INTRODUCTION
Inequalitybetweenmenandwomeninthelabourmarketisoneoftheissuesthatareofgreat interestinlaboureconomics.Manyempiricalstudieshaveshownthatwagesofmalesarehig herthanforfemales.Thishappensinmostcountriesaroundtheworld.Mostoft h e s e s t u d i e s f o c u s o n t h e a v e r a g e g e n d e r w a g e g a p H o w e v e r , i n modernlaboureconomics ,aninteresting phenomenon alsoattracts theattention ofresearchers, thatistheg enderwagegapattheupperandlowertailsofwagedistributionareusuallyhigherthanthat atmiddle.Ifthegenderwagegapatlowertailquantilesiswiderthangapatthemiddlequantiles,it willresultinastickyflooreffect.Ifthegenderwagegapatupperq u a n t i l e s ishighert hanthemiddleunits,theglassceilingiscalledtobeexisted.
Glassceilingcanbeinterpretedasthephenomenonwherebywomendoquitewellinthela bourmarketuptoapointafterwhichthereisaneffectivelimitontheirprospects.G l a s s c e i l i n g i m p l i e s t h a t t h e r e seemst o b e a n i n v i s i b l e b a r r i e r tofemalew o r k e r s inoc cupation,inpromotionorinwagethatpreventsfemalestoreachthetopcomparedtomal eworkerswhohavethesameproductivitycharacteristics.Theglassceilingeffectinw a g e e x i s t e d i f t h e g e n d e r w a g e g a p a t t h e t o p o f t h e w a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s w i d e r t h a n otherposition,suggesting thatfemalesi nwage ceilinghavelower pa ythantheirmal ec o u n t e r p a r t s
Thestickyflooreffectoccurswhenthegenderwagegapwidenatthelowertailofthe w a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n T h i s mentionst o t h e c a s e w h e r e womena t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e w a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e m o r e discriminatedag a i n s t t h a n mena n d t h e y mayfaceg r e a t e r d i s a d v a n t a g e s thanatotherquantiles.
- Low- paidcareersareoftenassociatedwithwomen,suchasmaids,secretaries,hou sekeepers,clerks,tailors,etc.Evenifdoingjobsofequalvalue,womenearnl e s s t h a n men.O n e oft h e mainr e a s o n s i s thewayf e m a l e s ' c o m p e t e n c e s a r e valu ed comparedtomales'.
- Mena n d w o m e n w i t h t h e i r o w n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e o f t e n s u i t a b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t industries.I n f a c t , them a l e - d o m i n a t e d i n d u s t r i e s o f t e n p a y m o r e t h a n f e m a l e - dominatedi n d u s t r i e s M e n a r e s t i l l a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d o m i n a n t wo men'ssector,buttheymaydemandhighercompensationthanwomenreceivetodothejob.
- Gettingmarriedandhavingchildrencanaffectfemaleworkers'productivityan dh e n c e leadtoincomediversificationbetweenmalesandfemales.Aftermarriag e,menm a y feelmoreresponsibility forthefamily andworkh a r d tosu p p o r t t heirfamilies.M e a n w h i l e , womenw i l l b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h o u s e w o r k and c a r i n g f o r c h i l d r e n , sowomenmay reducetheirparticipationinlabourforceandtheirp r o d u c t i v i t y w i l l b e r e d u c e d
- Iti s p o p u l a r t o d i s r e g a r d t h e women‟sp o t e n t i a l t o f u l f i l s e n i o r o r ma nagerialp o s i t i o n s amongstwomenthemselvesaswellastheirmalecolleagues.
- Theprejudiceseither c o n sc i o u s o r unconsciousin so c i e t y regardinggen ders t i l l e x i s t thatmayl i m i t t h e w o m e n ‟ s o p p o r t u n i t y t o g e t p r o m o t i o n s S o m e t i m e s , womenmaygetpromotedbutwithlowerwagethanmencount erparts.
- Anemployermaycareaboutawoman‟smaritalstatusassignaloffamilyr e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , l e s s f l e x i b i l i t y a n d lessp r o d u c t i v i t y A n d t h i s mayr e d u c e s t h e em p l o y m en t prospectsofmarriedwomenandlowerthelevelofwagesthatwomencan command.
Addressing the gender wage gap, sticky floor, and glass ceiling effects is crucial Low wages increase women's dependence on men at home, often leading to an overlooked role in family dynamics and contributing to issues such as domestic violence Furthermore, women's responsibility for housework can hinder their productivity in professional settings, with long-term violence adversely affecting both physical and mental health, further decreasing their work output Additionally, women earn less than men in the workplace, resulting in lower pensions With women retiring earlier than men, yet having a longer average life expectancy, they face prolonged retirement periods with insufficient financial resources, leading to significant economic challenges in their later years.
Thepresenceofstickyfloorandglassceilingisalsooneoftheimportants i g n of g e n d e r i n e q u a l i t y i n p a r t i c u l a r a n d s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y i n g e n e r a l T h i s c a n b e s e e n a s a con seq uen ce o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r e s s o f a country.T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o investigatetheexistenceofstickyflooreffectandglassceilingeffect.
THENECESSARYOFINVESTIGATINGTHESTICKYFLOORANDGL AS S
Sustainable development has become a global concern, with many regions facing common challenges, particularly the rising inequality alongside economic growth Gender equality is a crucial criterion for evaluating a country's sustainable development Like other nations, Vietnam is committed to sustainable development, making the reduction of the gender wage gap an urgent priority in the context of global integration Analyzing the existence of the glass ceiling and the sticky floor effect will help identify the segments where gender wage inequality persists, enabling the government to formulate effective strategies to address and improve gender inequality.
Inaddition,manystudiesrevealthatinequalityhurtseconomicgrowth.Overcomin gt h e effectofstickyfloorandglassceilingwillcreateconditionsforbothmenandwomentoc o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y toc o u n t ry‟sd e v e l o p m e n t T h e f a c t t h a t femalew o r k e r s a r e stuckinlow-incomeorboundwithinvisiblebarriersinhigh- incomeworkersmaylimitth eir a b i l i t y t o c o n t r i b u t e T h e 1 7ths u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t g o a l s o f U n i t e d N a t i o n mentionthat“Achievegenderequalityandempo werallwomenandgirls”
Blinder(1973)d e c o m p o s i t i o n HungPT(2007)employsquantileregressiontoanalyzethe genderwaged i f f e r e n t i a l withthedatafortheperiodfrom1992to2002.AnhT.T.T(2015) alsousesqu an ti l e regressionandMachado-
Mata(2015)analyzedthegenderwagegap.Allabovestudiesshowtheexistenceofgender wageinequalityinVietnamwithstrongstatisticalevidence.However, none oft hese papershasreally focusedonanalyzingglass ceilinga n d stickyflooreffects.
Inaddition,itisimportanttoknowatwhichquantilesofwagedistributionthewageine qualityisstronger.I f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g a n d s t i c k y f l o o r e f f e c t s a r e cofirms,thiswillprovideimportantguidanceforpolicymakerstofocusspecificallyon s p e c i f i c incomegroupswherethegenderwageinequalityismostserious.
