INTRODUCTION
The "School-to-Prison Pipeline" refers to the troubling trend of students being pushed from educational environments into the criminal justice system In response to safety concerns, policymakers have introduced "zero tolerance" policies aimed at preventing school violence, similar to incidents like the Columbine shooting However, these measures have inadvertently fostered a culture that criminalizes students, mirroring law enforcement practices and blurring the lines between ensuring safety and penalizing youth.
Disparities in disciplinary practices disproportionately affect students of color and at-risk youth, with African American students being 3.5 times more likely to face suspension compared to their white peers, according to a 2012 ACLU report This inequity, where African American students constituted only 18% of the sample, leads to reduced classroom time, negatively impacting academic achievement and increasing the likelihood of future incarceration Furthermore, a 2016 US Department of Education brief highlights that spending on prisons and jails has surged at a rate three times faster than funding for elementary and secondary education.
A survey by the Vera Institute, featured on CNN Money, reveals a stark contrast in California's spending, with approximately $8,000 allocated per student versus an astonishing $46,000 per inmate (US Census, 2017) Additionally, the data highlights that two-thirds of state prison inmates have not completed high school, and young black males aged 20 to 24 without a high school diploma face a greater likelihood of incarceration than employment.
Young male students of color face a heightened risk of becoming victims of the School-to-Prison Pipeline, despite overall declines in suspension rates due to new policies like positive behavioral interventions and restorative practices Critics point out that at-risk youth continue to experience disproportionately high disciplinary actions, compounded by trauma in their homes and communities, which negatively impacts their academic performance This research aims to analyze the underlying reasons for this trend and provide recommendations to reduce the number of students entering the school-to-prison pipeline.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction: Exploring how culturally induced behavior affects student learning 3
School districts and policymakers must recognize the cultural influences of home and community on students' learning and performance By addressing these cultural factors, educators can develop effective alternatives to punitive measures like zero tolerance policies, which have proven outdated and ineffective Unfortunately, limited resources and funding often lead schools to adopt strict disciplinary measures, such as suspensions and heightened surveillance, rather than understanding the diverse cultural backgrounds affecting student behavior This approach disproportionately impacts students in low-income and underperforming districts, resulting in higher rates of suspensions and involvement in the juvenile justice system To foster an equitable educational environment, schools should explore restorative practices and collaborative problem-solving techniques, enabling them to meet the cultural and behavioral needs of all students and equip them for future success.
Research suggests that traditional behavior interventions such as the punitive
The "zero tolerance policy" is increasingly seen as ineffective and outdated, especially when compared to strategies that address the cognitive skills some students may lack and the cultural factors influencing their behavior (American Psychological Association, 2008) This issue is particularly significant in the San Francisco Unified School District, where there is a growing trend of students transitioning from traditional high schools to alternative or continuation schools, leading to higher dropout rates and involvement in the correctional system The SFUSD serves a diverse population of 56,000 students, including 27% Latino, 35% Asian, 14% White, 7% African American, and 1% Pacific Islanders, with many classified as English Language Learners (24%), receiving special education (12%), or qualifying for free and reduced lunch (55%) Despite the district's implementation of positive behavioral support programs like Restorative Practices and PBIS, schools that do not adopt these evidence-based methods continue to see rising suspensions and lost instructional time for at-risk students As an educator, it is disheartening to witness students falling victim to the flawed educational policies that contribute to the School-to-Prison Pipeline, as each suspension increases the risk of students disengaging from their education and becoming another statistic.
All students deserve the opportunity to learn in school, and while educators strive to differentiate instruction for academic success, similar attention must be given to behavioral management Behavior should be taught explicitly rather than assumed as an inherent skill Additionally, recognizing the diverse cultural backgrounds of students is crucial; cultural sensitivity must inform how we address learning and behavior Failing to consider these cultural factors can lead to increased dropout rates, ineffective suspensions, and involvement in the criminal justice system.
Zero tolerance behavior policies were established in U.S schools during the 1990s following federal mandates requiring expulsion for any student found with a firearm, regardless of intent or circumstances These policies aimed to combat drug abuse and violence by implementing strict guidelines for addressing problematic behaviors However, the approach has since expanded to include minor offenses like classroom disruptions and truancy, leading to an environment that resembles a prison, where students often feel alienated and criminalized Research indicates that these policies are ineffective and outdated, negatively impacting students' learning opportunities and their potential to contribute positively to their communities after graduation.
