“I Learn More at School”: A Critical Perspective on Workplace-Related Second Language Learning In and Out of School

‘‘I Learn More at School’’: A Critical Perspective on Workplace-Related Second Language Learning In and Out of School KARIN SANDWALL University of Gothenburg Gothenburg, Sweden This article presents a case study of a student involved in language learning at a work placement, as part of the basic Swedish language programme for adult immigrants, Svenska fo ă r invandrare (Sfi), in Gothenburg, Sweden In accordance with the predominant economic agenda, this system is assumed to accelerate labour market entrance as well as language acquisition for the newcomer The article describes some macrolevel aspects important for the outcome of the work placement and discusses some tensions in the system, before exploring an ecological framework and the concept of affordances as a tool for analysing the agents’ situated interactions at the work placement The analysis shows that affordances offered by the environment at the work placement were explored as meaning-making material and as action potentials but not as learning opportunities, because the student’s activities were limited to tasks and she had insufficient support for evaluating her work placement interactions The article suggests some basic ecological principles for the reframing of the Sfi programme, built on affordance-focusing tasks that enable students to learn from discourse practices that they come across at workplaces and other out-of-classroom contexts doi: 10.5054/tq.2010.229270 his article presents a case study of a student involved in language learning at a work placement as part of the basic Swedish language programme for adult immigrants, Svenska foăr invandrare (Sfi), in Gothenburg, Sweden Regardless of their party affiliation, policymakers in Gothenburg share the assumption that the introduction of a curriculum including practical work placements for students within Sfi facilitates rapid labour market entrance as well as language acquisition for the newcomer However, as the quote in the title of this article suggests, this is an assumption that might be challenged, judging from the experiences of this student The student’s experiences also highlight the need to discuss assumptions about language learning at work placements in relation to the student’s trajectory and the workplace on offer T 542 TESOL QUARTERLY Vol 44, No 3, September 2010 In an attempt to account for the student’s interactions and learning opportunities in such workplace contexts, I have chosen an ecological approach proposed by van Lier and other scholars (Kramsch, 2002; van Lier, 2002, 2004, 2007), because this approach enables a focus on the ways in which individuals use language and other sign systems to relate to each other and the social world When perceived by the individual, these relations—or affordances, a concept introduced by Gibson (1979) and developed by van Lier (2002, 2004)—can be explored as action and learning potentials, guiding the individual’s further interactions The same theoretical framework is also used to outline some of the basic principles for a proposed reframing of the Sfi programme, where Baynham’s (2006) idea of bringing the outside in can be used as a point of departure In my view, there is an urgent need for teachers and learners to develop a deeper understanding of the situated character of language practices in different workplaces and other informal settings In this article I suggest the concept of affordance as a way of guiding teachers’ thinking and acting when selecting what to bring in and how to draw on students’ outside experiences in the classroom in order to enable them to learn from the discourse practices they come across in workplaces and other contexts outside of the classroom Before presenting the case study, some macrolevel aspects important for the outcome of the work placement are addressed THE SFI PROGRAMME The Sfi programme commenced nearly 50 years ago (see Lindberg & Sandwall, 2007), and in 2007–2008, 74,000 students—the highest number of participants ever—were enrolled in the programme (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2008) The Sfi programme is state funded, but it is the responsibility of the separate municipalities to provide Sfi as part of the municipal adult education programme or to commission private providers The programme ensures adult Swedish immigrants the right to free basic language tuition up to a level corresponding to level B1, as described in the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe, 2001).1 The Common European Framework provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc., across Europe It describes what language learners have to learn to in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively The description also covers the cultural context in which language is set and defines levels of proficiency which allow learners’ progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis The framework outlines six broad levels, starting from a division into the three broad levels A–C: A, basic user (A1, breakthrough; A2, waystage); B, independent user (B1, threshold; B2, vantage); and C, proficient user (C1, effective operational proficiency; C2, mastery; Council of Europe, 2001) ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 543 The Swedish national integration policy2 and the Sfi programme share the main goal of ‘‘active participation in society.’’ The goal of the Sfi programme, as presented in the Sfi syllabus, is to provide students with linguistic tools for communication and active participation in everyday situations in society and in their working lives (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2009) The syllabus explicitly emphasises the importance of learner-centred instruction, the need to plan and design the education together with the students according to the students’ interests, experiences, general knowledge, and long-term goals (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2009) The programme should be flexible and organised so as to facilitate the combination of Sfi studies and employment, practical work placement, or other education All syllabuses within the official Swedish educational system—including the Sfi syllabus—are criterion referenced and without any direct specifications of content or methods The effectiveness, role, and responsibility of Sfi as a language programme have been an issue of constant debate for many years (Lindberg & Sandwall, 2007) Currently, the Swedish rightwing–liberal coalition, in power since 2006, is adopting an economic agenda focusing on increasing overall employment With this current agenda and the predominant labour strategy, the importance of an increasingly efficient Sfi programme is argued as the main requirement for immigrants’ rapid self-support Hence the focus is on the responsibility—or inability—of the programme to prepare for, or even procure