BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES TESOL Quarterly invites readers to submit short reports and updates on their work These summaries may address any areas of interest to Quarterly readers Edited by LIA PLAKANS University of Iowa LAWRENCE JUN ZHANG University of Auckland The Influence of Older Siblings on Language Use Among SecondGeneration Latino Preschoolers AMANDA K KIBLER, NATALIA PALACIOS, AND ASHLEY SIMPSON BAIRD Curry School of Education, University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia, United States doi: 10.1002/tesq.151 A s numbers of language-minority children in English-medium schools continue to grow globally, one notable trend in the United States is the growth of U.S.-born preschool-age children in Spanish-speaking families, who make up the fastest-growing percentage of English language learners (ELLs) nationwide (Russakoff, 2011) Whereas Latino immigrant parents and their preschool-age children have been the subject of numerous studies of home language learning (e.g., Caspe, 2009; Duursma et al., 2007), the influence of older siblings on children’s language development has been largely neglected This preliminary analysis draws from a survey-based data set gathered in the first phase of a larger, ongoing mixed-methods study that will also include language outcomes and observations The current analysis draws from responses to survey questions gathered via face-to-face interviews with Latino families in the South-Atlantic region of the United States to examine the extent to which older siblings influence the language practices of Latino preschoolers of Spanishspeaking immigrant parents 164 TESOL QUARTERLY Vol 48, No 1, March 2014 © 2014 TESOL International Association RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF OLDER SIBLINGS IN MULTILINGUAL ENVIRONMENTS Existing research suggests older siblings can have a profound influence on home language use Qualitative (Shorrab, 1986) and survey (Shin, 2002; Stevens & Ishizawa, 2007) data provide evidence that first-born children are more likely than second- or third-born children to speak their parents’ languages at home Once in school or daycare settings, however, first-born children usually bring the majority language into minority-language households through schoolwork, television, and peers, among other influences (Rothman & Nino-Murcia, 2008), thus increasing opportunities for younger siblings’ non-home language development (Yamamoto, 2001) by reducing their exposure to the minority language (Stevens & Ishizawa, 2007) There is some evidence that the fewer years between sibling births, the more likely children are to copy older siblings’ language patterns (Dopke, 1992) Research conducted in Latino households appears to support more general conclusions about older siblings’ influence Studies have found that within immigrant Latino families siblings often have different linguistic repertoires (Schecter & Bayley, 2002) Garcia (1983) has also noted patterns of sibling English use and mother–child Spanish use in bilingual preschool children Perez-Granados (2002) found that, consistent with research on other cultural and ethnic groups, siblings and parents in Mexican-origin families took on “teaching” roles with preschool children but used distinct conversational patterns and teaching styles Older siblings often serve as language and literacy “mediators” for preschool Latino siblings (de la Piedra & Romo, 2003) as they in families from other language backgrounds (Gregory, 1998; Kelly, Gregory, & Williams, 2001; Williams & Gregory, 2001), employing a range of strategies with varied levels of skill (Volk, 1999) Little is known, however, about the extent to which older siblings—as opposed to other factors—predict language patterns in younger siblings THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study draws on theoretical perspectives that address the multidimensionality of language learning and development over the lifespan Specifically, it highlights ways in which socioculturally informed ecological theories (van Lier, 2000, 2004) that attend to linguistic and cultural affordances present in a setting—including but not limited to mediation provided by parents, siblings, other individuals, and artifacts in the home—provide insight into the development of first and second BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 165 language proficiencies These theories suggest that language is learned through socialization and are consistent with Duff’s (2007) perspectives that “language and literacy learning involves explicit or implicit socialization through linguistic and social interaction into relevant local communicative practices or ways of using language and into membership in particular cultures or communities” (p 310) RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on our interest in the influence of older siblings children’s language practices, we analyzed survey data to answer following: What factors predict focal child Spanish language use with mother, father, and other children inside and outside of