Title One is a federally funded initiative aimed at bridging the achievement gap between under-performing and high-performing schools by allocating resources to at-risk students, particularly those living in poverty Since its inception in 1965, the program has undergone significant changes, including the introduction of "No Child Left Behind," which mandates that schools demonstrate substantial improvement in state test scores to qualify for federal funding While the program's core principles are designed to promote educational equity, their effectiveness hinges on the proper utilization of resources If under-achieving schools receive Title One funding but persist in employing ineffective behavioral policies that hinder at-risk youth, the question arises regarding the true equity of this support in comparison to high-achieving institutions.
Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) is an effective method designed to mitigate oppositional and challenging behaviors in children by focusing on identifying and addressing the underlying cognitive skills that hinder their ability to meet expectations.
The study by Pollastri et al (2013) highlights various challenging behaviors in children, such as temper outbursts, defiance, and aggression, often labeled as oppositional or difficult Traditional behavior theories posit that children will succeed if they want to, while the Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) approach emphasizes that they will do well if they can Just as educators would not attribute a learning-disabled student's underachievement to laziness, similar understanding should apply to behavioral issues, recognizing that not all behaviors are choices By involving students in discussions about improving their behavior, they feel empowered and more willing to engage in finding positive alternatives to their challenging actions.
History behind behavior interventions
Schools in America recognize the importance of differentiated teaching methods to cater to diverse academic needs, yet often overlook the cultural factors influencing student behavior and learning Since the early 1990s, the zero tolerance policy, initially aimed at drug enforcement, has dominated school discipline, enforcing strict consequences regardless of the behavior's context or severity This policy is inconsistently defined and applied, as illustrated by cases where students faced severe penalties for minor infractions, such as a boy being expelled for talking to his mother on the phone during her deployment In another instance, a student with emotional issues was suspended for marijuana use on the same day he attempted to return to school after multiple absences, highlighting the lack of consideration for individual circumstances Zero tolerance policies are based on the assumption that removing disruptive students will improve the school climate; however, this approach fails to account for students' real-life challenges, such as safety concerns and family instability Many students prioritize basic needs over academic responsibilities, as evidenced by their struggles with safety and home life According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, students must have their fundamental needs met before they can focus on education, meaning punitive measures for tardiness or behavioral issues only reinforce feelings of exclusion in an already challenging environment.
Zero tolerance policies were designed to reduce drug-related and violent incidents in schools, but evidence shows they have not improved the consistency of school discipline, with suspension and expulsion rates varying significantly across different schools and districts Recently, concerns arose regarding cultural intolerance among staff towards certain student populations, leading to feelings of unfair targeting and accusations of racism from students This tension resulted in students becoming increasingly vocal, walking out of class, and engaging in verbal conflicts with staff Meanwhile, staff often misinterpret these behaviors as defiance or disrespect It is crucial to recognize the impact educators have on student behavior and to invest in cultural awareness training for teachers, alongside community advocacy roles, as proactive measures are more effective and cost-efficient than remedial strategies in improving student outcomes.
In 2008, it was emphasized that educators play a crucial role in shaping student behavior in schools By prioritizing cultural awareness training for staff, we demonstrate to students that they are valued and deserving of a supportive learning environment.
Misbehaviors in school can stem from various factors, including poor socio-economic status and limited resources, but it’s crucial to consider how students with disabilities are affected by zero tolerance policies Students exhibiting externalizing behaviors are often labeled as oppositional or aggressive and may have diagnoses such as ADHD, conduct disorder, or ODD In larger public school classrooms, these students frequently find themselves in administrative offices, detention, or facing suspensions Misunderstandings of their behavior can arise from teachers' lack of knowledge, experience, cultural awareness, or flexibility in management techniques Schools often view disruptive behavior as a poor choice rather than recognizing that these students may lack essential skills to behave appropriately due to underlying issues like ADHD, depression, or anxiety In the health sector, interventions have traditionally focused on behavior modification techniques, such as point systems and seclusion, aimed at helping individuals improve self-control and reduce negative behaviors.
Recent discussions have raised doubts about the effectiveness of certain behavioral methods (Pollastri et al., 2013, p.188) Although these interventions, commonly used in medical settings, have shown success in schools, there are concerns that they may be perceived as outdated or archaic by some.
Conventional Behavior Policies
Schools must ensure a safe learning environment for students and staff To address inappropriate behaviors, it is essential for staff to analyze the underlying causes, considering the functions these behaviors may serve Additionally, evaluating the influence of the environment and teaching practices on student behavior is crucial for effective intervention.
