Introduction
On the first day of high school, students often find themselves perplexed when they enter a classroom and are greeted by both a general education teacher and a special education teacher Confusion arises as they check their schedules, which list only one teacher's name, prompting questions about the presence of two educators As attendance is taken, students notice differing rosters and wonder about the rationale behind this arrangement When the syllabus is distributed, featuring only one teacher's name, the students' curiosity deepens regarding the role of the additional teacher in the classroom.
In a co-teaching environment, the general education teacher typically leads in lesson planning and instruction, while the special education teacher supports by suggesting necessary accommodations and modifications Responsibilities of the special education teacher include taking attendance, managing administrative tasks, and distributing materials Although there are instances where the special education teacher may take the lead, they primarily serve as an assistant to enhance the learning experience for all students.
As the school year advances, tensions rise among teachers, particularly as the general education teacher perceives an imbalance in workload, believing they are solely responsible for preparing lesson plans, delivering instruction, and grading assignments.
2001) They resent sharing their class with another teacher after all, it is their class,
General education teachers often perceive themselves as the primary educators and view special education teachers as mere assistants, leading to feelings of resentment among special educators According to Dev & Haynes (2015), special education teachers feel undervalued, relegated to basic housekeeping or clerical tasks that do not reflect their qualifications This dynamic raises questions about the general education teacher's reluctance to allow special educators to actively teach, resulting in special teachers feeling like they are not recognized as true educators in the classroom, as noted by Murawski (2009).
Co-teaching in schools often deviates from its intended purpose, as seen in numerous daily scenarios across the nation This raises the question of whether inclusion and co-teaching have evolved in ways that stray from their original goals.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2011), roughly six million school-aged children, or approximately ten percent of all K-12 students in
In the United States, many students qualify for special education services, with over half spending most of their time in general education classrooms, as reported by the National Center for Education Statistics in 2011 Co-Teaching is an effective strategy to deliver these services while adhering to the principle of Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) The LRE concept originates from the pivotal 1954 civil rights case, Brown v Board of Education, which emphasizes the importance of inclusive education.
Education and two subsequent 1972 cases influenced by Brown: Pennsylvania
Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v Pennsylvania and Mills v Board of
Education Prager (2015) contends that in tandem, these cases helped to end the practice of segregating students with disabilities from their non-disabled peers
In the United States, billions are invested annually in special education, with Shah (2012) highlighting that improving efficiencies could enhance student outcomes and save $10 billion each year A crucial component of this strategy involves integrating students with disabilities into general education classrooms through co-teaching, as noted by Samuels (2011) However, real-world implementation often proves challenging and far from straightforward.
In a New Jersey high school, 18.7% of students qualify for special education services, making it the largest department, which constitutes 23% of the faculty Co-teaching classes account for 44.5% of the department's schedule, with 74.1% of teachers engaged in at least one co-teaching partnership The school features 45 unique co-teaching pairs, involving 90 teachers, representing 69.2% of the overall teaching faculty.
The financial implications of special education in New Jersey are substantial, with 220,253 students eligible for services, representing 15.3% of the state's student population aged 3 to 21 According to Molenaar and Luciano (2007), educating special education students costs 1.6 times more per pupil, amounting to over $3 billion annually in New Jersey This significant investment highlights the need for more effective resource allocation within the educational system.
Inclusion classes utilize co-teaching to educate students with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers, promoting both academic and social benefits for all involved (Kirby, 2017; Frisk, 2004; Buckley, 2005) Co-teaching models involve a partnership between a general education teacher and a special education teacher, who share responsibilities in the classroom (Friend & Cook, 1992) Despite extensive literature on effective co-teaching practices, research by Weiss and Brigham (2000) reveals that many teachers adhere to traditional roles, with general education teachers primarily delivering instruction and special education teachers focusing on behavior management and modifications, often neglecting individualized instruction.
Education is fundamental to a thriving society, as it is essential for individual success and social justice Recognizing education as a human right is crucial for national progress It is our moral obligation to prepare every child for success in a rapidly evolving global landscape, making this commitment a guiding principle for educational leaders and institutions.
A significant responsibility for school leaders is providing a high- quality public education for all, thus creating positive outcomes for students with disabilities
Co-Teaching has significant potential for benefiting all stakeholders; however, it often falls short in practice, presenting challenges According to Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie (2007), classroom instruction has failed to adequately address the needs of students with disabilities Instead, special education teachers are trying to adjust to the general education environment, while effective co-teaching strategies remain underutilized, as noted by Zigmond and Baker.