immediate employment for the students To improve the quality of Sfi as a labour-market instrument, the present government has presented measures to increase effective study habits and the programme’s student completion rate (Dagens Nyheter, 2008) Measures taken are in accordance with the government’s general educational policy and include state-mandated accountability tests, an extended national inspection system, and a national evaluation of Sfi Reducing the time spent in Sfi is another goal, and therefore a time limit of years of enrolment in Sfi has been proposed The latest initiative of this kind is the introduction of a pilot scheme concerning an individual performance-based incentive, the socalled Sfi bonus (Government Proposition, 2009), ensuring successful students financial compensation for finishing their Sfi programme within a certain period As part of this initiative, a new curriculum was launched in January 2009—the third in a period of years—together 544 The overall objectives of integration policy are equal rights, responsibilities and obligations for all regardless of ethnic or cultural background; a social community based on diversity; and social development characterised by mutual respect for differences within the boundaries that follow from society’s fundamental democratic values in which everyone, irrespective of background, should take an active and responsible part (see also Ministry of Integration and Gender Equality, 2009) TESOL QUARTERLY with increased funding for short in-service training courses for Sfi teachers Throughout the history of Sfi, the programme has lacked long-term measures for securing teacher training based on solid second language research (Lindberg & Sandwall, 2007; Swedish National Agency, 1997), resulting in damage to the status and reputation of the education as well as allowing for short-term measurements according to an economic agenda as described earlier These top-down measures have been imposed due to Sfi’s historically representing low-status activity, to alleged inefficiency, and to lack of any significant impact, so far, on the results of Sfi (Swedish National Agency for Education, 1997; official statistics from the Swedish National Agency for Education from 1993 to 2008) The Sfi Programme in Gothenburg In Gothenburg, the second largest city in Sweden, a broad political consensus for the economic agenda is manifested in a system of short-term tendering, where various private providers are responsible for the tuition of 85% of the 6,000 Sfi students in the city The consensus also includes the so-called ‘‘labour strategy’’ in relation to Sfi, and a local additional goal of the municipality states that Sfi must ‘‘as quickly as possible give the newcomer the prerequisites to procure a job and to subsequently gain self-support’’ (Public Administration of Adult Education, 2007a) Hence, in municipal evaluations of Sfi, an important measure of the programme’s success is the number of Sfi students who have procured jobs as a direct result of participation in the programme In line with the national political discourse, the bigger political parties in Gothenburg share the criticism that ‘‘the extent to which the Sfi programme leads to gainful employment and self-support is too limited’’ (the City Office of Gothenburg, 2006) Responding to this critique, the Public Administration of Adult Education office has for some years requested providers to organise language education with a focus on different areas of the employment sector, including practical work placements as well as fast-track courses for highly educated immigrants Immigrants without a clear professional goal are enrolled in a general Sfi programme Since 2006, practical work placements are also part of the general Sfi programme, and organisations which have successfully bid are now urged to find relevant work placements as well as to integrate learning in and out of school, by integrating students’ experiences from work placements into the curriculum (Public Administration of Adult Education, 2007b) This requires teachers to apply teaching methods for which they seldom have previous knowledge ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 545 It is the responsibility of the so-called coaches to find placements that offer learners ‘‘continuous opportunities for communication in Swedish that lead to language acquisition’’ (Public Administration of Adult Education, 2007b) and that relate to the student’s previous experiences and future goals The coaches, who are employed by the provider and sometimes also work as language teachers, are obliged to keep in contact with teachers, students and the mentor at the work placements The system of competitive, short-term public procurement and the view of Sfi as first and foremost a labour market instrument have several implications A positive one is the initiation of rewarding pedagogical discussions built on practices and experiences of different providers in relation to what constitutes relevant content and methods for workrelated language training There are, however, also conflicts of interest inherent in the system, which need to be recognized and negotiated In practice, coaches and teachers have to make compromises weighing Sfi syllabus goals and students’ needs and long-term goals against the providers’ interests in showing good results in terms of number of students at work placements and in employment With lower numbers of students in placements, the providers’ credibility is diminished when the next bid for tender is due In times of teachers’ unstable working conditions, the choice between a placement that might lead to a student gaining employment of any kind and one where language development is favoured is not always easy (my own data from interviews with school administrators, teachers, and coaches) In addition, there are financial grounds for finding work placements for students as soon as possible, because each hour of attendance at work placements is reimbursed However, with the students’ low second language proficiency, the type of placements primarily available to them are relatively low status jobs where few qualifications are required Considerations, such as those referred to earlier, contribute to the fact that teachers and coaches very rarely openly criticise the system and to the very limited cooperation and exchange of ideas between providers (my own data from interviews with school administrators, teachers and coaches) In light of these potential conflicts, there is a risk that the Gothenburg Sfi programme, through the system of practical work placements, is used as a sorting instrument for the labour market, introducing immigrants to low-paid positions, whatever their educational background or previous work experience (Cooke, 2006, p 70) THEORETICAL BACKGROUND There are a broad range of relevant studies that analyse the interaction of second language learners in work placements as part of 546 TESOL QUARTERLY