OBJECTIVES
- Investigatethefloorstickinessandglassceilingeffectsbygroupswhichforme dbylivingareas(urban–rural),bysectors(state- private),byeducationandbyo c c u p a t i o n s
CONTRIBUTIONS
Byemployingq u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n ont h e V H L S S 2 0 1 4, t h e r es u l t s o f t h i s rese archp r o j e ct havehelpedthearticletocontributeasfollow
- Firstly,withthelatestdataavailable,thisstudyreinforcestheempiricalevidence o f theexistenceofgenwageinequalityi n Vietnam.Thisisconsistentwithprevious re searchinVietnam.
- Secondly,thispapershedslightontheoverviewof genderwageinequalityinVietNam.Byinvestigatingtheexistenceofglassceilingand stickyfloorofwageswec o n f i r m t h a t t h e g e n d e r w a g e i n e q u a l i t y mainlyo c c u r s i n t h e l o w w a g e g r o u p (stickyflooreffect)andbelesssevereinhighwagegrou p(noglassceilingeffect).
This study clarifies the concepts of the glass ceiling and sticky floor effects across various labor groups, including urban-rural and state-private sectors The sticky floor effect is present in both urban and rural areas, while the glass ceiling is observed only in rural regions In terms of employment sectors, the glass ceiling exists in both state and private sectors, whereas the sticky floor is limited to the private sector One contributing factor is that males are often assigned to senior or important positions more frequently than females Although females can participate in high-level leadership roles, such instances are rare, and when they do, they often receive lower wages than their male counterparts for equivalent positions Additionally, differences in wage policies between the two sectors may further explain this disparity.
STRUCTURES
BACKGROUND
(2007),thes t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g a n d s t i c k y f l o o r isf o u n d byi n d i c a t i n g t h e w i d e r genderwagedifferentialsattheloweranduppertailsofthewagedist ribution.Onaverage,theg e n d e r w a g e g a p i s p o s s i b l e t o estimatebyu s i n g o r d i n a r y l e a s t s q u a r e s ( O L S ) andothermeanregression.However,OLScannotinvestigat ethegapbeyondofthe meanofthedependentvariable.Soitdoesnothelpinexaminingtheglassceilingandthes t i c k y f l o o r Manys t a t i s t i c a l t o o l s h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d t o p e r f o r m r e g r e s s i o n i n o t h e r q u a n t i l e s o f w a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n H o w e v e r , w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e q u a n t i l e r egr es sio n byKoenker&Bassett(1978),theinvestigationofg enderwagedifferentialsthroughoutthewagedistributionbecomesm o r e e a s i l y S i n c e t h e n , q u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n h a s becomeaneffective empiricaltoolforexamining thee x i s te n c e ofsticky floorandg l a s s ceiling.
Thus,inadditiontothedescriptivestatistics,thisstudyestimatestheextendedMincer- typewageequationbyquantileregressiontorevealstatisticalevidenceofstickyf l o o r andgla ssceiling,thentodeterminethemagnitudeoftheeffect.
The Mincer wage equation, introduced by Mincer in 1974, is a widely used empirical specification for analyzing wage determinants This equation illustrates the relationship between the logarithm of wages (or income) and key variables such as years of schooling, work experience, and the square of work experience Mincer’s model operates under the assumption that individuals are identical, necessitating wage differentials for occupations that require longer schooling periods The simplest representation of Mincer’s wage formula can be expressed as: ln(wage) = α + β × schooling + δ.
ThisistheformofstaticMincerwageequation,whichisusedextensivelyinwage differential analysis.O n e o f t h e p o p u l a r s t u d i e s , byi n h e r i t i n g M i n c e r ' s (
1 9 7 4 ) w a g e equation,wasdeveloped byCard(1994)inwh ich thewagefunction wasexpandedas f o l l o w lnwageschoolinge xperienceexperience 2
AfterC a r d ( 1 9 9 4 ) , m a n y o t h e r s t u d i e s h a v e e x p a n d e d M i n c e r ' s w a g e e q u a t i o n bym an y ways.Amongthem,Buchinsky(1994)performedquantileregressiono ntheM i n c e r ' s salaryfunctiontoexaminethemarginaleffectofexplanatoryvariables onlogw a g e acrossdifferentquantilesofwagedistribution.Buchinsky'sapproachhasvolun teerf o r apromisingprospectofanalyzingthedeterminantofwages.Especially,oncegender w a g e gapcanbeexaminedacrossquantiles,Mincer'swagefunctionsarealsocommonlyu s e d instudiesofglassceilingeffectsandstickyflooreffects.
Various studies have incorporated different explanatory variables into the expanded Mincer model (1974), often modifying traditional variables like education and experience through the use of dummy variables For instance, in their examination of the glass ceiling effect in Sweden, Albrecht et al (2003) utilized age and age squared instead of years of experience and its squared value Additionally, they included dummy variables representing the worker's highest level of education rather than years of schooling, as well as other dummy variables for living areas (urban vs rural), economic sectors (public vs private), marital status, and various labor characteristics in their wage model.
Basedo n t h e e x p a n d e d M i n c e r w a g e e q u a t i o n i n A l b r e c h t eta l ( 2 0 0 3 ) , t h i s studyemployedthefollowingwageequationtoinvestigatetheglassceilingandstickyfloor: q p ln(wage) i male j Educati on i j Occupation ji X i u i
Where: ln(wage) :logarithmofhourlywage male: :dummyvariablethattake thevalue1i f workerismaleand0ifo t h e r w i s e
X i :Otherexp la nat or y variablesthatareco nt ro ll ed inthewage e quation.
Thewageequationandlistofexplanatory variableswillbecoveredmoredetails atSection3.2ofChapter3aboutresearchmethodology.
QuantileregressionisfirstintroducedbyKoenker&Bassettin1978.Instead ofestimatingtheparametersof themeanregressionbytheOLSmethod,Koenker&Bassett( 1 9 7 8 ) proposed e s t i m a t i n g th e par am ete ra t e ac h quantile o f t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e‟ s d i st ri bu t io n Insteadof determiningthemarginalimpactofeachexplanatoryvariableont h e meano f t h e depend entv a r i a b l e , t h e q u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n w i l l h e l p determinet h e marginalimp actoftheexplanatoryvariableonthedependentvariableoneachquantilesthroughoutthede pendentvariable‟sdistribution.
Thismeanr e g r e s s i o n iso f t e n u s e d t o analyzet h e marginale f f e c t s o f expl ationv a r i a b l e s ontheexpectedvalueofthedependentvariable.However,inordertoa nalyzet h e marginali m p a c t o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s o n t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ' s quantiles,K o e n k e r &Bassett(1978)proposedthequantileregressionmodelasf ollows
Fortheregressionmodel(5),theordinaryleastsquaresmethodisusedtoestimatether e g r e s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s ByOLS, wewill obtain theestimationofparameterssuchthat thesquaredsumoftheerrorsisminimized.
Forquantileregressionas(6),theregressionparameterwillbeob ta ine d inordert ominimizetheweighteddistancefromobservationstoquantileregressionline:
Formula( 9 ) s h o w s t h a t t h e parametere s t i m a t i o n i n t h e r e g r e s s i o n f u n c t i o n a t e a c h q u a n t i l e b a s e d o n a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s o f s a m p l e E a c h o b s e r v a t i o n i s a s s i g n e d a correspondingweight.Inparticular,theweightofobservationsabovethequantileregr es sionlineisτandandtheweightoftheobservationsbelowthequantileregressionlineis(1–τand).