(1994) conclude that although special education students are receiving instruction in the general education classroom albeit with assistance, these special education students are not getting special education
Teacher training or professional development in co-teaching is a key area that may help students and co-teachers to reach their potential Many studies (Walther-
Research by Thomas (1997), Buckley (2005), and Rice & Zigmond (2000) emphasizes the importance of teacher training and professional development in fostering a supportive environment for co-teaching Effective co-teaching relies on the implementation of research-based strategies, which can be achieved through targeted professional development for educators.
Politics and Economics of Special Education
This article examines the evolution of significant legislation influencing co-teaching through special education funding It highlights the necessity of scrutinizing the political and policy landscape of education in the United States, emphasizing that this issue is a crucial aspect of social justice Additionally, it discusses the advantages of state waivers from federal laws in enhancing educational opportunities.
Political environment For the past five decades, the federal government has been exerting its power in what Fowler (2013) would describe as the phase of wielding
6 authority and economic dominance, especially since special education funding for states has been tied to compliance with federal legislation
America's political landscape has become increasingly partisan and polarized, with government officials showing greater division and reluctance to compromise (DeBray & Houck, 2011) The evident absence of bipartisanship and cooperation between political parties is highlighted by significant events such as the 2013 budget sequestration and the 2018 federal government shutdown (Stolberg & Fandos, 2018).
Literature Review
According to a meta-synthesis by Scruggs et al (2007), existing literature on co-teaching can be categorized into four main areas: the background and history of co-teaching, strategies for enhancing co-teaching practices, educators' perspectives on the approach, and the overall effectiveness of co-teaching.
Qualitative research has largely focused on co-teaching, aiming to explore teachers' perceptions, identify the perceived benefits, uncover obstacles, and evaluate the impact of co-teaching on student achievement.
Research by Friend et al (2010), Nichols et al (2010), and Scruggs et al (2007) offers a comprehensive historiography on inclusion and co-teaching, highlighting their development and transformation into established educational paradigms.
According to Friend et al (2010), collaboration has traditionally been a vital component of special education, primarily occurring among special educators such as teachers, counselors, psychologists, and therapists However, this collaboration often excluded general education teachers and staff, limiting the effectiveness of support for students with disabilities.
It was not until the 1980’s that the concept of inclusion began to gain traction in American public schools The Individual with Disabilities Education Act of 1997
The justification for inclusion and co-teaching is rooted in the legal requirement to educate students in the least restrictive environment, as mandated by federal law This framework is reinforced by the federal mandates established in the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act.
The reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 2004 and the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015 mandates that all students, including those with disabilities, must have access to the general curriculum and receive instruction from highly qualified teachers This legislative framework has significantly influenced the education of students with disabilities, as highlighted by Nichols, Dowdy, and Nichols (2010), who note the transition from separate classrooms to inclusive settings where special education students are integrated into regular education classrooms This inclusive approach has led to the adoption of co-teaching as a primary method of delivering education to these students.
Suggestions for Improving Co-Teaching
The bulk of research conducted deals with teacher’s perspectives on co-teaching and methods or suggestions for improving the co-teaching relationship or the inclusive classroom
Developing a co-planning framework is crucial for fostering successful working relationships among co-teachers, as highlighted by Pratt, Imbody, Wolf, and Patterson (2017) Their detailed plan emphasizes that active co-planning enhances teacher involvement and enables co-teachers to leverage their expertise collaboratively, ultimately benefiting their students.
Improving the co-teaching process by highlighting and embracing the differences between co-teachers is the focus of Beninghof (2015) who asserts that rather than
Embracing the unique strengths and areas of expertise of each co-teacher is essential, rather than trying to minimize their differences To facilitate effective collaboration, a team-building checklist was developed and presented by Beninghof in 2015.
Keefe, Moore, and Duff (2004) highlight the challenges of co-teaching and offer strategies for fostering effective co-teaching relationships They identify four essential concepts for success: teachers must understand themselves, their co-teachers, their students, and their subject matter However, secondary school special educators often face difficulties, such as teaching in multiple classrooms with various co-teachers and lacking adequate planning time, all while instructing in subjects where they may not be highly qualified.
