280 | Food Animals: Ethics and Methods of Raising Animals movement that has questioned the ethics of angling in general, and live-release fishing in particular, irrespective of the conservation and water quality benefits that the presence of a sport fishery can bring With live-release fishing, many believe it is cruel to capture fish by impaling it on a metal hook, forcibly coercing it up to wherever the angler happens to be positioned, and then releasing it back to the wild to try and the same again Caughtand-released fish are often injured A key component of the cruelty argument revolves around fish awareness and whether or not they feel pain The available scientific evidence is conflicting and contradictory Some hold that the brains and neural systems of fish are not sufficiently developed to experience pain and awareness (Rose, 2002) However, recent experiments have generated results that consistently showed fish detecting and non-reflexively attempting to avoid noxious stimuli and pain (Sneddon, 2003, Sneddon et al., 2003) Scientific work is ongoing in this important field (for a recent review, see Arlinghaus et al., 2007), and there is a great deal at stake See also Fish Further Reading Arlinghaus, R., & Cooke, S J 2005 Global impact of recreational fisheries Science, 307, 1561–1562 Arlinghaus, R., Cooke, S J., Lyman, J., Policansky, D., Schwab, A., Suski, C et al 2007 Understanding the complexity of catch-andrelease in recreational fishing: an integrative synthesis of global knowledge from historical, ethical, social and biological perspectives Reviews in Fisheries Science, 15, 75–167 Berners, Dame Juliana 1496 The treatyse of fysshynge with an angle Available at http// darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/berners/bern ers.html Published online by Risa Stephanie Bear Economic and Policy Analysis Directorate 2003 2000 Survey of recreational fishing in Canada Economic and commercial analysis report No 165, Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans Montaigne, F 1999 Hooked: Fly fishing in Russia London: Phoenix Muoneke, M I 1994 Hooking mortality: a review for recreational fisheries Reviews in Fisheries Science, 2, 123–256 Rose, J D 2002 The neurobehavioral nature of fishes and the question of awareness and pain Reviews in Fisheries Science, 10, 1–38 Sneddon, L U 2003 The evidence for pain in fish: the use of morphine as an analgesic Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 83, 153–162 Sneddon, L U., Braithwaite, V A., & Gentle, M J 2003 Do fishes have nociceptors? Evidence for the evolution of a vertebrate sensory system Proceedings of the Royal Society London B, 270:, 1115–1121 Whoriskey, F G., Prusov, S., & Crabbe, S 2000 Evaluation of the effects of catch-and-release angling on the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) of the Ponoi River, Kola Peninsula, Russian Federation Ecology of Freshwater Fish 9: 118–125 Fred Whoriskey FOOD ANIMALS: ETHICS AND METHODS OF RAISING ANIMALS A fundamental ethical choice concerns whether it is morally acceptable for humans to use nonhuman animals at all, for any purpose, including food Once a choice has been made, by an individual or a society, to raise certain animals for food, ethical issues center around what considerations humans owe these animals, both as species and individuals, in life and in death Answers may be influenced by the ethical frameworks within which issues are examined (e.g., utilitarian, contractualist, and so forth), the relative weights