Behavioral theories indicate that students engage in disruptive behaviors to gain attention or avoid tasks, suggesting they have control over their compliance with adult expectations This perspective posits that children will succeed if they are motivated to do so Rooted in the foundational work of B.F Skinner, these theories emphasize that targeted behaviors can be encouraged while undesirable ones can be reduced through a systematic approach of rewards and punishments.
Understanding what motivates individuals can serve as an effective tool to encourage positive behavior in students, rather than relying on punitive consequences for negative actions This approach suggests that students have the ability to choose their behavior, highlighting the importance of motivation in shaping their choices.
In a thought-provoking Associated Press article, a parent questioned the fairness of applying a universal zero tolerance policy to all individuals, highlighting the importance of considering unique circumstances (Associated Press, 2007, pp 1) This perspective resonates with educators advocating for differentiated instruction, emphasizing that effective teaching must cater to the diverse learning needs of students rather than adhering to a one-size-fits-all approach.
Policymakers and educators must adopt tailored disciplinary models that cater to the unique needs of each student rather than relying on a “one size fits all” approach Critics argue that positive behavior supports may inadvertently harm students by promoting behavioral performance solely in response to rewards To address these concerns, incentives should be integrated with other interventions in a scaffolded manner, allowing for gradual independence in skill development (Pollastri et al., 2013) Additionally, excessive reliance on positive behavioral supports can negatively affect students' self-esteem, particularly when they struggle to meet expectations despite their efforts, potentially leading to power struggles or resentment towards teachers Identifying the antecedents and functions of behaviors is crucial for selecting appropriate interventions on a case-by-case basis Teaching self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation presents challenges, as many students are accustomed to extrinsic rewards While point-based reward systems can be effective, their success hinges on consistent implementation and student buy-in; without these, such systems may fail Ultimately, fostering intrinsic motivation equips students with valuable skills that they can carry into adulthood.
Suspending disruptive students may seem like a solution for improving school climate; however, research indicates that higher rates of suspension and expulsion correlate with poorer school climate ratings Schools that frequently rely on disciplinary actions often find themselves spending excessive time on these matters, which detracts from the overall educational environment Moreover, recent studies show a negative relationship between the use of suspensions and expulsions and overall academic achievement, even when accounting for factors like socioeconomic status.
Research indicates that schools with high suspension and expulsion rates often experience a detrimental school climate, prioritizing disciplinary measures over academic success This imbalance not only exacerbates academic disparities but also heightens racial inequalities, with studies showing that Black students are suspended or expelled at rates three times higher than their white counterparts—16% compared to 5% Additionally, students with disabilities and those learning English face increased suspension rates, with disabled students being over twice as likely to be suspended While teachers may investigate external factors affecting a student's learning when academic performance is poor, there remains a prevailing belief that students should inherently know how to behave This mindset overlooks the necessity of teaching appropriate behavior in educational settings Consequently, many schools resort to traditional zero-tolerance policies, opting for the easier solution of removing disruptive students rather than addressing the root causes of behavioral issues.
School suspensions are linked to increased future misbehavior and a higher likelihood of dropping out, suggesting that simply attributing dropout rates to student behavior is insufficient The rise in suspensions has led to more referrals to the juvenile justice system, highlighting the School-to-Prison Pipeline phenomenon, where students are funneled from educational institutions into the criminal justice system A significant contributor to this issue is that many school districts do not provide homework support or tutoring for suspended or expelled students, causing them to fall behind academically Consequently, these students not only face punishment but also miss out on critical educational opportunities, jeopardizing their future prospects.
Research indicates that racial disparities in school discipline begin as early as preschool, impacting at-risk youth and contributing to a pattern of detrimental disciplinary actions that extend into young adulthood Attorney General Eric Holder emphasized that each data point reflects a life affected and a future at risk Contrary to common belief, suspensions and expulsions are not limited to older students; instead, zero tolerance policies disproportionately affect younger children This raises critical questions about funding priorities, as investing in education proves to be more cost-effective than the expenses associated with welfare and incarceration of undereducated youth By neglecting to allocate sufficient resources to education, policymakers inadvertently perpetuate the School-to-Prison Pipeline, hindering the development of productive, healthy adults in society.
When educators swiftly suspend students for defiance or non-violent behaviors, they often overlook underlying factors influencing the child's actions Research indicates that understanding these contributing elements is crucial for addressing inappropriate behavior in schools effectively.