According to Beninghof (2014), co-teachers must choose between two main collaboration models early in their partnership: a duet approach, where responsibilities and decisions are shared, or a one lead, one assist model that enables both educators to leverage their expertise Once this collaborative framework is established, it becomes simpler to navigate and manage the details of daily instruction.
Murawski and Dieker (2008) highlight key methods for retaining effective co-teaching teams, emphasizing the significance of training and preparation for co-teachers, as well as the necessity of common planning time They provide a comprehensive list of 50 tips to enhance co-teaching, urging co-teachers to embrace equality, experiment with new strategies, and actively listen to diverse perspectives, including those of students and parents.
Ende (2015) suggests that regardless of the co-teaching approach being
To enhance co-teaching effectiveness, educators must embrace flexibility in their roles, fostering a collaborative environment According to Ende, this dynamic relationship not only supports the professional growth of co-teachers but also positively impacts student learning outcomes.
The importance of communication between co-teachers is expressed by Baptiste
In her 2015 narrative, Baptiste highlights her challenges as a special educator in an ineffective forced co-teaching partnership She emphasizes the significance of long-term relationship building and effective communication, particularly among co-teachers from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Legutko (2015) examined general education teachers' views on special education teachers, revealing that while they appreciated their presence in the classroom, the special educators often lacked sufficient content knowledge This gap frequently resulted in special educators functioning more as glorified aides rather than true co-teachers The study emphasized the critical need for special educators to possess strong content knowledge and the necessity for dedicated time to co-plan with general education teachers.
Whisnant (2015) examined teacher perceptions of success in co-teaching classrooms, highlighting that while collaboration between co-teachers is crucial, having sufficient planning time and the ability to co-plan effectively are even more vital Key findings of the study revealed that a lack of planning time and the reluctance of general education teachers to share instructional responsibilities, coupled with insufficient content knowledge among special educators, significantly impacted the effectiveness of co-teaching.
A study conducted by Abbye-Taylor (2014), explored the perceptions of co- teachers and concluded that teachers who believed that co-teaching was successful, also
Methodology
This qualitative case study comprised two stages: an extensive document analysis of literature on co-teaching practices, leading to a compilation of the most recommended strategies, and a teacher survey conducted in three public high schools in New Jersey The survey aimed to collect demographic data and assess the implementation of these suggested co-teaching practices in high school classrooms.
This qualitative research study aimed to assess co-teaching literature and identify the professional development needs of high school co-teachers Through document analysis, the study compiled a list of frequently recommended co-teaching practices from prominent educational literature Additionally, surveys were conducted with teachers to evaluate the implementation of these practices in New Jersey high school co-teaching classrooms The analysis of both data sets offers insights into the actual application of suggested co-teaching strategies, informing recommendations for enhancing teacher awareness and guiding administrator planning for professional development.
30 development on co-teaching, so that research based co-teaching practices can truly be incorporated into high school classrooms for the benefit of all students
Immediate improvements in pedagogy can be made by utilizing findings from this study, which identified the most frequently recommended practices in teacher education literature These results can serve as a foundational reference for future research on co-teaching, as they align with the core journals and databases used in teacher preparation programs Additionally, data from teacher surveys, which highlighted the application of research-based co-teaching strategies, can aid educators in participating districts The survey questions can also be distributed to teachers across New Jersey and other states, enhancing the understanding of research in practice and facilitating further studies This information can assist teacher leaders and administrators in developing strategies to enhance co-teaching professional development based on teachers' experiences.
Several research questions guided this investigation into understanding frequently suggested co-teaching practices and their ultimate realization in the high school co- teaching classroom The research questions are:
Research Questions for First Stage: What does the literature say are the most frequent suggestions for co-teaching practices in the classroom? Which of these most
31 frequently recurring suggestions are research based, and which are based solely on lived teacher experience?
In the second stage of research, we explore the co-teaching strategies that teachers are familiar with, as highlighted in existing literature We investigate the reasons behind teachers' decisions to adopt or reject these strategies Additionally, we seek insights from co-teachers on the most effective strategies they are currently implementing in their classrooms.
First Stage: Sources of Documents for Analysis
Online library database searches were performed using the ERIC and Academic Search Premier databases on the EBSCOhost platform, a provider of searchable databases that include collections of journal articles Accessible through our university library’s annual subscription, EBSCOhost offers advanced search options and a diverse range of information sources, often providing results in the form of full-text articles.