AfterK o e n k e r a n d B a s s e t t ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t q u a r t i l e r e g r e s s i o n m o d e l , a numbero f s t u d i e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d t o o v e r c o m e t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s a n d t o e x p a n d t h e quantileregression.Quantileregressionisbecomingmorewell- developedandpopularasa q u a n t i t a t i v e t o o l i n e c o n o m i c r e s e a r c h A c c o r d i n g t o K o e n k e r ( 2 0 0 5 ) a n d H a o & Naiman(2007),quantileregressionhasthefollow ingadvantages.
Firstly,thequantileregressionallowsforadetailedexplorationoftherelationshipbetw eenthedependentand explanatory variablesthroughout thedependent v a ri ab le‟s distribution,notonlyatthemeanofdependentvariableasOLSdoes.
Secondly,a l t h o u g h q u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n r e q u i r e s m a n y l o t s o f com plicatedc a l c u l a t i o n s , thedevelopmentofmathematicsandstatisticsalongwithth esupporto f informationtechnologyhelpperformingquantileregressioneasilyandquickly.
Thirdly,inOLS regression, outliersgreatly affectedthe estimationresult s.Meanwhile,thequantileregressionisrobustnesstopresenceofoutliers.
Fourthly,t e s t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f q u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n i s n o t b a s e d onthenormalityoftheerror.Furthermore,thesetestsdoesnot requireanyassumptionsaboutthedistributionoftheregressionerror
Fifthly,t h e q u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f h e t er o sk ed a s t i ci t y orf o r t h e c a s e s i n w h i c h d e p e n d e n t v a r i able‟sd i s t r i b u t i o n i s a sy m m et r i c
Firstly,thecalculationsinregressionaremorecomplicatedthanOLS.Theestima tionoftheparametersofthequantileregressionisobtainedbysolvingthel i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g p r o b l e m T h i s w i l l b e d i f f i c u l t w i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e computer.
Secondly,o n e h a v e t o c o n d u c t e a c h r e g r e s s i o n f u n c t i o n f o r e a c h d e p e n d e n c e ‟ s q u a n t i l e toshow thefulllandscape ofthemarginaleffect ofindependentvariableso n thedependentvariable,whileOLSperformsonlyonec onditionalmeanr e g r e s s i o n
Thirdly,t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f q u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n t o n o n l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s i s r a t h e r limited.Thetreatmentf o r autocorrelationo r e n d o g e n e i t y inq u a n t i l e r e g r e s s i o n h a s notbeenfullydeveloped.
Adamchiketal(2003)measurestherelativeeconomicwelfareofwomeninPolandd u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n T h e a u t h o r s a n a l y s e t h e male- femalew a g e d i f f e r e n t i a l o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1 9 9 3 t o 1 9 9 7 a f t e r p r o v i d i n g a n a c c o u n t o f g e n d e r differencesi n s e v e r a l l a b o u r marketoutcomes.Theirresult sshowmostoftheexplained portionofthewagedifferentialsmayb e contributedtoi n d u s t r i a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n Theya l s o c o n f i r m thatasubstantialpart ofthewagegapremainsunexplained.
Albrechtetal(2003)use1998datatoshowthatthewagegapbetweenmalesandfem alesi n S w e d e n r i s e s throughoutthew a g e distributionandmovef a s t e r i n t h e topquantil es.Theyexplaint h i s as a s t r o n g g l as s cei li ng e f f ec t A l b r e c h t e tal ( 2 0 0 3 ) a l s o
A f t e r controllingage,education,sector,industry,andoccupation,theyconcludethatthe glassceilingstillpersiststoaconsiderableextent.
Boothetal(2003)employdatafromtheBritishHouseholdPanelSurveytorevealtha tfull- timewomenaremorelikelythanmentobepromoted.Accountingforindividualc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , theyindicatethatfemalesmayreceivesmallerwageincreasesconsequentuponp r o m o t i o n , a l t h o u g h f e m a l e s a r e p r o m o t e d a t almosts a m e r a t e a s men.Theycons tructanew“stickyfloors”modelofpayandpromotiontoexplainfortheirresults.Ins t i c k y floor model,womenarejustaslikelyasmentobepromotedbuttheystuckattheb o t t o m ofthewages caleforthenewgrade.
Keeetal(2005)analysesAustraliangenderwagegapsinbothpublicandpriva tesectorsacrossthewagedistributionbyusingtheHILDAsurveyandquantileregressiontec hniques.Additionally,theauthorsperformquantileregressioncounterfactuald e c o m p o s i t i o n a n a l y s i s t o e x a m i n e whether differencesi n g e n d e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , o r diff er in g returnsbetweengendersisattributedtothegap.Keeetal(2005)detectastrongg l a s s ceilingeffectintheprivatesec to r M o r e o v e r , aftercontrolling formany rele vantf a c t o r s , theaccelerationinthegendergapacrossthedistribution doesnotv anish.Thisp r o p o s e s thatthewagegapmainlycausesbyreturnstogenders.
Usingd a t a fromt h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y H o u s e h o l d P a n e l , D e l a R i c a ( 2 0 0 8 ) analyzesthegenderpaygapacrossthewagedistributioninSpainbyquantileregre ssiona n d p a n e l d a t a t e c h n i q u e s T h e r e e x i s t s t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g forh i g h l y e d u c a t e d w o r k e r s , be c a u s e thegapincreasesasmovingupalongthedistribution.However, thegapd ecr ea se s f o r l e s s - e d u c a t e d w o r k e r s T h e a u t h o r a r g u e s thatthisc a n b e e x p l a i n e d bystatisticaldi scriminationexertedbyemployersincountrieswhereless- educatedwomenh a v e lowparticipationrates.
Using1987,1996,and2004data,Chi&Li(2008)showthatthegenderearnings gapinurbanofChinahasincreasedthroughouttheearning‟sdistribution, andth egapwasgreateratthelowerquantiles.Thiscanbeinterpretedasstrongevidence ofsticky
19 flooreffect.Theyalsodecomposewagedistributionsandfindthatthegenderendowmentd i f f er e n c es contributelesst o t h e o v e r a l l g e n d e r e a r n i n g s g a p t h a n d o r e t u r n t o labourmark etcharacteristics.Theyalsofindthatphenomenon“stickyfloor”canbeconcernedw i t h f e m a l e p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s i n l o w - p a i d o c c u p a t i o n g r o u p w o r k i n g i n n o n - s t a t e o w n e d firms
Agrawal(2013)examinesthegenderpaygapintheruralandurbanareasinIndia.T h eir findingsshowevidenceofthestickyflooreffectintheurbansectorandevidenceo f t h e g l a s s c e i l i n g e f f e c t i n t h e r u r a l sector.T h e g e n d e r w a g e g a p i s d e c o m p o s e d toclarifythecontributionsofcoefficients andcharacteristics.The resultsshowthepresenceo f discriminationagainstwomen.Aditionally, womenatth ebottomofthewagedistribution encountermorediscriminationthanthoseatthetop.