second language programmes These include studies of linguistic aspects of workplace communication, interpretation of signs other than language in ongoing interactions, as well as issues of power, agency, identity, and face The following section presents a brief overview of some earlier research relevant to the present study and an account for the ecological approach applied as an overall theoretical framework for the study The view of Sfi as predominantly a labour market instrument is often linked to a very limited view of vocational Swedish as the specific vocabulary needed for the accomplishment of isolated work-related tasks This view is in sharp contrast to the multifaceted language demands of today’s workplaces, as confirmed in recent research (see Burns, 2006; Cooke, 2006; Holmes & Stubbe, 2003; Karlsson, 2006; Roberts, 2004; Sarangi & Roberts, 1999; Søgaard Sørensen & Holmen, 2004) Moreover, several studies have shown the importance of a shared understanding of the context and activity to enable individuals to interpret and act accordingly (see, e.g., Garfinkel, 1967; Goffman, 1981; Goodwin, 2000; Kendon, 1992) To reach such understanding, participants also draw on their perception and recognition of context and of other signs than languages Recent research shows the complex interaction of speech with gestures, bodily orientation, and the use of objects, including how gestures can add meaning or specify the meaning of what is said (see, e.g., Atkinson, Churchill, Nishino, & Okada, 2007; Goodwin, 2000, 2007; Kendon, 1992, 2000; McNeill, 2000; Olsher, 2004; Thibault, 2004).3 The shared knowledge of procedure and practice is also highlighted by Young (2007), who used the concept of interactional competence to refer to the competence coconstructed by participants in a particular discursive practice, thereby emphasising the reciprocity of and mutual responsibility for the interaction From another perspective, Lave and Wenger (1991) and Wenger (1998), within their theory of situated learning based on legitimate peripheral participation, drew attention to the role of context for the understanding of language and learning Here, learning is viewed as contingent on social interactions within communities of practice and as a process of participation in which the novice gradually becomes a full, legitimate member of the community through the scaffolding of mentors and experts Lave and Wenger contributed significantly to the understanding of learning as a situated process, and as contributions in Barton and Tusting (2005) have shown, applications of theories For an overview and discussion on the role of gesture used in communicative competence, see Gregersen, Olivares-Cuhat, and Storm (2009) ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 547 concerning literacy and discourse practices, of issues of power and of a broader social context, may further understandings of the processes taking place Structural and institutional factors may affect the learning of adult second language students, despite high levels of motivation, investment, and individual agency (Cooke, 2006; Norton 2000, 2001; Norton Peirce, 1995) As Norton (2001) showed, such experiences may cause frustration in students and interfere with their present or future life chances, as well as with their language learning Hence Baynham (2006) argued for the need to bring the outside into the second language classroom, thus allowing for an open-ended, ‘‘dynamic, agentive and contingent classroom environment’’ (p 38) In line with a critical approach to second language teaching (e.g., Norton & Toohey, 2004), such pedagogy allows for students to take advantage of the apprenticeship associated with the comparatively sheltered learning environment to engage in empowering discussions on challenging experiences and encounters in the outside world Thus, when discussing immigrants’ opportunities for learning a second language at work, it is necessary to take issues of student identity and investment, as well as aspects of basic language education and of workplaces, into consideration (Lund & Svendsen Pedersen, 2006; Svendsen Pedersen, 2007) These Danish researchers also emphasized that problems related to segregation and other shortcomings of social integration policies can never be compensated for by basic language education Studies like the ones mentioned earlier have in many ways contributed to our understanding of the complex situated nature of workplace interactions Other studies have explored the situated learning perspective in analyses of second language classroom interactions and learning (e.g., DaSilva Iddings & Jang, 2008; van Lier, 2007; Vickers, 2007; Young & Miller, 2004) Until now, however, not many studies have addressed the relationship between formal tuition and the outside world, with the question of bringing the outside in—and the inside out Moreover, few studies have actually explored the challenges of immigrants who, while still taking part in basic second language tuition, find themselves forced to communicate and interact at a work placement An Ecological Approach Second language studies have gradually shifted from a focus on language in isolation from the context in which it is practised to a view of environment as a ‘‘critical mediating force’’ in interactions, learning, 548 TESOL QUARTERLY and teaching (Canaragajah, 2008, p 537) This also involves a shift of interest from linguistic inputs and mental processing to what learners actually when engaged in meaningful language activity (van Lier, 2007, p 46) An ecological approach to language, learning, and teaching is not an overarching theory, but rather a metaphor or ‘‘a way of thinking about teaching and learning in all its complexity, a way of looking at language as a tool of many uses, and as a key component of all human meaningmaking activity’’ (van Lier, 2004, p 224) It draws from several other theoretical perspectives, such as chaos and complexity theory (LarsenFreeman, 2002), activity theory (Engestroăm, Miettinen, & Punamaăki, 1999), sociocognitive theory (Atkinson et al., 2007), and sociocultural theory (Lantolf, 2000) Within an ecological approach, language is viewed as emerging from a participant’s active engagement in semiotic and interactional activity in a social and physical world Hence, it is not primarily the agent’s words or phrases which count as data for investigation but the situated social activity Thus, an ecological study of language focuses on ways in which individuals use language and other sign systems to relate to each other and to the social world (van Lier, 2002, p 147) These relations are referred to as affordances (Gibson, 1979; Greeno, 1994; van Lier, 2000, 2002, 2004) When perceived of—and thus made available to—an actively engaged participant, affordances may promote or inhibit actions and may therefore be thought of as cues for how to interpret signs and how to act In this way, language-in-interaction is embedded in and supported