The Education Research Information Center (ERIC) is a premier database accessible via the EBSCO interface, featuring over 1.3 million records from scholarly educational journals, including hundreds of thousands of full-text articles According to the Teachers College library at Columbia University (2013), ERIC stands out as the leading resource for periodical literature in education, providing access to articles from more than 800 educational journals.
Academic Search Premier (ASP), according to the Rowan University Library
(2015), provides a broader database search since it is considered multidisciplinary It is the database most common to a wide variety of libraries including academic libraries,
32 school libraries, and public libraries, and offers and full-text available for over 4,500 journal titles
This study identifies EBSCO™ Academic Search Premier™ and ERIC™ as the most authoritative library databases for New Jersey teachers seeking information on teaching practices These databases are widely accessible to all higher education institutions and K-12 school libraries in New Jersey through JerseyClicks, a resource provided by the New Jersey State Library and the Institute for Museum and Library Services Informal polls among educators and consensus from the dissertation committee confirmed these databases as the primary sources for document analysis.
To conduct searches, access the online databases through the Rowan University Campbell Library homepage Select the “Databases” tab and choose ERIC from the list of available databases on the EBSCOhost platform This will direct you to the EBSCOhost search page By clicking the “Choose Databases” hyperlink, you can view additional databases Select Academic Search Premier by checking the box next to its name, allowing you to search both ERIC and Academic Search Premier simultaneously on the EBSCOhost platform.
The researcher searched each of these sources on its opening search screen using the simple keyword term co-teach*
The term "co-teach*" was used in a search to utilize truncation, allowing for the retrieval of various forms of the word, such as co-teaching and co-teachers This method yielded 981 articles spanning from 1973 to 2017, while a search without the asterisk resulted in only 88 articles These findings included all relevant articles available on ERIC and Academic Search Premier through the EBSCOhost platform during the search process.
The search focused on co-teaching themes specifically at the high school level by incorporating the parameter "NOT elementary" to filter out articles related to preschool through eighth grade This adjustment successfully eliminated 319 articles, narrowing the results to 662 relevant sources The Boolean search term used for this process was "co-teach* NOT elementary."
The search parameters focused on materials for teacher professional development published between 2007 and 2017, covering a significant period of 9.5 years This timeframe was chosen to ensure the relevance of pedagogical materials on co-teaching for educators The selection process included only articles published from 2007 onward, marking this year as pivotal, as it was the first year all teachers began to engage with these resources.
The application of IDEA 2004 legislation required highly qualified individuals, resulting in a refined selection process that narrowed the original 662 articles down to 462 by focusing on a specific ten-year window Of these, 218 articles (47%) were sourced from Academic Search Premier, while 243 articles (53%) came from ERIC Finally, filtering for English-language publications further reduced the total to 458 articles.
The search results show a total of 456 articles; however, this figure includes duplicates that the EBSCOhost database automatically filters out The results conclude at the 416th article, with a message stating, “Note: Exact duplicates removed from the results.” Therefore, there are actually 416 unique articles available from this search.
The database indicates that 458 articles were produced in English across nine countries, in addition to the United States, according to data from EBSCOhost.
The articles, therefore, came from the following sources: 295 articles from
Scholarly (Peer Reviewed Journals), with 231 articles were listed as providing full-text;
292 articles from academic journals; 78 from magazines In addition, 77 items were reports, plus four reviews, three news articles, two trade publications and one a book
First Stage: Process for Document Analysis
The initial phase of this study will involve data collection through document analysis techniques as outlined by Creswell (2008) This will include a systematic review of co-teaching suggestions and practices documented over the past decade, focusing on relevant journals and publications in the fields of education and special education.
35 education, teaching, co-teaching and, psychology Rigor will be maintained using constant comparison method and by employing the emergent coding practices described by Saldaủa (2009) and Creswell (2007)
Results
The initial phase involved analyzing a decade's worth of online articles focused on co-teaching, which led to the creation of a comprehensive list of recommended research-based co-teaching strategies This process also facilitated the identification of the most frequently recommended strategies found in the literature.
The initial research question of this study focused on identifying the most commonly recommended co-teaching strategies in existing literature After thorough analysis, 86 articles were selected that offered evidence-based co-teaching techniques suitable for high school classrooms These articles were categorized into three distinct groups: dissertations, empirical research published in academic journals, and concise research articles intended for practitioners.