Christofidesetal( 2 0 1 3 ) considert h e g e n d e r waged i f f e r e n t i a l s in2 6 E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s withdatain2007fromIncomeandLivingConditionsoftheEuropean UnionStatistics.T h e magnitudeo f t h e g e n d e r w a g e d i f f e r e n t i a l s d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y a m o n g countries.T h e g a p c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d f u l l y byt h e l a b o u r e r ‟ s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s U s i n g q u a n t i l e r e g r es s i o ns , t h e a u t h o r s r e v e a l thatthe g l a s s c e i l i n g s a n d s t i c k y floorse f f e c t s e x i s t s ins e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s Theya l s o f i n d l a r g e r g l a s s c e i l i n g s f o r f u l l - t i m e f u l l - y e a r employees.Theysuggestthatcountryinstitutionsandpoliciesarerelevanttounexplainedg e n d e r wagegapsinsystematicways.
Finseraasetal(2016)studydiscriminationamongrecruitsintheNorwegianArmedForce sduringbootcamp.Theyfindthatfemalecandidatesareperceivedaslesssuitedtobes q u a d l e a d e r s t h a n t h e i r i d e n t i c a l malecounterparts.Theyalsof i n d t h a t i n t e n s e collabourativeex posuretofemalecolleaguesreducesdiscriminatoryattitudes:Malesoldierswhowe r e r a n d o m l y assignedto sh a r e r o o m a n d w o r k i n a sq u a d w i t h femalesoldiersduringtherecruit perioddonotdiscriminateinthevignetteexperiment.
InVietnam,P h a m a n d R e i l l y ( 2 0 0 6 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e g e n d e r g a p i n V i e t n a m byu s i n g VHLSS1998and2002.AnhT.T.T(2015),comparedtotheVHLSSdatafor2002 and 2012usingthequantitativeregressionandthedecompositionmethodMachado-Mata
(2005),showsevidencethatthegenderwagedifferentialoccursonallquantilesandthew agegapisentirelyduetothedifferenceinreturnstolabourcharacteristicsreceivedbymena ndwomen.However, Anh.T.T.T( 2 0 1 5 ) doesnotexamine theexistenceofglass c e i l i n g andstickyflooronthelabourmarketinVietnam.
THERESEARCHGAPS
Previous studies in Vietnam provide strong statistical evidence of a gender wage gap; however, few have explored the sticky floor and glass ceiling effects Understanding whether the wage gap is more pronounced at lower quantiles (sticky floor) or higher quantiles (glass ceiling) is essential for a comprehensive analysis of gender wage inequality in Vietnam Identifying these effects will assist governments and policymakers in addressing gender wage disparities in the labor market Furthermore, it is crucial to consider sticky floor and glass ceiling effects across various worker groups, including urban versus rural areas, state versus private sectors, educational levels, and occupational categories Conducting detailed research within these groups will enhance the effectiveness of Vietnam's wage inequality policies.
DATA
ThisstudyusesthedatasetofVHLSS2014toaccomplishtheresearchobjectives. TheVHLSSdatasetcollectsinformationonasampleofhouseholdsandcommunesthats e r v e s t o a s s e s s t h e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y an dr e g i o n s T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e ob jecti v e ofassessingpovertyandtheeconomicinequality.TheVHLSSsurveyc onsistso f ho use ho lds, householdmembersand communes inallprovinces/ cities TheVHLSSsamplingmethodisimplementedthroughtheconsultancyandsupervisiono fthe
NationalInstituteo f S t a t i s t i c a l S c i e n c e s , U N D P a n d t h e WorldB a n k , t o e n s u r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ofthesampleselectedfortheoverallstudy.Because oftherepresentativesampleoftheVHLSS,theVHLSSdataissuitableforconstructingthew ageequationtoinvestigatetheexistenceofglassceilingandstickyfloorinVietnam.
1 3 3 communesacross63provinces.Informationonemploymentandwagesisprovidedi n Secti on4Aofthequestionnaire.ThesamplecomprisesalltherespondentsinSection4Abutex cludesmembersoutofworkingage.Thesamplealsoexcludesmemberswhoa r e self- employedworkers.
VARIABLESANDMINCER-TYPE WAGE EQUATION
(2003),thisstudyemploysanextensionofMincerwageequationwiththeindependent variableslistedinT a b l e 1.Thedependentvariableislogarithmofhourlywage.Takinghourly paywill ruleo u t thedifferenceinwageduetobeingfull-timeorpart- timeworkers,aswellasruleouta l l factorsthataffecttheworkingtimeofworkerssuchashousework ,childcare,etc.
14 Manager =1ifworker occupationisleader/manager;=0otherwise
16 Average levelexpert =1ifworkeroccupationisaverage levelexpert; =0otherwise
Becausethisresearch ‟sobjectivesaretoinvestigate theexistence ofglassce ilingand s t o c k y f l o o r a n d determineh o w w i d e t h e g a p s a r e , t h e v a r i a b l em a l e ist h e keye x p l a n a t o r y variable.Thisisadummyvariable,takingvalue1iftheworkeri smaleandz e r o iftheworkerisfemale.Theregressioncoefficientofthisdummyvariablewil lhelpt o measurethegenderwagegap.
Ina d d i t i o n t o g e n d e r d u m m y v a r i a b l e , t h e w a g e r e g r e s s i o n a l s o i n c l u d e s o t h e r independentvariablesascontrolvariables.Q u a n t i t a t i v e v a r i a b l e s i n t h e modela r e a g e a n d squaredage.Qualitativevariablessuchaseducationalleve l,gender,maritalstatus,o c c u p a t i o n , f i e l d o f activity,e c o n o m i c t y p e , ethnicity, u r b a n - r u r a l a r e a a r e a d d e d a s d u m m y variables.Thecontrolvariablesaredividedintoth reegroups:agroupofvariablesrelatedtoindividualcharacteristics,agroupofvariablesr elatedtoworkcharacteristics,andagroupofotherfactors.
- Theh i g h e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n o f w o r k e r isd e m o n s t r a t e d bya s e t o f d u m m y variables:Primary,secondary,highschool,vocationaldegree,bachelor,p o s t g r a d u a t e.
- Raceis expressedbyadummyvariablenamedrace,whichtakesvalue1ifw o r k e r ‟ s raceisKinhorHoaandtakesvalue0forotherwise.
- Occupationsare representedbyasetofdummyvariables:Manager,Highlevele x p e r t , Averagelevelexpert,Officestaff,Service,Manuallabourer,Operationw o r k e r.
QUANTILEREGRESSIONOF WAGE EQUATION
Thew a g e e q u a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y i s c o n s t r u c t e d a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f M i n c e r w a g e e q u at i o n whicharereferredtoAlbrechtetal(2003).Estimationmetho disthequantileregression.Althoughquartileregressioncanbeestimatedforeveryquantile τandϵ(0,1),weonlyreporttheresultsforsomeregularquantilessuchas0,1–0.25–0.5– 0.75–
0.9.Thecoefficientofthegenderdummyvariablewillshowthegenderwaged i f f e r e n t i a l s ateachquantile.Thestickyflooreffectoccurswhenfemalesatthelowertailof thewagedi stributionareatagreaterdisadvantagesandthegapiswideratthislowertail.Thus,accordi ngtoBoothetal.
(2003),inordertoverifytheexistenceofthestickyf l o o r inVietnam,thecoefficientofthe genderdummyvariableatquantile0.1iscomparedwiththatofquantiles0.25and0.5.Ift hegenderwagegapatquantile0.1iss i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e g a p a t 0 2 5 a n d 0 5 , t h e r e i s statisticalevidencef o r thee x i s t e n c e ofstickyfloorinVietnam.