by other meaning-making signs (gesturing, posturing, local or remote objects of joint attention, etc.) Greeno (1994), when discussing Gibson’s original notion of affordances, noted that many affordances such as posture, gestures, gazes, facial expressions, and pauses are perceived without any need for mediating symbolic representations (p 340) Such unmediated affordances are called first-level or direct affordances (van Lier, 2004) Mediated (indirect or second-level) affordances, on the other hand, are mediated by a variety of cognitive and social tools, for example, remembered practices and routines, situational logic, conversational logic, and familiarity with artifacts To the individual engaged in interaction, affordances of the direct or mediated kind make sense when perceived together; they ‘‘act in consort to link language to actions via perception’’ (van Lier, 2004, p 94), as in a network Activity and also interpretation are key words here According to van Lier (2004), when engaged in activity, we perceive and interpret the relevancies signalled by the physical and social surroundings—the offered affordances—on the basis of ‘‘what we are doing and who we ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 549 are’’ (p 62), so from the many affordances offered by the environment, individuals select ‘‘those that best fit their experience and the activity in which they are engaged’’ (Kramsch, 2002, p 7) In an ecological perspective, ‘‘perception-in-action’’ (van Lier, 2007, p 54), that is the ability to focus one’s attention on meaning-making affordances, is an important prerequisite for language learning opportunities to occur It is activity, perception, and interaction that provide key interactional and contextual resources for the understanding and internalization of a system of linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols and thus for the emergence of the second language Within this perspective, learning is not about internalizing grammar or a ‘‘linguistic system’’—it is about internalising the ‘‘keys to acting in the world’’ (van Lier, 2007, p 55) Hence the learner’s ability to perceive affordances while engaged in multimodal activity is constitutive of both interaction and learning possibilities Within this framework then, the teaching of language is about supporting the students in developing their ability to perceive affordances in interaction as ways of relating more effectively to people and to the world (van Lier, 2004, p 4) THE STUDY The case study presented in this article is part of a PhD project concerning second language learners’ possibilities to learn Swedish through participation in interactions at practical work placements as part of their language programme In addition to the female student in the present case study, another three students were participants in the larger study Methods, Setting, and Participants As indicated above, teachers and coaches in Gothenburg see the integration of learning in and out of school as a big pedagogical challenge, especially for teachers working within the general Sfi programme By choosing to study practical work placements in relation to the general programme, I hoped that my findings would also be relevant for other basic language programmes where specialising in various areas of the employment sector is not feasible and where some or all students are involved in work or practical work placements for shorter or longer periods Inspired by research within the framework of ethnography of communication (Hymes, 1972) and linguistic ethnography (Creese, 2008; Rampton et al., 2004), data were collected through various qualitative methods including the following: field notes from observations 550 TESOL QUARTERLY at meetings, at work placement, and in school; course materials; hours of audiotaped and hours of videotaped interactions at the work placement; and audiotaped interviews.4 The provider, one of the larger ones in Gothenburg, was selected on the basis of previous personal contacts with Sfi teachers and coaches employed there Through staff contacts, a young former student of economics from Serbia, Merilinka, agreed to participate in the study.5 The choice of a preschool as the practical work placement for Merilinka can be related to several factors on both a macro and micro level When Merilinka applied to Sfi, she had chosen, from a limited number of options, ‘‘child and recreation’’ as a possible area of employment The choice was also based on the coach’s assumption that the preschool would provide a language-rich context that would enable her to ‘‘start using and listening.’’ But the reason for choosing this preschool with 15 two- to three-year-olds was also a practical one, as the coach later admitted: ‘‘It’s a political reality, too, where we have to take the placements that we can get.’’ That two of the preschool teachers were bilingual (in Serbian and Macedonian) didn’t influence the choice of preschool The case study spanned months, from mid-November, 2007, when preparations for the student’s work placement at the preschool began, to mid-February, 2008, when the work placement period ended.6 The semistructured follow-up interviews with the student, the Swedish teachers, and the two most involved preschool teachers concerned their perspectives on and experiences of the Sfi programme, the work placement period, and the integration of learning The student My intention was to act as a nonparticipant observer, but it soon became apparent that this approach promoted a feeling of unease with participants at the preschool Instead, I found that it was through limited and peripheral interaction (e.g., smiling and nodding, responding to questions, and occasionally commenting on events) that my presence at the preschool became more comfortable To facilitate this, and to make the video camera less conspicuous, I held the camera waist high, using the foldout screen to keep the student in focus Thus, instead of characterising the observations as either non- or full-participation, they are more accurately characterised in relation to a continuum dependent on the activity taking place After a meeting with the teachers and coaches, in which I presented my study, the team offered to recruit a student who could be interested in participating In a later meeting with the suggested student participant, Merilinka, I explained my intentions with the study and the methods for collecting data in simplified Swedish using a specially prepared wordlist in the student’s first language When the work placement had been chosen, I also contacted the head teacher and arranged for a meeting with the preschool teachers With their permission to carry out the study, and with support from the mentor, an experienced preschool teacher, I finally obtained permission from the parents of the 15 children at the school Observations and video recordings at the preschool were made in January and February, in order for the students, the preschool