www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Standard Aircraft Handbook for Mechanics and Technicians www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com ABOUT THE EDITORS Larry Reithmaier, a retired aerospace engineer, helped design and develop jet fighter and bomber aircraft and NASA spacecraft He has a degree in mechanical engineering and holds the following FAA certificates: Commericial/Instrument Pilot, Flight/Ground Instructor, and Airframe and Powerplant (A&P) Mechanic The author of several technical books on aviation, Mr Reithmaier has also written the Aviation and Space Dictionary, Mach I and Beyond, the Private Pilot’s Guide, and the Instrument Pilot’s Guide Ronald Sterkenburg started teaching at Purdue University in 1999 after a 20year career in the U.S Navy He is the author or co-author of 10 books and more than 60 articles in national and international journals and conference proceedings The focus of Dr Sterkenburg’s research is the repair of metallic and composite aircraft structures He is a certificated Airframe and Powerplant (A&P) Mechanic, holds an Inspection Authorization (IA), and is a Designated Mechanic Examiner (DME) www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Standard Aircraft Handbook for Mechanics and Technicians Edited by Larry Reithmaier and Ronald Sterkenburg Seventh Edition New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Copyright © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher ISBN: 978-0-07-182680-8 MHID: 0-07-182680-7 e-Book conversion by Cenveo® Publisher Services Version 1.0 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-182679-2, MHID: 0-07-182679-3 McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at 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DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors do not warrant or www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Introduction Fuselage Structure Location Numbering Systems Wing Structure Empennage or Tail Assembly Chapter 2 Tools and How to Use Them Safety Considerations General-Purpose Hand Tools Hammers Screwdrivers Pliers Punches Wrenches Metal-Cutting Tools Hand snips Hacksaws Chisels Files Drilling and countersinking Reamers Layout and Measuring Tools Rules Combination sets Scriber Dividers and calipers Slide calipers Taps and Dies Shop Equipment Holding devices Squaring shears Throatless shears Bar folder Sheet-metal brake Slip roll former www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Grinders Rotary punch Chapter 3 Materials and Fabricating Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Alloy and temper designations Cast and wrought aluminum alloy designation system Aluminum Aluminum alloys Temper designation system Characteristics of Aluminum Alloys Nonheat-treatable alloys Heat-treatable alloys Clad alloys Annealing characteristics Typical uses of aluminum and its alloys Heat treatment of aluminum alloys Identification of aluminum Handling Aluminum Forming Aluminum Alloys Forming at the factory Blanking Bending Press-Brake Forming Stretch Forming Hydro Press Forming Roll Forming Flexible-Die Forming Machining Drilling Turret Lathes and Screw Machines Milling Routing Forging Casting Chemical Milling Making Straight-Line Bends Bend allowance Brake or sight line J chart for calculating bend allowance Making Layouts Relief holes Miscellaneous shop equipment and procedures Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys Heat treatment of magnesium alloys Titanium and Titanium Alloys Titanium designations Corrosion characteristics Treatment of titanium www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Working with Titanium Machining of titanium Milling Turning Drilling Tapping Grinding Sawing Cleaning after machining Shop-forming titanium Stress relief Ferrous Aircraft Metals Identification Types, characteristics, and uses of alloyed steels Heat treatment of ferrous metals Chapter 4 Drilling and Countersinking Rivet Hole Preparation Rivet hole location Drills Drill sharpening Drill points Drilling equipment Drilling Operations Chucking the drill Drilling holes Drill stops and drill bushings Using an extension drill Drilling aluminum and aluminum alloys Drilling titanium and titanium alloys Drilling stainless steel Deburring Countersinking Types of countersinking cutters Countersinking holes Minimum countersinking depth Form countersinking (dimpling) 100° combination predimple and countersink method Hole preparation for form countersinking Shaving Flush Head Fasteners Reamers Chapter 5 Riveting Solid-Shank Rivets Material Rivet types and identification Riveting Practice Edge distance www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Rivet length Rivet spacing Hole preparation Use of clecos Driving solid-shank rivets Rivet sets Bucking bars Riveting procedure Blind bucking Tapping code Hand Riveting Rivet Squeezers Inspection after riveting Rivet Removal NACA Method of Double Flush Riveting Blind Rivets Mechanical locked-stem self-plugging rivets Removal of mechanically locked blind rivets Sheet-Metal Repair Damage removal Repair material thickness Rivet selection Rivet spacing and edge distance Repair approval Typical sheet-metal repairs Patches Flush Patch Chapter 6 Bolts and Threaded Fasteners Aircraft Bolts General-purpose bolts Close-Tolerance Bolts Classification of Threads Identification and coding Aircraft Nuts Self-locking nuts to 250°F High-temperature self-locking nuts Miscellaneous nut types Aircraft Washers Plain washers Lock washers Installation of Nuts and Bolts Torque tables Cotter pin hole line-up Safetying of nuts, bolts, and screws Cotter Pin Safetying Installation: Bolts, Washers, Nuts, and Cotter Pins Miscellaneous Threaded Fasteners Screws www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-21 Hi-Lok® installation The advantages of Hi-Lok® two-piece fastener include its light weight, high fatigue resistance, high strength, and its inability to be overtorqued The pins, made from alloy steel, corrosion-resistant