home? What factors predict total focal child Spanish language use? on the the the PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURES The sample for this project was drawn from a larger study of a suburban and rural immigrant community in a South-Atlantic U.S state Given the relatively small size of this recently established immigrant community, purposeful sampling strategies were used to obtain the largest possible sample of Spanish-speaking families with preschool-age children Eighty-three families with children between the ages of and were recruited to participate in the study (see Table for additional participant characteristics) Trained bilingual research assistants who are Latino or had extensive experience with Latino communities collected survey data in focal children’s homes The mothers were asked their language preference for survey administration; all but one mother chose to conduct the interview in Spanish The duration of each one-on-one, in-person interview was approximately one and a half hours and was held at a time convenient to the mother Interviewers used iPads to record responses to the survey questions MEASURES As part of the larger set of survey questions, mothers responded to questions about home language use, which were based on previous 166 TESOL QUARTERLY TABLE Descriptive Sample Characteristics, with Mean (SD) and Range Provided for Continuous Variables Percent Dependent variables Focal child (FC) language use to mother in Spanish only FC language use to father in Spanish only FC language use to children in the home in Spanish only FC language use to children outside the home in Spanish only Total FC language use Predictor variables Number of older siblings Sibling reads daily in Spanish Sibling reads daily in English Control variables Female FC age Number of years in United States Mexican origin Income $20,000+ No high school degree (mom) Mostly English books in home Mean (SD) Range 0.93 (0.92) 0–4 1.22 (1.06) 0–4 3.64 (0.98) 8.54 (2.79) 2–5 1–14 51 57 72 38 12 22 57 77 36 61 54 Note All means, standard deviation (in parentheses), and percentages are based on the full sample (N = 83) research regarding sibling influence (e.g., Rothman & Nino-Murcia, 2008; Shin, 2002; Stevens & Ishizawa, 2007) The present analysis focuses on maternal report of language use in the home, consistent with research conducted by Hammer, Davison, Lawrence, and Miccio (2009) and De Houwer (2007) It addresses the following survey question: “What language does the focal child use when he/she speaks to his/her [mother/father/other adults/children in household/children outside of household]?” Response options included (1) only Spanish, (2) mostly Spanish, (3) English and Spanish equally, (4) mostly English, and (5) only English Mothers also reported demographic information, the number of siblings in the home, and the frequency of siblings’ English and Spanish book reading with the focal child The five dependent variables address child language use and production toward close family members and individuals with whom focal children may interact regularly (Table 1) Dichotomous variables detail the first four dependent variables: the focal child’s Spanish language use with his or her mother, father, other children in the home, or other children outside of the home (1 = Spanish only; = all else, including mixtures of Spanish and English as well as English only) The final dependent variable is a continuous outcome variable that represents total focal child language use, with higher values BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 167 indicating more English language production and lower values indicating more Spanish language production The key predictor variables of interest include a continuous variable reflecting the total number of siblings older than the focal child in the household, a categorical variable indicating whether the sibling engages in daily reading with the focal child in Spanish, and another indicating whether they read daily with the focal child in English (Table 1) Inclusion of the latter two predictor variables helps ensure that the relationship with number of older siblings is due to their presence in the household rather than specific language practices (i.e., reading in English or Spanish) in which older siblings engage with the focal child Control variables include maternal report of demographic information, including family income, levels of education, country of origin, language of books in the home, and length of time since maternal arrival in the United States (See the Appendix for additional information on dependent, key predictor, and control variables.) To address each research question, we employed a series of logistic and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models to examine the association between having older siblings and the dependent variables described above Moreover, we used Stata SE (v 12) as the statistical package to model our analyses RESULTS What factors predict focal child Spanish language use with the mother, father, and other children inside and outside