teachers, and the children to get acquainted before data were collected ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 551 communities In Merilinka’s case, she is not an apprentice in the real sense of the word and hence does not aspire to become a legitimate and full member of the preschool teachers’ community of practice nor to learn the preschool teachers’ ways with words To Merilinka, gaining access to the preschool teachers’ community of practice was mainly a question of finding an opportunity to talk about (and learn) things not immediately related to the preschool teachers’ professional domain; for example, she wanted to take part in the preschool teachers’ social or small talk (e.g., Holmes, 2000, 2005) The struggle of students to navigate access to various communities of practice is well illustrated in the study by Norton (2001), in which the students’ investment in learning the second language is related to their desire to gain access to an imagined community of practice Such a community could either be an imagined community of their own profession, of fellow speakers of their mother tongue, or of target language speakers Merilinka prioritises learning the second language before continuing with her professional career and prefers to interact with adults about ‘‘other things,’’ suggesting that access to an imagined community of practice of Swedish-speaking adults is what Merilinka is most concerned about at this point According to Lave and Wenger, unlimited access to a mentor or expert is a prerequisite for gaining access to communities of practice for learning through legitimate peripheral participation In Merilinka’s case, however, her role in relation to the preschool teachers’ community of practice might better be described as marginal rather than peripheral (Wenger, 1998; Norton, 2001), because a role associated with legitimate peripheral participation is one that allows for learning The fact that Merilinka, in her own words, ‘‘only talked to the children’’ deprived her of possibilities of learning what she needed and of negotiating an adult identity Also, although the preschool teachers were aware that the principal purpose of the placement was Merilinka learning the language, their narrow focus on language learning—ignoring questions of identity—might have made it difficult for them to understand Merilinka’s desire to take part (and learn) in a social context Another factor contributing to Merilinka’s marginal role in the adult community might also have been the preschool teachers’ assumption that her language learning trajectory was comparable to the children’s; a view that was expressed in the follow-up interview This view justified the teachers to apply the same language learning pedagogy as they did towards the children in order for them to use language to express their needs; they waited for Merilinka to ask for help instead of being proactive, even though they claimed they had the time and desire to further support Merilinka’s participation and learning 560 TESOL QUARTERLY With only limited support from her mentor, fellow workers, and teachers, she had to rely on the expertise provided by the children and make or be content with the peripheral role of participation in the children’s activities In this situation, full-time language studies appeared to be a more worthwhile investment (cf Norton Peirce, 1995) for Merilinka, because she thought she ‘‘learned more’’ in the formal learning contexts of the school Merilinka’s decision to terminate the work placement early could also be seen as an act of resistance from a position of marginality (Norton, 2001) and as a way of exercising agency (Ahearn, 2001) to contest an imposed and unwanted identity of ‘‘member of the children’s group.’’ She thus preferred the well-known identity of ‘‘student’’ in school where she felt ‘‘safe’’ (see Baynham, 2006) As pointed out by Baynham, a second language learner identity may ‘‘constitute a stable point in a highly unstable and potentially threatening lifeworld’’ (p 24) As indicated above, the preschool’s environment offered an abundance of affordances, many of which Merilinka actually utilised for interaction There were, however, other affordances that might have been explored for further interaction and language learning, for example, the use of the portfolios with photos and texts of each child’s previous activity at the preschool; DVDs with songs and accompanying books; notices on the bulletin board, and the documentation file with the preschool’s aims and methods of working In light of Merilinka’s experiences at the preschool, the question asked previously, ‘‘What is it in this environment that makes things happen the way they do?’’ (van Lier, 2004, p 11), needs to be supplemented with the question ‘‘What is it in this environment that could be used for learning?’’ As pointed out by van Lier, learning-ininteraction is dependent not only on the individual perceiving and using affordances but also on the individual ‘‘evaluating [emphasis added] the effect of language actions’’ (p 57) As for evaluation, Merilinka had neither sufficient support nor sufficient time to engage in any reflection on her language actions, which might have contributed to her experience of not learning Swedish at the preschool PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS With the theoretical approach delineated above and the findings from the case study as a point of departure, I devote the last section of this article to an outline of some basic principles for a language programme built on possibilities as well as constraints for participation and language learning experienced by adult migrants The foundation for a reframing ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 561 of second language programmes in this direction is an understanding of language and learning closely linked to learners’ participation in interactions in and out of school The conceptualization of learning as co-constructed in situated social practices therefore calls for close attention to the physical and social contexts of students’ participation Such contextualisation of interaction, which might have contributed to the integration of Merilinka’s formal and informal learning in school and preschool, also requires a reframing of the roles of teachers and students and an emphasis on student agency and teacher contingency (Baynham, 2006) The recognition of the situated character of interactions makes students in such programmes the experts with prime knowledge of the contexts and activities of their work placements The teacher’s role is to guide the students’ perception and action towards affordances at the work placement, which can further their interaction and learning (van Lier, 2007, p 53) As the case study indicates, to provide such guidance, teachers need basic knowledge of circumstances and communication at various practical work placements to realize what affordances might become available to students