Ino r d e r t o f i g u r e o u t t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f t h e stickyf l o o r a n d g l a s s c e i l i n g i n Vietnam‟slabourmarket,thisstudywillconducttheanalysisovertheentirepopul ationa n d somesubpopulations
DESCRIPTIVESTATISTICS
Table2showsthepercentagesofmaleandfemaleworkersinthesampleaswellasineachs ubgroup.Thetotalnumberofobservationinentiresampleis5512observations,ofwhichthenu mberoffemaleworkersis2407(about43.67%)andthenumberofmalew o r k e r s is3105(abo ut56.33%).Inthesample,thereare1454(26.38%)workersemployedintheprivatesector,of which618(42.5%)weremale,and836male(57.5%).T h e numberofpeopleworkinginthep ublicsectoris785(14.24%),withtheproportiono fmeninthisgroupbeing51.3%and48.7%for women.
Foreachgroupformedbyeducation,thenumberofworkerswithbachelordegreeis1 7 7 4 ( a b o u t 2 4 9 3 % ) w h i c h i s t h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n ; o f w h i c h 5 3 9 % o f t h o s e a r e female,4 6 1 % o f t h o s e a r e male.T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f w o r k e r s w i t h p o s t g r a d u a t e qu al ifi cati on s wasrelativelysmallatabout1.40%
(w/5512),ofwhichtheproportiono f menw i t h p o s t g r a d u a t e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w a s m u c h h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f women( 6 5 5 % v e r s u s 34.5%).Attheremaininglevels ofeducationsuchasprimary,lowersecondary,h i g h s c h o o l andvocationallevels,th eproportionofmaleworkersisalwayshigherthant h a t offemaleworkers.
Table2 a l s o s h o w s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f malea n d femalew o r k e r s ine a c h o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p Accordingtothistable,basedonthefactthatthepercentageoffemalesinen tiresampleis43.67%,itcan beseenthatfemaleworkersinthehighandaverage levelexpertg r o u p s an dt he o f f i c e staffg r o u p a r e mu ch h i g h e r th an the m a l e w o r k e r s M e a n w h i l e , menareparticularlydominantinthemanagerandskilledlabourgroups.
Mean Median Mean Median Mean t-stat Median
Table3 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e m e a n a n d medianw a g e s o f t h e t w o g r o u p s o f malea n d femaleovertheentiresampleaswellassubsamples.Thelogwage‟smeanvalueofmalesi s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f femaleso n t h e w h o l e sample.T h i s n o t onlyo c c u r s i n thee n t i r e sampleb u t a l s o ine v e r y s u b s a m p l e w h i c h a r e s p l i t byu r b a n – r u r a l areas,byst a t e – p r i v a t e sectors,bye d u c a t i o n a n d byo c c u p a t i o n s A l l g e n d e r w a g e d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e statisticallysignificant,suggestingthatthegenderwagegapactuallyexists.
Table3alsoshowsthemedianwagedifferentialsbetweenmenandwomen.Similart o themeanwagedifferentials,themedianofmalewagesisalwayshigherthanthatoffema lesoverthewholesamplesaswellasinallsubsamplesconsidered.Allthemedianw a g e ga pbetweenmenandwomenisalwaysstatisticallysignificant.
Theseearlycomparisonsshowthatmalewagetendtobehigher thanfemalewagesinbo th casesofmeanwageandthemedianwage.However,thiscompariso ndoesnothelpt o seewhetherthereisastickyfloorandglassceiling.Inthenextstep,itisnece ssarytod e s c r i b e thewholedistributionofthewagevariable.Oneoftheappropriatedescri ptionsistousethekerneldensityfunction.
RESULTS
Thedensityfunctionisusedtodescribetheprobabilitydensityofarandomvariable.T o d e s c r i b e t h e d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t h e l o g w a g e v a r i a b l e , t h i s studyu s e s t h e k e r n e l d en sit y function.Thekerneldensityfunctionisanon- parametricmethodforestimatingt h e d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n ofa r a n d o m v a r i a b l e K e r n e l d e n s i t y e s t i m a t i o n isa b a s i c d a t a smoothingproblemwhereinfere ncesaboutthepopulationarebasedonasampled a t a T h e meaningo f a k e r n e l f u n c t i o n i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o a h i s t o g r a m , b u t i s s m o o t h andg r a p h ed onasolidline.Thehig hestpeakdensity ofthekerneldensityfunctionindicatest h e modeofthatvariable. a Overentiresample
T h e malek e r n e l d e n s i t y functioni s r e p r e s e n t e d bythe s o l i d l i n e a n d t h e femalek e r n e l wagedensityfunctionisthedashedline.TheresultsinFigure1showthatmen'swa gekerneldensityfunctionsarealmostontherightsideofwomen‟s(exceptforsomemiddle p osi ti on s) I n a d d i t i o n to T a b l e 3 , t hi s r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s t h a t malewa g e s a r e n o t o nlyhigherthanwomen'satmedian,butalsoatalmostotherquantiles. d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 0 de ns ity 2 4 6 8 0 d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 0
Figure1:Densityfunctionsofmaleandfemale(log)hourlywages b Byregions:urban–rural
Figure2:Densityfunctionsofmaleandfemale(log)hourlywagesinurbanand rural
Figure2showsthewagedensityfunctionofmaleandfemaleworkersinurbanandr u r a l areas.Itcanbeseenthatinbothareasthewagedensityofmalesisalwaysatthe d e n si ty d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 1 0 d e n si ty d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 0
Figure3showsthekerneldensity functionofmaleandfemaleworkersinboththe p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c s e c t o r s B o t h f i g u r e s s h o w t h a t w a g e s o f malew o r k e r s a r e alwaysh i g h e r thanthatoffemale,reflectingbythefactthatthemen'swagedensityfuncti onisa l m o s t alwaysontherightsideofthewomen‟s. d Byeducation
Males Females Males Females d e n si ty d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 0 1 d e n si ty d e n si ty 1 5 5 2 4 6 8 0 1 0
Figure4:Densityfunctionsofmaleandfemale(log)hourlywagesbyqualifications e Byoccupations d e n si ty d e n si ty d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 0 0 d e n si ty d e n si ty d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 0 0
Males Females d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 0 1 d e n si ty 2 4 6 8 0 d e n si ty 1 5 5 0 1
Whenclassifyingthewholesampleintosubsamplesbydegreesaswellasbyoccup atio n ,thewagedensitykernelfunctionsofthemaleworkersarealwaysontherights i d e o f t h e f e m a l e w o r k e r s ‟ s T h i s i s a l s o a s i g n a l t h a t malew a g e s a r e h i g h e r t h a n female sthroughoutthewagedistribution.However,thisisnotenoughtoconcludeaboutt h e existen ceofthestickyfloorandglassceiling.Theexistenceoftheseeffectswillbeverifiedaft erconsideringthequantileregressionresultsofwageequationasinSection4 3 4.3 THEGENDERWAGEDIFFERENTIALSACROSSTHEDISTRIBUTION
0.9.Theregressioncoefficientofgenderdummyvariablewillhelptomeasurethegenderw a g e ga p The stickyfloorisconsideredto ex i s t w hen the gen wagegap at thelower quanti leofwagedistributioniswiderthangapat otherquantiles.Theglassceilingeffecti s determinedtoexistwhengenderwagegapiswide rattopquantilesofwagedistribution.