Before the age of 15, adolescents often exhibit psychosocial immaturity in key areas such as resistance to peer influence, risk perception, future orientation, and impulse control Developmental neuroscience suggests that the immaturity of certain brain structures correlates with underdeveloped functions, leading adolescents to take greater risks and inadequately assess the consequences of their actions When applied improperly, zero tolerance policies can worsen the inherent challenges of early adolescence and highlight the disconnect between adolescents' developmental stages and the structure of secondary schools.
The lack of maturity in students, particularly those with disabilities, can severely impact their academic and socio-emotional development In low-income communities, older siblings often assume caregiving or financial responsibilities for their families, which can detract from their educational focus Punishing students for prioritizing family obligations is unjust, especially when they perceive little future in their education Instead of opposing these students, school districts should seek innovative solutions to reconcile cultural influences from their homes with the academic expectations in the classroom.
Alternative Behavior Policies
Discipline issues and challenging behaviors persist in schools, yet research indicates that punishment-based methods can exacerbate disruptive conduct (Fay, 2012) Many districts recognize that zero tolerance policies and out-of-school suspensions are no longer effective; however, schools often mistakenly believe that reforming these programs would impose financial strains, especially given the ongoing funding challenges they face (Hefling, 2014).
In an effort to provide cost-effective and alternative behavior interventions, Dr Charles Fay developed the Love and Logic program, which is grounded in five key principles: enhancing the child's self-concept, teaching problem ownership, sharing decision-making, combining consequences with empathy, and fostering adult-child relationships Unlike traditional behavioral interventions that impose consequences, Love and Logic empowers children to actively participate in solving their behavior issues Fay's research highlights that positive consequences increase desirable behaviors, while negative consequences diminish them, emphasizing the importance of intrinsic motivation over external reinforcement Traditional behavior policies often fail to prevent problems and can alienate at-risk students, leading to disengagement and higher dropout rates In contrast, supportive teacher-student relationships contribute to significant improvements in behavior, academic achievement, and attendance For at-risk students, building rapport and trust is essential for fostering respect and comfort in the classroom, underscoring the need for educators to create a welcoming and respectful environment.
Harvard's Department of Psychiatry research highlights Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) as an effective behavioral intervention strategy CPS focuses on identifying and addressing lagging cognitive skills that hinder children's ability to demonstrate appropriate classroom behaviors.
The Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) model, developed by Drs Ross Greene and J Stuart Ablon, redefines the causes of children's externalizing behaviors and provides targeted intervention strategies It suggests that chronic externalizing behaviors stem from underdeveloped cognitive skills, which hinder a child's ability to meet adult expectations For a child to successfully comply with these expectations, they must possess cognitive abilities to understand, respond flexibly, evaluate various responses, foresee consequences, articulate their needs, and manage frustration The CPS philosophy emphasizes that children perform well when they can, highlighting that those who struggle with behavioral compliance often have skill deficits in areas like flexibility, social perception, executive functioning, language processing, or emotion regulation The model posits that motivation to comply diminishes when children realize they lack the necessary skills to meet demands By identifying the specific skills each student needs and the contexts in which behavioral issues arise, educators can implement positive interventions to help students develop the skills necessary for appropriate behavior in the classroom.
To ensure equitable access to education for all students, it's essential to teach behavioral skills in the same systematic way we teach academic skills Many educators mistakenly believe that misbehavior is a conscious choice made by students, overlooking the need for structured behavioral instruction By adopting a comprehensive approach that includes both academic and behavioral skill development, we can create an inclusive learning environment that benefits every student, regardless of their school’s resources.
Summary
Maintaining a safe learning environment is crucial for schools in the United States, yet traditional behavior policies like zero tolerance have been shown to be outdated and ineffective Originally implemented in the 1990s to combat serious behavioral issues related to drugs and violence, zero tolerance has evolved into a "school-prison pipeline," hindering at-risk students' access to education by removing them from classrooms and often leading to involvement with the juvenile justice system This approach neglects the cultural factors influencing student behavior and fails to personalize interventions, unlike differentiated learning strategies While zero tolerance may effectively address severe issues like weapon possession, it overlooks critical underlying factors such as trauma or homelessness Research supports the effectiveness of alternative behavioral interventions, such as Love and Logic and Collaborative Problem Solving, which consider the holistic needs of students.