Therefore, resources must be allocated for teachers’ regular visits to work placements, and observations must be seen as a necessary foundation for workplace-related tuition Teachers’ and coaches’ visits to work placements are also fundamental for the monitoring and negotiating of the student’s workplace tasks and of his or her access to the communities of practice As the study suggests, opportunities for learning at work placements are contingent on the kind of interactions in which the student is allowed to engage Also crucial is the recognition of the student as a legitimate learner, not primarily as a legitimate pair of hands constantly engaged in workplace assignments The school therefore needs to support the student in finding the space and time to focus on learning and to direct the mentor’s or colleagues’ attention to the environment’s possible affordances for interaction and language learning and to the social dimensions of language learning The teacher’s question on how to integrate the learning in and out of school in times of strained resources, without the opportunity for relevant in-service training or knowledge of communication at workplaces, is also a question that needs to be addressed One way to monitor and negotiate the circumstances mentioned earlier is to give the students tasks to carry out at the workplace—tasks that bring the outside in, that involve the mentor and the colleagues, and that are relevant to all students in the group For the design of such tasks, the two previously put questions (‘‘What is it in this environment that makes things happen the way they do?’’ and ‘‘What is it in this environment—at this work placement—that could be used for learning?’’) might serve as guidance The aim of such tasks is to support 562 TESOL QUARTERLY students in perceiving and using affordances at their work placements for interaction and learning Based on the current case study, but also drawing on results of the larger study, Table shows a tentative attempt to exemplify and categorize affordances to design relevant tasks and activities in the classroom For example, the use of the Little Book of Tractors could, with the task described in this table, be specifically presented to teachers, students, and mentors or colleagues as an example of available multimodal affordances Table also shows suggestions for possible questions for reflection in the classroom In the right column, general goals expressed in the Sfi syllabus are presented to show the relevance of dealing with the more situated language use in the workplace While students, guided by the teacher, recurrently account, discuss, compare, and reflect on such affordance-focusing tasks, they are TABLE Bringing the Use of Workplace Affordances Into the Classroom1 Examples from preschool (Mediated) affordance in focus Goals from Sfi syllabus, course C (my translaTasks to carry out Classroom work— distion; CEFR at work placements cuss, reflect, compare level A2/A2+ ) Little Book of Multimodal: Tractors, chil- text or picture dren’s portfolios, text and pictures on notice board, document file with teaching methods Bring a text you use at your work placement Ask your mentor for permission to bring it to school, copy it or photograph it ‘‘If you sit on Linguistic: the bench instructions ,’’ ‘‘Will you and requests help me there ,’’ ‘‘Look, Merilinka will read this.’’ Write down main points so you will be able to describe a situation where you got an instruction What did the person say or do? What did you say or do? Ask your mentor what he or she thinks he or she normally says when instructing How, when, why, with whom are text or pictures used? What you and others say when you use it? Does it work? Why or why not? Can you learn anything from using the text? Why or why not? Understand and use easy, regularly occurring texts in working life, e.g., short narrative and descriptive texts, information relevant to the student such as notes, regulations, and instructions In what ways are Understand requests and instrucclear, simple tions expressed (verb- speech in preally or with body dictable situalanguage)? Could you tions in say or behave in other working life, ways? How could you e.g., simple respond to requests or instructions instructions? In what situations is it easy or difficult for you to understand? Why, you think? Note 1A comprehensive table can be found in appendix CEFR common European framework of references, Sfi Svenska foăr invandrare (Swedish language programme for adult immigrants) I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 563 involved in learning the ways of learning in interaction They are also, while contextualizing a particular utterance, jointly constructing a growing body of knowledge and experiences in relation to a vast number of workplaces In such classroom interactions, language aspects relevant to working life and specific workplaces become apparent Far from the political demands to focus on vocational Swedish, relevant aspects here are not limited to parts of lexicon at a specific workplace As the data and Table show (see also Table A1, appendix 2), language proficiency here is more than understanding and using the second language—it includes the use of direct and mediated affordances, a shared mother tongue other than Swedish, the use of Swedish as a lingua franca, and knowledge of discourse practices Moreover, it includes the metalanguage skills needed to talk about interactions; to describe, compare, and evaluate effects of previous interactions; and to anticipate what might occur in future interactions Through such recurrent, guided, and negotiated trajectories of experiences, words, phrases, other signs, understandings, and use of contexts at various work placements become available for students’ appropriation as a way of gaining access into a number of more empowering activities at the present work placement and future workplaces Support is also provided for the development of the ability to evaluate and judge whatever understandings of contexts and whatever aspects of interaction are useful in different practices in the students’ various imagined communities The question of possible cross-contextual applications of experiences and learning merits further investigation In this the students’ experiences of working as ethnographers (Roberts, Bryam, Barro, Jordan, & Street, 2001; Norton, 2006) in their work placements, decontextualizing and recontextualizing workplace affordances in the classroom, could serve as a point of departure A tuition structured by affordance-focusing tasks allows for the manual for informal learning as expressed by Merilinka’s coach and mentor to be reformulated, elaborated, and made concrete In this way, it offers sustainable tools for the expansion of the students’ ‘‘repertoires of participation’’ (Atkinson et al., 2007, p 177; Larsen-Freeman, 2002, p 42) in society and at workplaces—just some of the tools that enable students to act as agents of their own