Inthisstudy,basedonthestudiesofBoothetal(2004) andArulampalametal (2007),thestickfloorwasdeterminedtoexistwhenthegenderwa gegapatquantile
1.1 iss i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f q u a n t i l e s 0 2 5 a n d 0 5 T h e g l a s s c e i l i n g i s determinedto exist when the gender wagegap at quantile 0.9 is significantlygreaterthan
Ino r d e r t o f i g u r e o u t t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e oft h e s t i c k y f l o o r a n d g l a s s c e i l i n g i n Vietnam‟slabourmarket,thisstudywillconducttheanalysisovertheentir epopulationa n d somesubpopulations
Table4presentstheresultsofthe wageregressionbyusingtheentire sample.T h e k e y variabletoconsider inthisregressionisgenderthe dummyvariable,namedm a l e , b e c a u s ethecoefficientofthisdummyvariablerevealsthegenderwagegapaftercont rollingforotherfactors.Column(1)ofTable4showstheregressionresultobtainedbyOLS.C olumns(2)-
(6)showthecoefficientsandstandarderrorobtainedbyquantileregression.T h e r e s u l t s a r e a l s o s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 T h e g e n d e r g a p o f meanw a g e i s expressedbytheho rizontalline.Thefoldedlinerepresentstheregressioncoefficientofthegenderdummyvar iableineveryquantile(0,1).
Figure 6 illustrates the gender wage gap in mean wages across different quantiles of the wage distribution, with a horizontal dashed line indicating a constant mean wage gap The analysis reveals that the gender wage gap is more pronounced at the lower end of the wage distribution, suggesting the presence of a "sticky floor" in the Vietnamese labor market In contrast, the regression results for the entire sample do not provide statistical evidence for a "glass ceiling," as indicated by the gender variable's coefficient at various quantiles.
0.9isnotgreaterthanat0.5and0.75. m a le 0 10 0 20 0 30 0 40 Raw_differentials_entire_sample
Thus,w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f w a g e r e g r e s s i o n f o r w h o l e sample,t h i s s t u d y r e v e a l s t h e statisticalevidencefortheexistenceofstickyfloorbutnoevidencefortheglassceilinge f f e c t ToinvestigatemoredetailsabouttheseeffectsinVietnam,wecontinuetolookattheseeff ectsinurbanandruralareas. b Byurban–ruralareas
Table5presentstheresultsforthewageequationinurbanareas.Thecoefficientoft h e g e n d e r d u m m y v a r i a b l e h a s a p o s i t i v e s i g n i n O L S r e s u l t a n d a l l q u a n t i l e s T h i s s h o w s that,intheurbanareas,wagesofmalesarealwayshigherthanwagesoffe males.U n d e r thesameconditions,theaveragewageofmaleworkersis0.189logpoint,whichisequ ivalentto20.8%.Theresultsofdetailedanalysisofgenderwagedifferentialsineachqu an ti l e sareshowninFigure7.
[-1.14] [-1.27] [-0.93] [-2.13] [-0.84] [-1.46] m a le 0 30 0 10 0 20 0 40 0 50 Raw_differentials_in_urban
TheresultsinTable5whichareshowninFigure7showthatthegenderwagegapatt helow erquantilesishigherthanthewagegapinthemiddlequantiles.Allthegapsarestatisticallysi gnificant.Thisisempiricalevidenceoftheexistenceofastickyeffectont h e wagesof workersinurbanareas.Meanwhile,theresultsdonotprovideanystatisticalev i d en c e oftheglass ceiling.Thecoefficient ofthehighquantiles(representedby0.9)is lowerthaninthemiddlequantiles(representedby0.5and0.75).Theexistenceofstickyf l o o r withoutglassceilingissimilartotheresultwhichobtainedfromtheentiresample.
Figure8showsthegenderwagegapinruralareas.Thecoefficientsatthebottomofw a g e distribution(representedbythequantile0.1inTable6)aresignificantlyhigherthant h e gapatthe middlequantiles Thisisstatisticalevidence oftheexistenceofastickyfloorint heruralwageequation.
Unliketheresultofurbanareas,theresultinruralareasshowstheexistence ofth eg la s s ceilingeffect.Thegenderpaygapatquantile0.9issignificantlyhigherthanthegapa t 0.5and0.75quantiles.Thiscanalsobeobservedattheupwardtrendofthecurvelineo n theFigure8. m a le 0 30 0 10 0 20 0 40 0 50 Raw_differentials_in_rural
Ins u m m a r y , w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e g e n d e r w a g e g a p i n u r b a n a n d r u r a l a r e a s , t h e resultsclarify thatthesticky floorexistsinbothareaswhiletheglassceilingonlyoccursi n r u r a l a r e a s T h i s i s q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e i n p r a c t i c e b e c a u s e inr u r a l a r e a s , t h e w o r k i n g en vi ro nment isnotasa ctiveasinurbanareas,sofemalessometimessufferfrominvisibleb a r r i e r s t o i m p r o v e t h e i r e d u c a t i o n , t o s e e k f o r b e t t e r o c c u p a t i o n s a n d t o demandf o r h i g h e r c o m p e n s a t i o n T h e r u r a l a r e a s seemt o b e s t i l l a f f e c t e d byC o n f u c i a n c u l t u r e T h e r e arestillfamiliesinruralareaswhodonotexpectgirlstoimprovetheireducation.Ther e a r e s t i l l f a m i l i e s w h o e n c o u r a g e t h e i r d a u g h t e r s tog e t marriede a r l y i n s t e a d o f studying,especiallyinruralareas.Thismay bethereasonwhytheglassceilingeffectismorepronouncedinruralareas. c Bysectors
Inadditiontoanalyzingthegenderwagegapinurban- ruralareas,thisresearchalsoexaminet h e stickyfloora n d g l a s s c e i l i n g f o r s t a t e a n d p r i v a t e s e c t o r s T a b l e 7 a n d 8 showstheregressionresultsinthestateandprivatesectors,re spectively.
AccordingtoTable7,thegenderwagegaponaverageis0.149logpoint(16.07%).T hisgapismuchlowerthantheoverallgap.Thedifferentquantileshavedifferentgenderw a g e gaps. Wecanseethatthehigherquantiles,thewiderdifferentialsinstatesector.
Thei n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y o f t h e w a g e g a p w i d e n i n g a l o n g w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e percentilecanbeseeninFigure9.Asthegenderwagegapattopquantilesofth ewagedistributioniswiderthanatthemiddle,thisisthestatisticalevidenceoftheexistenceoft h e glassceilinginthestatesector.Andtheresultsalsoshowthatthereisnostickyflooro n inthis sector. m a le 0 20 0 00 0 10 0 30 0 40 Raw_differentials_in_statesector
Table8showstheregressionresultsinprivatesector.Amongtheconsideredqua ntiles,thehighestgenderwagegapisfoundatquantile0.1.Thus,thereisstatisticale v i d e n c e fortheexistenceofastickyeffectontheprivatesector.
Consideringt h e g l a s s c e i l i n g e f f e c t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s h o w n i n Table 7 o f t h e 0 9 q u a n t i l e i s q u i t e h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e o t h e r q u a n t i l e s , b u t t h e m a le 0 00 0 10 0 20 0 30 0 40 0 50 Raw_differentials_in_private
Quantile differenceisnotstatisticallysignificant.Theincreasingtrendacrossthetopquantilesisu n clear ,whichcanbeconsideredashavingnoglassceilingeffectintheprivatesector.