A review of the literature identified 102 distinct strategies, with 35 of them appearing multiple times Notably, nine of the top ten most frequently suggested strategies were endorsed across all three categories of literature The leading nine strategies emerged as the most recurring, with the most frequently recommended strategies being Co-planning, Professional Development, and Six Approaches to Co-Teaching, listed in order of their prevalence.
Teaching, Support from Administration, Special Education Teacher Content Knowledge, Communication, Shared Roles/ Responsibilities, Collaboration, Protect/Keep Good Co-Teaching Teams Together, and Teacher Equity/Parity
The second research question addressed in this study was, “Which co-teaching practices are grounded in research, and which rely solely on teachers' lived experiences?” A review of extensive literature on co-teaching at the secondary level identified 86 articles that presented research-based strategies for high school classrooms From these sources, a total of 102 distinct strategies were suggested, with 35 strategies being mentioned multiple times.
The top nine strategies identified in the literature, which were consistently suggested across all three categories, include Co-planning, Professional Development, Six Approaches to Co-Teaching, Support from Administration, and Special Education Teacher Content These strategies emerged as the most frequently recurring themes, highlighting their importance in effective educational practices.
Knowledge, Communication, Shared Roles/ Responsibilities, Collaboration, Protect/Keep Good Co-Teaching Teams Together, and Teacher Equity/Parity
The research on co-teaching strategies encompasses both empirical studies and lived experiences, with a significant emphasis on the perspectives of all participants involved Notably, 72% of the articles analyzed for this study were research-based, while 28% focused exclusively on lived experiences, ensuring a well-rounded selection of effective co-teaching strategies.
Summary of Answers to Second Stage Research Questions
The second stage of the study involved the creation and distribution of a survey of a survey to gather data from respondents on their co-teaching practices to ascertain if and
The study investigates the implementation of strategies proposed in existing literature regarding co-taught classes in New Jersey high schools These strategies are categorized into four main areas: co-teaching approaches, co-planning methods, professional development opportunities, and fostering a supportive culture for co-teaching.
The study aimed to address the research question, “What co-teaching suggestions, as indicated by the literature, are teachers familiar with?” Survey data revealed that teachers possess varying levels of familiarity with the co-teaching strategies identified in the initial phase of the research.
Survey data indicates that a vast majority of teachers are well-acquainted with co-planning, as only 2% of respondents reported unfamiliarity with the concept Notably, 76% of teachers engage in co-planning either occasionally or frequently, highlighting its significance in educational collaboration.
A significant 70% of respondents reported receiving professional development in co-teaching, demonstrating a strong emphasis on training in this area Notably, only 5% felt inadequately trained, while an impressive 95% of their colleagues expressed being slightly to extremely well trained or familiar with professional development related to co-teaching.
This article explores six co-teaching approaches, highlighting teachers' insights into their usage It reveals that parallel teaching, station teaching, and alternative teaching are the least known and least utilized methods In contrast, one teach, one assist and team teaching are the most familiar and frequently employed strategies among educators.
One teach, one assist This was the most well-known of the approaches with
100% of respondents indicating that they were familiar with the approach Furthermore only 3% of teachers report that they have never used this approach This was also the
A significant 99% of teachers reported utilizing a particular teaching approach, with 62% indicating they used it frequently In contrast, team teaching was the next most popular method, with only 35% of educators employing it regularly Additionally, 90% of respondents noted that they occasionally or frequently implemented the "One teach, one assist" strategy throughout the school year.
Team teaching is a widely recognized instructional method, with 97% of educators expressing familiarity with it Among these teachers, 63% utilize team teaching either frequently or occasionally, whereas 23% have never implemented this approach in their classrooms.
The "One Teach, One Observe" approach is recognized by 95% of teachers, making it the third most familiar teaching method However, it is among the least implemented, with only 20% of educators using it frequently and 44% employing it occasionally Notably, 41% of teachers do not utilize this approach, and it has a 12% likelihood of being used and then discarded.
Station teaching is an instructional method that remains largely unfamiliar to educators, with 14% of teachers reporting a lack of familiarity and 45% indicating they have never implemented it in their classrooms Additionally, 12% of teachers have attempted the approach but ultimately discontinued its use Only a small fraction, just 5%, of teachers frequently utilize station teaching as part of their teaching strategy.