learning (van Lier, 2004, p 223) Critical and Affirmative Learning Spaces Sfi has an important role to play in the integration of native-born and new Swedish citizens, because one of its main goals is to support immigrants in their preparation for active participation in society 564 TESOL QUARTERLY (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2009, p 2) This goal is, however, often in conflict with the short-term goal of the ‘‘labour strategy’’ where the individual’s previous experiences and long-term goals risk being disregarded in favour of stronger demands for the immigrant’s immediate self-support For the responsibility of Sfi to be fulfilled and to manage the conflicts resulting from its potentially contradicting goals related to the promotion of integration and rapid labour market entrance, respectively, it is necessary to negotiate and balance the two, in many ways, symbiotic roles of the basic language programme Doing this in a dynamic and professional way includes taking into consideration a wide range of factors relevant to the individual To promote long-term integration, Sfi can be described as comprising two spaces, an affirmative learning space and a critical learning space (Svendsen Pedersen, 2007) First, in relation to the labour strategy, Sfi is an affirmative learning space; as most adults’ long-term goals for active participation in society also include employment, Sfi needs to be a space for facilitating immigrants’ labour market entrance and workplace socialisation Sfi therefore needs to address workplace communication and the understandings of workplace contexts, as suggested in previous sections Second, Sfi is also a critical learning space where the individual’s needs and possibilities should be addressed Focussing the empowerment of students, this is a space for critical examination and discussion of circumstances at work placements and in working life, issues that might be too sensitive to bring up at a workplace Here the students’ struggle for voice and identity becomes an important part of the curriculum Within this space, Sfi also has a responsibility to address interactions in other social contexts, for example, at parent meetings, visiting district health care centres, or negotiating consumer issues Such critical interrogations of language use and other aspects of society and workplaces can bring about contestations of the labour strategy and open up alternative subject positions (Chun, 2009; cf Norton & Toohey, 2004) In Merilinka’s case, the limited possibility to negotiate access to the adult community of practice might have been dealt with within this space For a task designed to focus such matters within this space, see Table CONCLUSION A purpose of this article has been to explore aspects of an ecological framework and the concept of affordances as ‘‘a way of thinking about ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 565 TABLE Task for Work Within the Critical Learning Space Example from preschool Biljana: ‘‘Do you understand?’’ Merilinka’s feelings of being left out, e.g., at lunch (Mediated) affordance in focus Linguistic: phrases for describing experiences, motivating opinions, asking for changes Tasks to perform at work placements Describe a difficult situation where you and your mentor or colleague were involved What happened, what did you say or do? Was your (body) language sufficient or appropriate? What was good or not so good? Classroom work— discuss, reflect, compare Is it all right to ask your mentor or boss to change his or her behaviour? How? How could you talk more to your mentor or colleagues? What could you or your mentor or colleagues do? What could your teacher do? How could you act in a similar situation in the future? Goals from Sfi syllabus, course C (my translation; CEFR level A2/A2+ ) Communicate in predictable situations in working life, through, e.g., describing experiences, expressing and motivating opinions Participate in working life through, e.g., exchanging thoughts in short conversations, discussing, and to some extent adapting or adjusting language to a situation Note CEFR common European framework of references, Sfi Svenska foăr invandrare (Swedish language programme for adult immigrants) teaching and learning’’ (van Lier, 2004, p 224) in relation to interaction and language learning opportunities at a preschool work placement The value of this theoretical framework seems evident not only for an analysis of interactions but also for the outlining of basic principles for a reframed Sfi programme based on real world opportunities and constraints for interaction and learning The framework and principles will be further tested through the ongoing exploration of these ideas by, among others, the provider that took part in the current study This is mainly how the outline of a reframed programme in this article is intended—as inspiration and as a base for further thinking—not as a model to be implemented While recognising the potential of workplace affordances for interaction and second language learning, this article challenges some of the sometimes taken for granted assumptions about workplace language practices and illustrates the problem of fitting learners’ needs and tuition to a policy agenda Agreeing with Canagarajah (2008, p 537) on the need to formulate ‘‘new explanations for language practices and devising new pedagogies for teaching them to / / language learners,’’ a reframing needs to build on the recognition of practitioners’ agentive roles in the policy enactments Even in the most 566 TESOL QUARTERLY restrictive of contexts—as within an economic agenda—teachers, coaches, and students are not only implementators of policies but also potential agents of a much needed change As for the Swedish context, there is a strong need for supporting this agency through regular teacher training and relevant, recurrent inservice programmes with a specific focus on adult second language learners’ educational needs In addition, further research into the ecology of workplace language and the affordances for interaction and learning that different workplaces (and placements) offer must be given priority A deeper understanding of issues related to workplace language and conditions for second language learning and use in and out of classrooms is also urgently needed among integration agents, policy makers, job placement administrators, as well as among employers and employees at multilingual workplaces Thus, if the long-desired goal of bridging formal and informal language learning is to be fulfilled, the initiatives for the development of a sustainable and efficient Sfi programme cannot be restricted to language teachers alone ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully acknowledge the contributions made by the individuals who participated in this study and who so generously shared their experience and views with me I would also like to thank Professor Inger Lindberg for her support and valuable