the home? We ran four different regressions to capture factors predicting focal child language use with different interlocutors The first set of regressions identified factors predicting focal children’s language use with mothers (see Table 2, Model 1) This regression suggests that the number of older siblings is the only significant predictor of children’s oral language production toward mothers With all variables included in the model, for every additional older sibling present in the household, focal children demonstrated lower odds of speaking only in Spanish with their mothers This association persisted after controlling for child factors (age and gender) and family factors (years in the United States, country of origin, family income, maternal education, and language of books in the home) The second regression, replicating the first in relation to factors predicting focal children’s language use with fathers, is shown in 168 TESOL QUARTERLY BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 169 (0.29) (0.15) (0.40) (0.17) (0.47) (0.53) (2.72) (0.88) 0.15 0.83 0.96 0.37 0.61 2.57 0.97 (14.1) (0.17) 0.20 6.86 0.30* SE 0.16–5.77 0.03–4.52 0.11–3.37 0.32–20.52 0.68–1.37 0.02–1.13 0.33–2.11 0.01–3.55 0.12–389.12 0.10–0.93 95% CI 0.48 0.05 25.96 1.29 0.58 0.26 0.90 0.28 0.37 0.29 Odds ratio (0.55) (0.10) (48.2) (2.20) (0.21) (0.38) (0.65) (0.55) (0.91) (0.29) SE 0.05–4.56 0.00–3.42 0.68–996.71 0.05–36.83 0.28–1.20 0.01–4.65 0.22–3.73 0.01–13.80 0.00–47.28 0.04–1.99 95% CI Model 2: Fathers 0.16 0.23 11.82 5.57 0.62* 0.39 0.27 1.75 0.09 0.06** Odds ratio (0.17) (0.50) (17.9) (7.82) (0.15) (0.42) (0.19) (2.77) (0.15) (0.06) SE 0.02–1.37 0.00–17.71 0.60–234.163 0.36–87.34 0.39–0.99 0.05–3.20 0.07–1.08 0.08–38.94 0.00–2.59 0.01–0.43 95% CI Model 3: Children in the Home 0.27 0.39 6.78 1.34 0.81 0.36 0.22* 0.18 0.34 0.16* Odds ratio (0.27) (0.75) (8.59) (1.59) (0.17) (0.36) (0.16) (0.30) (0.59) (0.14) SE 0.04–1.93 0.0 –17.89 0.56–81.62 0.1 –13.73 0.53–1.22 0.05–2.61 0.05–0.89 0.01–5.01 0.01–10.11 0.03–0.85 95% CI Model 4: Children Outside the Home Note Models through are individual logistic regression models, each reflecting a different relationship with the FC SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval *p < 05 No of older siblings Sib reads daily in Spanish Sib reads daily in English Female Focal child age in years No of years in United States Mexican origin Income $20,000+ No high school degree (mom) Mostly English books Odds ratio Model 1: Mothers TABLE Logistic Regression Models Examining the Association Between Focal Child Spanish Language Use With Mothers, Fathers, Children in the Home, and Children Outside of the Home and Having Older Siblings in the Home Table 2, Model 2) Unlike the findings for mothers, the number of older siblings was not related to focal child language use toward fathers, and there were no significant predictors for this outcome with all variables included in the model In focusing on other children, however, results again show the influence of siblings on focal children’s language production The third analysis examines factors predicting focal children’s language use with children inside the home (see Table 2, Model 3) As might be expected, the number of older siblings was a significant predictor of children’s oral language production toward other children in the home Specifically, for every additional older sibling present in the household, focal children demonstrated lower odds of speaking only in Spanish with other children in the home, an association that persisted after controlling for child and family factors The only other significant predictor in the full model was the number of years the mother had lived in the United States; an increase in the number of years in the United States was associated with lower odds of having focal children speak only Spanish with other children in the home When examining the factors that predict focal children’s language with other children outside the home, a similar pattern appeared (Table 2, Model 4) In this regression, the number of older siblings was a significant predictor of children’s oral language production use toward other children outside the home Specifically, for every additional older sibling present in the household, focal children demonstrated lower odds of speaking only in Spanish with other children outside the home, and this association persisted after controlling for child and family factors Unlike the previous analysis, in which the number of years in the United States played a role in focal children’s language production, an increase in focal child age was associated with lower odds of speaking only Spanish with other children outside the home What factors predict total focal child Spanish language use? This analysis examines factors predicting total focal child language use with all different interlocutors, including parents, other adults, and children Language use for this question was defined as a continuous variable, with higher values indicating more English language production and lower values indicating more Spanish