Effective problem-solving techniques in schools foster respectful teacher-student relationships, empowering both parties in the solution process rather than resorting to punitive measures that can diminish student self-esteem By recognizing and accommodating the cultural differences within their student populations, schools can develop tailored behavior systems instead of relying on a generic approach Research indicates that such personalized strategies can significantly reduce unnecessary suspensions and expulsions, while also enhancing students' intrinsic motivation to remain in school and learn Adopting adaptable behavior policies and interventions—similar to differentiated learning—gives students a genuine opportunity to reach their potential By prioritizing compassionate, student-centered practices, we can mitigate the risk of students falling into the School-to-Prison Pipeline or becoming high school dropouts.
METHODOLOGY
Objectives and Hypotheses
This study aims to identify strategies to reduce the prevalence of the School-to-Prison Pipeline affecting public schools and at-risk youth Literature reviews suggest that cultural influences from home and community, along with insufficient positive behavioral incentives, contribute to this troubling trend The research is focused on understanding the reasons behind students' involvement in the School-to-Prison Pipeline and exploring effective measures to mitigate this issue.
HO1: Culture within the home or community impacts behavior in school
HO2: Students who are suspended are more likely to end up in prison
HO3: Providing work experience opportunities in the community, while students are enrolled in school would reduce inappropriate behavior and incentivize students to stay in school.
Research Design
This study utilized a 28-question hard copy survey, requiring participants about 15-20 minutes to complete The survey employed a mixed methods approach to capture staff perspectives on the School-to-Prison Pipeline, exploring its root causes in schools, homes, and communities, as well as potential solutions proposed by staff members.
The study utilized a survey comprising 9 multiple-choice questions to gauge teacher perceptions and beliefs, alongside 18 Likert scale questions rated from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) A free response question was included to gather insights on factors influencing students' transitions to continuation schools Key Likert scale items addressed the impact of community culture on student motivation and the correlation between suspensions and incarceration rates The reliability of the 18 Likert scale questions, indicated by a mean and standard deviation of σ=0.38, reflects a high degree of consistency and agreement among the responses.
3.2.1 Research site demographics and setting
This research focused on a continuation school rather than a comprehensive high school, highlighting the unique demographics and backgrounds of its students Typically, those who thrive in comprehensive schools do not seek to transfer to continuation schools The survey involved 22 staff members, including teachers, administrators, counselors, and support staff, all aged 18 and older.
No students or minors were surveyed during this research study
The survey was conducted during a staff meeting with the site Administrator's approval, ensuring that all participants voluntarily consented to participate without any additional compensation or repercussions for opting out To maintain anonymity, completed surveys were returned face down and stored securely under locked supervision to protect participant confidentiality Prior to the research, an IRB proposal (IRB # 16-261) was submitted to the Instructional Review Board for Protection of Human Subjects, adhering to ethical guidelines for human subject research.
The research survey was conducted at Ida B Wells High School in San Francisco,
Ida B Wells is a continuation high school located in the Hayes Valley neighborhood of San Francisco, part of the San Francisco Unified School District (SFUSD) Catering to students aged 16 and older, the school offers pathways to obtain a high school diploma or certificate of completion Enrollment at Ida B Wells varies throughout the year due to its alternative school model, which accommodates credit-deficient students, those needing additional support or smaller class sizes, safety transfers, and voluntary transfers from comprehensive schools Currently, the school serves approximately 150 students in general education, including those receiving special education services through a Special Day Class (SDC) or co-taught model.
Our campus serves 45 students with special education needs, supported by three dedicated special education teachers Additionally, two paraprofessionals assist in delivering learning and behavioral support, while a full-time School Psychologist and Wellness Coordinator enhance our comprehensive support system.
Multivariate correlation analysis was conducted to investigate the relationships among various research variables and assess data reliability The analysis involved calculating mean scores, standard deviations, and t-tests using Microsoft tools.
Excel, which are represented in the results section, as well as through visual representations in tables throughout the document.
RESULTS
Background Information on the study
The research study investigates the persistent issue of the School-to-Prison Pipeline within the educational system and examines potential solutions Among surveyed staff, 64% have over 10 years of teaching experience, while 59% attended K-12 schools in a middle-class environment This demographic information is crucial for understanding potential biases that may shape teachers' perspectives on affected students A comprehensive analysis reveals that a teacher's experience can influence their teaching effectiveness; while years of knowledge can enhance proficiency, they may also lead to inflexibility in adapting to the evolving needs of new generations of students.