Summarily,thereexistsaglassceilingeffect butnostickyflooreffectexistsi n th es t a t e sector.Incontrast,thereexistsaglassceilingeffectbutnoglassceilingeffectexistsinthep rivatesector. d Byeducation
Thispartinvestigatesthestickyfloorandglassceilingoneachgroupbyeducationald e g r e e G r o u p s o f w o r k e r s byt h e i r h i g h e s t l e v e l d e g r e e i n c l u d e : primary,s e c o n d a r y school,highschool,vocationaldegree,bachelorandpostgraduate.Theregress ionresultsc o r r e s p o n d i n g toeachgroup ofdegrees arepresentedinAppendixA.The coefficientsof m a le m a le 0 2 0 0 4 0 -0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 m a le 0 2 0 0 4 0 m a le 0 2 0 0 4 0 -0 2 0 -0 2 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 Raw_differentials_Elementary
Raw_differentials_Highschool Raw_differentials_Vocational_degree
Quantile Quantile theg e n d e r d u m m y variablew h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e g e n d e r w a g e gapi n e a c h g r o u p o f d e g r e e s areshowninFigure11(a)-(f).
(c) (d) m a le 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 m a le 0 0 0 -2 0 0 -1 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 Raw_differentials_Bachelor Raw_differentials_Postgraduate
Figure 11: Gender wage gap by education
Figure1 1 ( a ) s h o w s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f g e n d e r w a g e g a p a c r o s s w a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w o r k e r s whosehighestdegree isprimary T he lowerquantiles, t he w ide r genderwagegap.Thisrevealsstrongstickyfloor.However,Figure11(a)also showsthatthereisnopresenceofglassceilinginprimary-levelworkers.
Figure11(b)showsthegenderwagegapinsecondary- levelworkers.Thefoldedlineshowingthegapdecreasesacrossthebottombutdoesnotinc reaseacrossthetopofthew ag e distribution.Thisshowsastickyeffectbutnoceilingeffect.Thed etailedregressionresultsareshowninAppendixA.
Similartothetwoabovegroupswhenexaminingprimaryandsecondarylevelworkers,t h e stickyf l o o r e f f e c t a l s o e x i s t s i n t h e w a g e o f h i g h s c h o o l - l e v e l w o r k e r s , showninFigure11(c)andgrouphavevocationalqualifications,showninFigu re11(d).Iti s oppositeforworkerswithbachelor'sdegreeswhichispresentedinFigure 11(e).Theq u a n t i l e regressioncurveshowingthegenderwagegaptendstobehigh erattheupperq u a n t i l e s Thus,thisdemonstratestheexistenceofglassceilingbutnostickyfloor.
Fort h e p o s t g r a d u a t e – levelg r o u p , t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e s e e m s t o b e h i g h e r i n t h e seco nd halfofthew agedistribution(forquantileshigherthan0.5).However,thegender m a le 0 0 0 m a le -2 0 0 -1 0 0 -0 4 0 -0 2 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 m a le m a le -0 2 0 -0 5 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 1 0 0
Raw_differentials_Leader Raw_differentials_HighLevelExpert
Raw_differentials_AvgLevelExpert Raw_differentials_OfficeStaff
Quantile Quantile wagegapsbetweenthelowandhighquantilesisnotsignificantlydifferent.Sothereisnoev id en ce f orbothstickyfloorandglassceiling.
Insummary,whenconsideringgroupsofworkforcebyeducationaldegrees,thestickyf l o o r ex is ts int h e g r o u p o f w o r k e r s w i t h t h e hi gh est d e g r e e o f e d u c a t i o n a r e p r i m a r y , se condary,highschoolandvocationaldegree.Theglassceilingeffectexistsinthegroupofw o r k e r s w i t h b a c h e l o r d e g r e e s I n t h e g r o u p o f w o r k e r s w i t h p o s t g r a d u a t e qualifications,therewasnoexistenceofbothglassceilingandstickyfloor. e Byoccupations
Raw_differentials_Service Raw_differentials_ManualLabourer
Figure12showsthe coefficients ofgenderdummyvariablesestimatedforwo rkersg r o u p e d byoccupations.Thedetailedregressionresultsforeachoccupationalgr oupares h o w n inAppendixB.AccordingtotheFigure12(a)-
(g)andAppendixB,stickyfloorexistsinmanualworkersanddoesnotexistsintheremain ingsixgroupsofoccupations.Meanwhile,theglassceilingoccursinthegroupofaverageleve lexpertandoperationw o r k e r group.
Thep r e v i o u s s e c t i o n h a v e a n a l y z e d i n d e t a i l a b o u t g e n d e r w a g e g a p a c r o s s w a g e d i st r ib u t io n ontheentiresampleaswellasoneachlabourgroup.Table9 presentsthes u m m a r y resultsoftheexistenceofstickyfloorandglassceilingonthelabourm arketinVietnam.Theoverallresultsonwholesampleshowthatthereisstickyflooreffectbutnog l a s s ceilinginVietnamlabourmarket.However,theresultsaredifferentwhenanalyzingindetailoneac hlabourgroup.
Accordingt o a re p o r t bythe I n s t i t u t e o f L a b o u r S c i e n c e a n d S o c i a l A f f a i r s o n t h e genderg a p i n V i e t n a m b e t w e e n 2 0 0 4 a n d 2 0 1 4 , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f emalel a b o u r e r s increasedfrom66.7%to75.2%,butthisrateisstill lowerthanmen‟s.Femaleworkersino c c u p a t i o n s thatdonotrequirehighprofessionalquali ficationssuchasagro- forestryandf i s h e r i e s , services alwaysoccupyhighproportion.Jobsintheseoccup ationsareunstableandvulnerable.Furthermore,theproportionofunemployedfe maleworkersisalwayshigherthanthatofmen.Thismaybethecauseoftheexistenceofthest ickflooro n labourmarketinVietnam.
The gender wage gap Sticky floor Glassceilin g yes no
Intermsofstateandprivatesectors,theglassceilingonlyexistsinstatesector,whileth e stick flooronlypresentintheprivatesector.Thereasonmaybethatmalesareoftenassigned senior or important position than females Females arestillable to participate inhigh- levelleadershipbutinfact.Suchcasesarequiterare.Ifthishappens,femalesoftenr e c e i v e l owerwagesthanmenforthesameposition.Oneotherreasonableexplanationf o r this resultisthedifferenceinwagepolicyfortwosectors.Theprivatesectorisoftenmorecompetiti veandtherearenostrictwagescalesasinthestatesector.
Intermsofeducationallevels,thestickyfloorexistsingroupsofprimary,secondary,h i g h sch oolandvocationallevel.Theglassceilingexistsinthebachelorgroup.Intermso f occupation s,theglassceilingoccursintheaveragelevelexpertandoperationworkergroups.Meanwhil e,thestickyfloorisfoundinthewagesofmanualworkers.
CONCLUSION
Theprevioussection ha ve analyzedin detailaboutgenderwage ga pacross wage distributionontheentiresampleaswellasoneachlabourgroup.Table9prese ntsthes u m m a r y resultsoftheexistenceofstickyfloorandglassceilingonthelabourmarketi nVietnam.Theoverallresultsonwholesampleshowthatthereisstickyflooreffectbutnog l a s s ce ilinginVietnamlabourmarket.However,theresultsaredifferentwhenanalyzingindetailoneachlab ourgroup.