suggestions on this article and BethAnne Yoxsimer Paulsrud for her careful reading and helpful comments on the text Appreciation is also extended to the two anonymous reviewers and to the editors for their much valued comments THE AUTHOR Karin Sandwall is an experienced teacher of Swedish for adult immigrants (Sfi) and is a PhD student at the Department of Swedish, Gothenburg University, Sweden Her research project focuses on communicative needs and practices facing Sfi students at practical work placements as part of their language program Her research investigates students’ interactions at and experiences from work placements and discusses how these can be addressed and taken advantage of in formal settings REFERENCES Ahearn, L M (2001) Language and agency Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 109– 137 doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.109 Atkinson, D., Churchill, E., Nishino, T., & Okada, H (2007) Alignment and interaction in a sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition The Modern Language Journal, 91, 169–188 doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00539.x ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 567 Barton, D., & Tusting, K (Eds.) 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Eric haăr maste man foărsta, annars sa fungerar det inte Use (almost only) Swedish Biljana sprak laăr man sig bara man anvaăndar den Biljana jag ska prata hela tiden svenska Sa˚ ibland pa˚ slutet om jag ser att det haăr gar inte / / da saăger jag det till dig pa˚ svenska och serbiska Excerpt If you sit on the bench Elisabeth Merilinka, om du sitter pa baănken daăr borta [vrider huvudet at hoăger, tittar ner pa baănken] sa blir det laăttare foăr dig naăr om du tar pa Isac [pekar med handen mot Isac] klaăderna Merilinka ja Isac kom! [gar och saătter sig pa baănken till hoăger om Elisabeth] ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ 571 Excerpt Will you help me there? Sara [drar av en bit och ger M folierullen, talar snabbt] Hjaălper du mig daăr, du kan bara ta av en bit daăr Merilinka [tar rullen, drar av en foliebit, stor som andra barnens, och ger till barnet.] Excerpt The Little Book of Tractors Senka Titta, Senka hittade den [haller upp boken framfoăr sig] Merilinka [Ah! Senka Aaaah, den ska Merilinka laăsa (ger Merilinka boken) Merilinka [ja (tar emot boken) / / ă r det din bok? Merilinka [tittar pa˚ Wilmer] A Wilmer Jaa Merilinka Ja, lilla traktorboken [oăppnar boken] Wilmer [pekar snabbt pa traktorbild] hehe jaăh xxx! Merilinka Ah, vad aăr den? [pekar cirklande pa˚ traktorbild] Din traktor? Wilmer [talar snabbt] De syns de e hjul [snabb pekning pa hjulet] Merilinka ah? ă r det din traktor? [pekar igen pa˚ traktorbild, ser pa˚ Wilmer] A [tittar ner i boken igen] Wilmer jaa Merilinka Jaa [skrattar] okej [blaăddrar till naăsta sida] Wilmer [pekar pa bilden, otydligt] vicken faăj aă den? [pekar snabbt] Merilinka Ja? Wilmer xxx xxx Excerpt I want to play with you Albin [till Merilinka] ga˚ bort, ga˚ bort, ga˚ bort Merilinka [tittar pa˚ Senka] Senka [pa˚ serbiska till Merilinka] xx Merilinka [till Albin] varfoăr? Albin(2) Merilinka [tittar pa Senka] Senka [pa serbiska till Merilinka] xxx xxx Merilinka [till Albin] jag vill leka med dig Vill du leka med mig? Albin nej [tar Merilinkas hand] 572 TESOL QUARTERLY Appendix TABLE A1 Bringing Workplace Affordances Into the Classroom Examples from preschool (Mediated) affordance in focus Little Book of Multimodal: text Tractors, chilor picture dren’s portfolios, text and pictures on notice board, document file with teaching methods Dress children or Routine activity help with outside clothes, read books, paint, eat Pointing, gesBody language tures with arm or arms and/or hand or hands, gazing ‘‘I LEARN MORE AT SCHOOL’’ Tasks to perform at work placements Bring a text you use at your work placement Ask your mentor for permission to bring it to school, copy it, or photograph it Goals from Sfi syllabus, course C Classroom (my translation; work— discuss, CEFR level A2/ reflect, compare A2+) How, when, why, with whom are text or pictures used? What you or others say when you use it? Does it work? Why or why not? Can you learn anything from using the text? Why or why not? Understand and use easy, regularly occurring texts in working life, e.g., short narrative and descriptive texts; information relevant to the student such as notes, regulations, and instructions Write down main Why is this done Understand points so you will in this way? Who clear instrucbe able to says what and tions describe an activ- why? Are you Communicate ity that happens happy with the with a simple every day Ask way you act? language in preyour mentor to Why? If not, dictable situahave a look at you need more tions in what you wrote language or working life, e.g., (You may like to information? by giving take a photoWho might help advice and graph or record you? instructions something!) Observe body Why is body lan- Participate in language at your guage used in predictable situaworkplace Write various activities? tions in down main How does body working life points so you will language support be able to verbal language? describe the Are you able to or situation where it you need to was used Ask use more or difyour mentor if ferent body lanshe or he has guage at your thought about work placement? common gestures that she or he uses 573 TABLE A1 TABLE Continued Continued Examples from preschool (Mediated) affordance in focus ‘‘If you sit on the Linguistic: bench .’’ ‘‘Will instructions and you help me requests there .’’ ‘‘Look, Merilinka will read this.’’ Tasks to perform at work placements Write down main points so you will be able to describe a situation where you got an instruction What did the person say or do? What did you say or do? Ask your mentor what he or she thinks he or she normally says when instructing Goals from Sfi syllabus, course C Classroom (my translation; work— discuss, CEFR level A2/ reflect, compare A2+) In what ways are requests and instructions expressed (verbally or with body language)? Could you say or behave in other ways? How could you respond to requests or instructions? In what situations is it easy or difficult for you to understand? Why, you think? Is it yours? What Linguistic: recur- Write down some Are there phrases is it? What colour rent phrases phrases that you that are used on is it? What are often use other work placeyou doing? Who Describe a situa- ments? Is there a is it? tion when you phrase that you used them Ask would not use at your mentor what your work placehe or she usually ment? Why? says Could you use the phrases in another situation as well? Could you say it in any other way? 574 Understand clear, simple speech in predictable situations in working life, e.g., simple instructions Participate in predictable situations in working life in short conversations, discuss common questions and to some extent adapt or adjust language to situation TESOL QUARTERLY