Staff Perception
In a recent survey, 59% of staff members indicated that African American students experience the highest number of suspensions and instructional minutes lost due to inappropriate behaviors This finding aligns with national data, highlighting a concerning trend regarding disciplinary actions among this ethnic group.
American students are 2/3 times more likely to be suspended than Caucasian peers
A survey conducted among staff members revealed that 100% agreed or strongly agreed that they utilize positive behavioral interventions in their teaching practices This unanimous response indicates not only that the staff has received training in these interventions but also that they feel confident in their implementation.
Ninety-five percent of staff members believe that students feel comfortable confiding in them, indicating a strong rapport and a foundation of trust between staff and students.
Cultural influences
Staff members were surveyed regarding the influence of cultural factors from students' homes and communities on their academic performance and overall well-being An overwhelming 95% of staff indicated agreement on the significant impact of these cultural influences within the community and home environment.
Table 1 shows that a significant number of respondents "strongly agreed" with the statement regarding cultural influences The analysis also explored staff perceptions on the effects of these cultural factors on academic performance and student motivation.
Table 1 Culture within the community
The data indicates a strong consensus among staff that cultural influences from home or community significantly affect students' behavior, academic performance, and motivation in school The t-test analysis (p=0.82) suggests that we cannot reject the null hypothesis (HO1), confirming that home or community culture impacts school behavior Additionally, when asked if educators should teach appropriate behavior to students, 52% of participants agreed, highlighting the perceived responsibility of educators in this regard.
A survey revealed that 57% of participants strongly believe it is the responsibility of parents or guardians to teach behavior to students, indicating a consensus on the importance of shared responsibility between parents and schools in fostering appropriate behavior.
Students’ motivation to do well in school
Parent and student resources
To assess the availability of adequate resources for students and parents in preparing for their children's futures, the following mean and standard deviation illustrate the consistency of responses between the two groups.
Variable Range Mean Standard Deviation
The data shows a strong consensus among staff members regarding the availability of resources for both students and parents within the school and community The next step is to evaluate not just access to these resources, but also whether parents and students are utilizing them effectively and understand how to leverage these resources to their benefit.
Staff demographics
Highest # of responses % of total responses
Years of experience in the field of education
Special Education Counseling/Wellness Center
Would you have qualified for free and reduced lunch?
The analysis of staff demographics reveals that the majority of surveyed staff members are women from middle to upper-class backgrounds, with significant expertise in their fields Notably, 36% are involved in social services and welfare roles, such as Special Education, Counseling, or Wellness, within the surveyed school This questioning framework was essential to assess potential biases in staff responses and to understand how their cultural backgrounds influence their perspectives on the diverse cultural backgrounds of at-risk students.
Staff perceptions on where at-risk students are likely to end up
A comparison of staff demographics revealed a divided opinion on the likelihood of suspended students ending up in prison, with 30.4% of staff members agreeing and 30.4% disagreeing with this assertion.
Giving students the skills & opportunity to stay in school is a responsibility of the educator
Students who are suspended are more likely to end up in prison
A t-test analysis revealed a p-value of 0.02, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis (HO2), which posits that suspended students are more likely to end up in prison This finding contradicts existing literature indicating that suspended or expelled students are three times more likely to encounter the juvenile probation system within a year (Nelson, 2015) The survey results suggest a tendency among educators to distance themselves from the consequences of their actions on students' futures Staff members who agreed with the survey statement recognized a correlation between suspensions and incarceration, while those who disagreed did not see this link Acknowledging this correlation is crucial for developing strategies to prevent at-risk students from falling victim to the School-to-Prison Pipeline trend.
Programs to support student engagement in school
A significant 90% of staff members believe that teaching behavior is primarily the responsibility of parents or guardians; however, this perspective fails to consider the environmental challenges many students face, such as homelessness and single-parent households Concurrently, 95% of educators feel it is their duty to teach appropriate behavior and recognize that school programs can effectively reduce misconduct This collective viewpoint highlights the necessity for balanced support from both families and schools to foster student success Unfortunately, in-school programs often neglect the external influences that contribute to behavioral issues, with many students facing cultural and socioeconomic hardships that lead to early incarceration Data from the San Francisco Unified School District indicates that a staggering 53.6% of incarcerated youth from grades 8-12 came from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, with a significant portion being English Learners and students with documented disabilities Alarmingly, 84% of these incarcerated youths were from African American or Hispanic/Latino demographics, despite these groups representing only 34% of the overall student population Staff members suggest that schools could effectively mitigate inappropriate behaviors and enhance student retention through targeted interventions.