language production (see Table 3) The number of older siblings was the only significant predictor of a child’s total oral language production Specifically, an increase of one in the number of older siblings was associated with a 0.38 increase in English language use among children As 170 TESOL QUARTERLY TABLE OLS Regression Models Examining the Association Between Total Focal Child Language Use and Having Older Siblings in the Home Total FC language use No of older siblings Sib reads daily in Spanish Sib reads daily in English Female Focal child age in years No of years in United States Mexican origin Income $20,000+ No high school degree (mom) Mostly English books Constant b SE 95% CI 38* À.27 44 35 13 00 23 À.01 18 30 À1.01 (0.17) (0.51) (0.43) (0.29) (0.15) (0.06) (0.37) (0.30) (0.33) (0.29) (0.95) 0.03–0.74 À1.32–0.79 À0.43–1.32 À0.24–0.94 À0.18–0.43 À0.12–0.12 À0.54–0.98 À0.63–0.60 À0.49–0.85 À0.29–0.88 À2.95–0.93 Note The coding of the continuous dependent variable is such that higher codes reflect greater total English language use and lower codes reflect greater total Spanish language use SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval *p < 05 was the case with the other findings reported here, this association persisted after controlling for child and family factors DISCUSSION Results suggest that older siblings significantly impact second-generation Latino preschoolers’ language production The main finding is that children with older siblings are less likely to talk to their mothers and other children only in Spanish Whereas other research demonstrates that sibling interactions are likely to be in the majority language (Garcia, 1983; Stevens & Ishizawa, 2007), our work suggests that the presence of siblings shifts the language of children’s interaction with their mothers as well At the same time, it is important to note that factors that might be thought to influence the language environment were not statistically significant predictors of children’s language production, such as gender, family income, maternal education, country of origin, and language of books in the household The only other significant relationships were with maternal residence in the United States and children’s age, but those patterns were not consistent across models Because their presence is associated with less Spanish-only use in the home, older siblings can be seen from ecological and language socialization perspectives as distinct and significant resources for second-generation Latino preschoolers’ learning of English Older BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 171 siblings are powerful forces in home-based ecologies, socializing younger children into multilingual cultures and communities so that younger children learn to take on English and mixed English-Spanish roles not only with siblings but also with their mothers, children outside the home, and interlocutors overall (including parents, other adults, and children) In this sense, younger siblings are being apprenticed into English language practices expected by schools far sooner than some researchers and practitioners may anticipate, and they will likely arrive at compulsory schooling with a range of language competencies appropriate to multilingual (though likely not English-only) contexts Although these results suggest a sibling influence on the language use of younger siblings, our sample size and characteristics did not allow us to pursue variables that deserve further research We were interested in sibling influences on patterns of library use, but because so few families used libraries, we could not include this is in the analysis Also, the size of the sample precluded us from including other variables in our models, such as maternal and paternal language use with the child, which should be addressed in future research CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH This work provides evidence to support the inclusion of siblings in future investigations of second-generation immigrant children, particularly for Latino populations Our analysis suggests that the presence of older siblings has a decisive impact on the repertoires immigrant preschoolers develop And although it is reasonable to imagine that older siblings may have decreasing impact on children as they progress through school, variations in children’s first and second language proficiency and literacy skills when they enter school—which often shape children’s subsequent academic success (Lesaux, 2006)—are very likely influenced by siblings The extent to which older siblings shift not only child–child language use but also mother–child language use toward the societal rather than home language also merits further attention in second language research Language maintenance efforts and research can therefore be usefully focused not only on intergenerational home language transmission but also on intragenerational dynamics that may influence children’s home language use before they enter school and could eventually shape home language maintenance across generations Our next step in this study