- Intermsofstateandprivatesectors,theglassceilingonlyexistsinstatesector,w hil ethe stickflooronlypresentintheprivatesector.
- Int e r m s o f e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s , t h e s t i c k y f l o o r e x i s t s i n g r o u p s ofpri mary,secondary,highschoolandvocationallevel.Theglassceilingexistsint h e b a c h e l o r group.
- Intermsofoccupations,theglassceilingoccursintheaveragelevelexpertando perat i o nworkergroups.Meanwhile,thestickyfloorisfoundinthewagesofmanualwor kers.
POLICYIMPLICATIONS
Withstatisticalevidenceontheexistenceofstickyfloorglassceilingeffectinth es p e c i f i c groups,thisstudyproposessomepolicyimplicationstoreducethesetwoeffectsa n d enhancethegenderequality.Policiesshouldbedesignedtoincreasefemalelabour f o r c e attachment,whichisexpectedtoreduce
„statisticaldiscrimination‟againstwomen.Byquantileregressiontechniques, thisstud yhas clarified somespecific labourgroups w h i c h a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f g l a s s c e i l i n g a n d s t i c k y f l o o r e f f e c t s I t i s n e c e s s a r y toproposeappro priatepoliciesforeachtargetgrouptoovercometheseeffects.T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s s u g g e s t e d byt h i s s t u d y c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : some generalsuggestionstoreducebothofeffects,somespecificsuggestionstoreducestickye f f e c t s , andsomespecificsuggestionstoreducetheglassceilingeffect
Firstly,itisrequiredtoformulateanumberofgenderpoliciessuitabletoVietnam'ssocio- economicconditions.Specifically,parentalleavepoliciesanddaycareprovisionsw i l l enablewomentobetterparticipateinthelabourmarket.Itisnecessarytoconstructas t r o n g supp ortsystemforworkingwomen,suchasfullypaidmaternityleave,accesstok i n d er g a r t e n s andhealth- carefacilities.Oneofthereasonsthatwomenareconfinedtothelabourmarketi s t h a t womena r e t h e o n e s w h o h a v e t o t a k e careo f mosto f t h e c h i l d r e n int h e f a m i l y S o , A r u l a m p a l a m e t a l
Secondly,a c c o r d i n g toD o l a d o e t a l ( 1 9 9 6 ) ; A r u l a m p a l a m e t al( 2 0 0 7 ) , t h e g o o d m i n i m u m wagelegislationcanhelpmakingsmallergenderwagegapsandredu cestickyflooreffects.
Thirdly,thepressandthemediaalsoneedtoprovidepositiveinformationaboutas tandardperspectiveongenderequality.Accordingtoa reportbyJobStreet.com,b o t h g e n d e r s areawareofhowmenarebeingprivilegedoverwomen.Inparticular,menaresaidtobe morelikelytobepromoted,receivehigherpriorityinthehiringprocess,gainh i g h e r salari es,andbemorelikelytobeevaluatedforbetterperformance.
Stickyfloore f f e c t existsi n b o t h u r b a n a n d r u r a l a r e a s I n b o t h a r e a s , a commo np e r c e p t i o n insocietyisthatwomenmustbe theoneswhotakeupmostofthe houseworkinfamily.Thishinderstheprogressofawoman'scareeraswellasherproduct ivity.Inaddition,whenrecruitingpeople,employersoftenassumethatwomenwillwo rknotaspermanenta n d e f f e c t i v e a s menb e c a u s e ofs o c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n H e n c e , e m p l o y e r s d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t womenw h e n theye n t e r t h e l a b o u r marketb e c a u s e theye x p e c t futurecareerinterruptions.
Stickyfloortakesplaceintheprivatesectorbutnotinthestatesector.Inthestatesec tor,wagesforemployees,includingmanagers,aredefinedbyclearpayscales.T h e r e f o r e , the findingofnoevidencefortheglassceilingeffectinthepublicsectoris r e a so n ab l e F o r t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r , p r o m o t i o n s a n d w a g e s a r e o f t e n g o v e r n e d by t h e employers.Forprofitpurposes,employersarewillingtopayaverylowwageforlo w- leveljobswhichareoftentakenonbyfemales.Thismightbethecauseofthestickyfloore f f e c t int heprivatesector.Therefore,policiestolimitthestickyflooreffectshouldbef o c u s o nthelow-wagesegmentofjobsinprivatesector.
ChiandLi(2008)findthatthereisastickyflooreffectthatcanbeexplainedbyal o w e r femaleeducationalattainment.Whenparentsperceivethatreturntoinvestmentont h e i r so nsisoftengreaterthanthatoftheirdaughters,theyinvestmoreineducationandh e a l t h care fortheirsons,especiallyunderlowlivingstandardconditionsofruralareas.I n thelongter m,thisalsoleadstofuturewageinequalityandstickyflooreffect.
DollarandGatti(1999)findthateconomicgrowthwillfurtherreducetheeffectsofadhesi on,andthishasbeendemonstratedinlowincome.Inaddition,incomeinequalityw h i c h isrepresentedbytheGinicoefficientalsocorrelatesvery strongly withthes t i c k y C o u n t r i e s thatsufferfromhigherincomeinequalityalsoexperiencelar gergenderw a g e gapatthebottomofthedistribution.Therefore,thepoliciesthatpromoteaco u n tr y 's economicgrowthalsocontributetoreducingstickyflooreffectindirectly.
Programsandpoliciestosupportlow– paidwomenneedtofocusonthecausesofj o b s e g r e g a t i o n , i n w h i c h womeno f t e n f o c u s o n l o w - w a g e j o b s P o l i c i e s a l s o a i m a t encouragingandmotivatingfemalestostudyandimp rovetheireducation,enhancetheirs k i l l s andbecomemoreinvolvedintheoccupationalan dindustrialsegmentswhichmendominatebecauseofprejudiceagainstwomen.
Furthermore,a c c o r d i n g t o A r u l a m p a l a m e t a l ( 2 0 0 7 ) , g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d morecompletetheminimumwagelegislationandcollectivebargaininginstitution s.Thismay playani m p o r t a n t r o l e i n r e d u c i n g t h e g e n d e r w a g e g a p a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e w a g e d ist ri b u ti o n andtherefore,helpdecreasingthestickyflooreffect
Dollara n d G a t t i ( 1 9 9 9 ) a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t g l a s s c e i l i n g e f f e c t m a y b e morelikely t o o c c u r i n r i c h e r c o u n t r i e s T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e p r o c e s s o f promoting nationaleconomicg r o w t h , g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d paya t t e n t i o n t o p o t e n t i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , namedg l a s s ceilingeffectwhichcanexacerbatetheinequalityinsociety.
Glassceilingexists onlyinruralareas Inurban areas, womena r e morelikely to w o r k inamoreadvancedworkingenvironmentandhavebetterconditionsofpromotionth a n ruralareas.Childcareservicesaswellashiringofdomesticworkersarealsomoreconven ient.Therefore,urbanwomencanassumemoreimportantpositionsintheb u s i n e s s t h an i n rural a r e as Thus, glassceilingeffectsdonot existi n urban areasbut e x i s t i nruralareas.
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