Providing work experience opportunities, while enrolled in school
The analysis of the data reveals two key proposed solutions: the initiation of community programs and the provision of work experience opportunities for students currently enrolled in school The findings show a mean response of 3.33 from staff members, highlighting their perspectives on these initiatives.
Community programs are seen as effective in mitigating inappropriate behaviors in schools, with a mean agreement score of 3.4 indicating that providing students with work experience opportunities while enrolled in school could serve as an incentive for behavior improvement However, the t-test analysis for this hypothesis (HO3) revealed a probability of p=0.74, suggesting that the null hypothesis remains valid, indicating no significant correlation between school behavior, community support, and work opportunities as incentives.
Recommendations for School-Prison pipeline prevention
In attempting to identify staff perceptions on where they felt most students who are suspended will likely end up following high school, staff members indicated the following:
Staff members express hope that most students will graduate high school equipped with essential skills for employment, contrasting with the 45% who lack confidence in their students' future prospects, fearing unemployment or incarceration The continuation school model allows students to earn up to 50 credits per semester, compared to 30 credits in comprehensive high schools, offering additional support that enhances their chances of graduating with a diploma and life readiness skills This optimism is further highlighted by staff who selected "other" in their responses, indicating a positive outlook on student outcomes.
Positive interactions with adults significantly influence students' trajectories, particularly in continuation schools where students have the opportunity to turn their lives around This supportive environment offers a second chance for success that may have been lacking in traditional high school settings The relationships between staff and students play a crucial role in shaping future student outcomes When staff were surveyed about the potential future of suspended students and the most effective resources for reducing inappropriate behaviors and suspensions, the results highlighted key areas for intervention.
Variable Range Standard Deviation t-test (p= probability)
Where students who are suspended often, will end up
Where you feel resources would have the greatest impact on reducing suspensions
The data in Table 6, derived from multiple choice responses, indicates a difference in reliability compared to the Likert scale responses analyzed in Table 4 This suggests that when staff members are presented with specific examples, such as employment status options, their responses regarding students' futures may vary significantly from those given a range of interval or ordinal scale options This inconsistency may reveal a bias among surveyed staff, who tend to react differently when faced with specific choices versus scaled responses that gauge their beliefs and attitudes about the School-to-Prison Pipeline and its effects on their students.
DISCUSSION
Survey free response (Question 21)
In response to question twenty-one of the survey, participants highlighted several reasons for students' lack of success in comprehensive high schools, noting themes such as trauma, community violence, and insufficient resources Many respondents pointed to socioeconomic disadvantages, poor attendance, and the mismatch between comprehensive school environments and individual student needs Additionally, the necessity for students to financially support their families often hindered their ability to engage in a traditional school setting.
5.1.2 Trauma and violence in the community
In the mid-1990s, a study by Kaiser and the CDC identified a significant link between childhood trauma and negative health outcomes, known as the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (ACES) Each instance of childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, or parental issues, contributes to a patient's ACE score, with higher scores correlating to worse long-term health effects The research revealed that ACES are associated with serious health problems, including depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts.
Research on ACEs highlights that trauma and cultural influences from home or community significantly affect at-risk students, contributing to the School-to-Prison Pipeline A survey of staff at Ida B Wells revealed that 50% of responses linked student failure in comprehensive schools to trauma, emphasizing its detrimental impact on education and well-being One staff member noted that all her students faced challenges that would hinder their academic progress, while another shared a student's sentiment about the lack of desired support For students with unresolved trauma and unmet basic needs, success in any educational environment becomes increasingly difficult.
5.1.3 Lack of resources and socio-economic disadvantage
Staff responses highlighted a key distinction between comprehensive high schools and smaller continuation or alternative high schools: the latter's capacity to offer personalized attention and support for students who have faced trauma or adverse experiences Comprehensive high schools, with their larger student populations, must manage various daily considerations, including attendance, student performance, disciplinary actions, curriculum, extracurricular activities, and special education services Consequently, staff members noted that these factors can limit the individualized support available to students in larger educational settings.
Comprehensive high schools often lack the focus and resources necessary to support at-risk students, leading to many individuals falling through the cracks Additionally, students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds face family obligations beyond education and are susceptible to negative influences from peers and poor role models in their communities, further exacerbating their challenges.
