Asia—smuggling is much more organised and risky Wyatt (2013c) argues this more complicated dangerous trafficking is undertaken by organised crime groups who are experienced and sophisticated enough to be successful Since organised crime’s primary objective is profit presumably animal welfare is not taken into consideration during capture or smuggling as discussed further below Also to ensure profit, if possible it makes sense to smuggle large quantities of wildlife to guarantee some survive to be sold This might mean increased numbers of victimised animals This victimisation is outlined below Nature Each stage of trade potentially harms and/or injures the wildlife victim This section will explore such harm and injury during capture, smuggling and killing It should be noted that even farmed or captive wildlife bred for the trade face abuse and that abuse and suffering extends beyond transportation