is to explore such issues We are currently collecting and analyzing children’s Spanish and English 172 TESOL QUARTERLY language assessments to compare parent reports of language use to measured proficiency in both languages before children enter school We are also engaging in ethnographic study of a subset of children, focusing on home language and literacy practices, including siblings’ roles in these events THE AUTHORS Amanda K Kibler is an assistant professor of English education at the University of Virginia’s Curry School of Education Her research interests include the second language acquisition and bilingual language and literacy practices of children and young adults from immigrant backgrounds as well as standards-based reform in K–12 contexts Natalia Palacios is an assistant professor of applied developmental sciences at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia She studies the language development and school readiness of children from minority or immigrant backgrounds Palacios is working on projects examining home and school contexts that promote the development of dual language learners Ashley Simpson Baird is a third-year PhD student at the University of Virginia Her research focuses on the role of family in fostering language and literacy acquisition in young bilingual children Prior to graduate school, she was a family literacy instructor working with immigrant families in Washington, DC REFERENCES Caspe, M (2009) Low-income Latino mothers’ booksharing styles and children’s emergent literacy development Early Childhood Research 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bilingual children TESOL Quarterly, 36, 103–113 doi:10.2307/3588366 Shorrab, G (1986) Bilingual patterns of an Arabic–English speech community International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 61, 79–88 doi:10.1515/ijsl.1986 61.79 Stevens, G., & Ishizawa, H (2007) Variation among siblings in the use of a nonEnglish language Journal of Family Issues, 28, 1008–1025 doi:10.1177/ 0192513X07301433 van Lier, L (2000) From input to affordance: Social-interactive learning from an ecological perspective In J P Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp 245–260) Oxford, England: Oxford University Press van Lier, L (2004) The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Volk, D (1999) “The teaching and the enjoyment and being together…”: Sibling teaching in the family of a Puerto Rican kindergartner Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(1), 5–34 doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(99)80002-7 Williams, A., & Gregory, E (2001) Siblings bridging literacies in multilingual contexts Journal of Research in Reading, 24, 248–265 doi:10.1111/1467-9817.00147 Yamamoto, M (2001) Language use in interlingual families: A Japanese-English sociolinguistic study Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters 174 TESOL QUARTERLY APPENDIX Operationalization of Dependent Variables, Key Predictors, and Control Variables Variable Names Dependent variables Focal child (FC) language use Variable Description and Coding Four categorical variables representing only-Spanish language use by the FC toward his or her mother, father, other children in the home, and other children outside of the home (1); mixed English–Spanish or only-English language use by the FC toward his or her mother, father, other children in the home, and other children outside of the home (0) Continuous variable which combines language production to mother, father, other adults other children in the home, and other children in the home; higher scores indicate greater English language use by the FC, while lower scores indicate greater Spanish language use by the FC Key predictor variables No of older Continuous variable indicating greater number of older siblings siblings (Range: 0–4) Sib reads daily Categorical variable indicating daily sibling reading with FC in Spanish in Spanish (1); sibling either does not read with FC in Spanish or reads less frequently than daily (0) Sib reads daily Categorical variable indicating daily sibling reading with FC in English in English (1); sibling either does not read with FC in English or reads less frequently than daily (0) Control variables Female FC is female (1); FC is male (0) FC age FC age in years (range: 2–4) No of years in Continuous variable indicating the number of years the mother has United States lived in the United States Mexican origin Categorical variable for families with mothers born in Mexico (1); other Central and South American countries (0) Income $20,000+ Categorical variable indicating a family income of $20,000 or more (1); family income below $20,000 (0) No high school Categorical variable for maternal education indicating no high school degree (mom) degree or equivalent (1); high school degree, GED equivalent, or higher (0) Mostly English Categorical variable indicating the language of books in the home are books primarily in English (1); most of the books in the home are in Spanish (0) BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES 175