Limitations of the Case Study
The research study aimed to gather data on various factors affecting the School-to-Prison Pipeline; however, certain limitations in the design were identified Acknowledging personal and survey population biases is crucial, as these could influence the formulation of survey questions, the respondents' engagement, and the evaluator's interpretation of the results Despite efforts to minimize bias in the research design, it remains an essential factor to consider.
The research aimed to explore the cultural influences from home or community on students' academic performance; however, the framework of the questions restricted a deeper analysis of critical factors such as trauma and its specific effects on student behavior and the likelihood of academic challenges.
The School-to-Prison Pipeline presents significant concerns regarding the educational system's impact on students Expanding the research to include students' perceptions of this phenomenon, as well as surveying comprehensive high schools and court and community schools alongside continuation schools, would enhance the reliability of the findings Such an expanded scope could provide deeper insights into the factors contributing to this issue and inform more effective interventions.
Future research and implications
Future researchers should consider utilizing electronic surveys to prevent participants from skipping questions and to minimize user error in responses Additionally, incorporating one-on-one interviews could provide deeper insights into participants' beliefs and attitudes regarding the ongoing issues in the public school system Expanding the research scope to include student feedback on the School-to-Prison Pipeline could further illuminate its impact on education.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The School-to-Prison Pipeline is a concerning trend that diverts students from public education to the correctional system, particularly affecting at-risk students of color Research indicates a strong link between unfair disciplinary practices in schools and this alarming phenomenon.
The study aimed to explore the cultural influences on student behavior in schools and the potential link between school suspensions and future incarceration rates Findings revealed that significant cultural factors, including trauma, community violence, and socioeconomic disadvantages, affect student behavior However, the data does not establish a direct correlation between school suspensions and an increased likelihood of ending up in prison.
Schools are moving away from a "zero tolerance" approach to discipline, adopting positive behavior interventions; however, disparities remain unaddressed, leading to more at-risk youth entering the correctional system early This issue extends beyond school boundaries and requires comprehensive solutions Research suggests that incentivizing students with positive behavioral supports, such as community work experience opportunities while they are still in school, can help reduce inappropriate behavior and mitigate the School-to-Prison Pipeline.
ACLU Washington Legislative Office (2012, December 12) Ending the School-to-Prison
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American Psychological Association (2008) Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the
Schools? American Psychologist, Volume 63(9), pp 852-862
Associated Press (2007, June 15) Has ‘zero tolerance’ in schools gone too far? NBC
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“School-To-Prison-Pipeline: the factors that cause it, and how we can prevent it”
Dear participants, we invite you to take part in a survey aimed at gathering staff insights on the effectiveness of current measures addressing behavior concerns in schools Your responses will be kept confidential, and your participation is crucial for understanding the impact of these initiatives Thank you for your valuable time and input! Sincerely, Ali Wittig (Masters of Education).
In our district, which ethnic group of students is currently experiencing the highest rates of suspensions or lost instructional minutes due to inappropriate behaviors? The options include Latino, Caucasian, African American, Asian, Polynesian/Samoan, or Other.
When assessing student suspensions at our school, please indicate your perspective on the annual suspension rate by selecting one of the following options: a fewer suspensions than other public high schools, b more suspensions than other public high schools, or c the same number of suspensions as other public high schools.
For the following statements, identify the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement
3) I use positive behavioral interventions in my teaching practices
4) Students can confide in me to help them with personal problems
5) I believe my students will be successful 1 2 3 4
6) Behaviors such as defiance or classroom disruptions can be attributed to classroom management
7) Behaviors such as defiance or classroom disruptions can be attributed to cultural factors or a student’s upbringing
8) I feel there are adequate resources available to support diverse students in school
9) I feel culture within the community or home, impacts behavior in school
10) I feel culture within the community or home impacts students’ academic performance in school
11) I feel culture within the community or home impacts students’ motivation to do well in school
12) As educators, it is our responsibility to teach appropriate behavior to students
13) It is the responsibility of parents or guardians to teach behavior to their students
14) Programs within schools can be effective in reducing inappropriate behaviors
15) Programs within the community can be effective in reducing inappropriate behaviors in schools
16) Providing the opportunity for students to gain work experience in the community, while enrolled in school, would
Agree be an incentive to reduce inappropriate behaviors
17) Parents have access to the resources they need at the school to help their children prepare for college and beyond
18) Most students are motivated to do well in school 1 2 3 4
19) Giving students the skills and opportunity to stay in school is one of my responsibilities as an educator
20) Students who are suspended are more likely to end up in prison