Anthropocentrism | 67 mentality and unrestrained development are representative modes of dominionism Stewardship: A milder form of anthropocentrism may also be traced to the Judeo-Christian tradition and is found in others as well Often labeled “weak anthropocentrism” in the literature, the stewardship view is manifested in such ideas as responsible husbandry, wise management and conservation of resources, and preservation of species and natural wonders, although sometimes preservation is linked to the notion of something’s being of value for its own sake By one estimate (Butkus, 2002) there are no fewer than 26 references to stewardship in the Bible, and even the dominionist account (in Genesis 1:26–28) of how God assigns to humans their place in nature is often interpreted as a prescription to tend the Earth in a measured and loving way Within Islam too, humans may be seen as nature’s caretakers, the vice-regents of Allah for whose glory all acts are performed And in the thought systems of Indigenous Peoples in many parts of the world, ideas of stewardship are present— for example, in the principle that the Earth is inherited from our ancestors and must be carefully looked after, in order to be passed on intact and in good health to future generations Within stewardship, arguably, humans still matter most, but other species matter and possess noninstrumental value as well This framework allows room for the projects of advancing biodiversity and pursuing sustainable development Evolutionary Perspectivism: According to this view, it is natural for each species to act as if its survival, flourishing, and reproduction are the highest goods Given this premise, inter-species clashes are inevitable; there could not be an ecosphere as we know it without conflict and competition Some infer from this that whatever humans choose to in nature is simply a reflection of our speciesspecific behavioral repertoire, which we exhibit just as other animal types exhibit theirs Others suggest that nature’s wellbeing is not in conflict with human-centered behavior but actually coincides with an enlightened form of our species’ self-interest, so that there need be no ultimate opposition between humans and the rest of nature That is, when humans pursue their proper end, they will then act in the best interests of nature as a whole Entomologist E O Wilson even argues that what he calls “biophilia” (love of life) has played a crucial role in the history of human development (see Kellert, 2003) Many philosophers perceive anthropocentrism as a belief that, if it ever had an important function, has now outlived its usefulness and become not just outmoded, but a dangerous threat to fragile ecosystems and even to the survival of life on Earth Others maintain that anthropocentrism is in some sense inescapable and, at a certain level of interpretation, scarcely remarkable at all Just as spiders, if they could evaluate the world around them conceptually and articulate their thoughts in language, would be arachnicentric, so would wolves be lupucentric and cows