steel, or titanium alloy, come in many standard and oversized shank diameters The collars are made of aluminum alloy, corrosion-resistant steel, or alloy steel The collars have wrenching flats, fracture point, threads, and a recess The wrenching flats are used to install the collar The fracture point has been designed to allow the wrenching flats to shear when the proper torque has been reached The threads match the threads of the pins and have been formed into an ellipse that is distorted to provide the locking action The recess serves as a built-in washer This area contains a portion of the shank and the transition area of the fastener The hole shall be prepared so that the maximum interference fit does not exceed 0.002 inch This avoids build up of excessive internal stresses in the work adjacent to the hole The Hi-Lok® pin has a slight radius under its head to increase fatigue life After drilling, deburr the edge of the hole to allow the head to seat fully in the hole The Hi-Lok® is installed in interference fit holes for aluminum structure and a clearance fit for steel, titanium, and composite materials Figure 6-21 shows an example of a Hi-Lok® basic partnumber Hi-Tigue® fastening system The Hi-Tigue® fastener offers all of the benefits of the Hi-Lok® fastening system www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com along with a unique bead design that enhances the fatigue performance of the structure making it ideal for situations that require a controlled interference fit The Hi-Tigue® fastener assembly consists of a pin and collar These pin rivets have a radius at the transition area During installation in an interference fit hole, the radius area will “cold work” the hole These fastening systems can be easily confused, and visual reference should not be used for identification Use part numbers to identify these fasteners Figure 6-22 shows the differences between a Hi-Lok® and a Hi-Tigue® pin Figure 6-22 The Hi-Lok® and Hi-Lok®/Hi-Tigue® pins have a slight radius under their heads (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) Hi-Lite® fastening system The Hi-Lite® fastener is similar in design and principle to the Hi-Lok® fastener, but the Hi-Lite® fastener has a shorter transition area between the shank and the first load-bearing thread Hi-Lite® has approximately one less thread All HiLite® fasteners are made of titanium These differences reduce the weight of the Hi-Lite® fastener without lessening the shear strength, but the Hi-Lite® clamping forces are less than that of a Hi-Lok® fastener The Hi-Lite® collars are also different and thus are not interchangeable with Hi-Lok® collars Hi-Lite® fasteners can be replaced with Hi-Lok® fasteners for most applications, but HiLoks® cannot be replaced with Hi-Lites® Installation of Hi-Lok®, Hi-Tigue®, and Hi-Lite® Fasteners Hole preparation Hi-Lok® pins require reamed and chamfered holes, and, in some cases, an interference fit For standard Hi-Lok® pins, it is generally recommended that the maximum interference fit shall not exceed 0.002 inch The Hi-Tigue®-type Hi- www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Lok® pin is normally installed in a hole with a 0.002-to 0.004-inch diametral interference The Hi-Lok® pin has a slight radius under its head (Fig 6-22) After drilling, deburr the edge of the hole This permits the head to fully seat in the hole See the appropriate Hi-Lok® standards for head radius dimensions For example, the protruding head has a 0.015/0.025 radius, and the flush head has a 0.025/0.030 radius Pin grip length Standard pin lengths are graduated in inch increments The material thickness can vary inch without changing pin lengths Adjustment for variations in material thickness in between the pin inch graduations is automatically made by the counterbore in the collar (Fig 6-23) The grip length is determined, as shown in Fig 6-24 Figure 6-23 Table showing installed Hi-Lok® pin protrusion limits (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-24 Determining grip length using a special scale (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) Installation tools Hi-Lok® fasteners are rapidly installed by one person working from one side of the work using standard power or hand tools and Hi-Lok® adaptor tools Hi-Lok® adaptor tools are fitted to high-speed pistol grip and ratchet wrench drives in straight, 90 degree, offset extension, and automatic collar-feed configurations Figure 6-25 shows a few of the hand and power tools available for installing Hi-Lok® and Hi-Lok®/Hi-Tigue® fasteners www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-25 A few of the hand and power tools available for installing Hi-Lok® and Hi-Lok®/Hi-Tigue® fasteners (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) The basic consideration in determining the correct hand tool is to match the socket-hex tip dimensions of the tool with the Hi-Lok®/Hi-Tigue® pin hex recess and collar-driving hex of the particular pin-collar combination to be installed Figure 6-26 indicates the hex dimensions that must match www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-26 Determining the correct hand tool by matching hex dimensions (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) Installation steps for an interference-fit hole Figure 6-27 shows the installation steps in a noninterference-bit hole When HiLok®/Hi-Tigues® are installed in an interference-fit, the pins should be driven in using a standard rivet gun and Hi-Tigue® pin driver, as shown in Fig 6-28 The structure must be supported with a draw bar, as shown www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-27 Installation steps in noninterference fit hole (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-28 Installing an interference fit Hi-Tigue® pin using a rivet gun (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) When Hi-Lok®/Hi-Tigue® pins are pressed or tapped into holes, the fit is sufficiently tight to grip the pin to prevent it from rotating Hi-Lok® driver tools are available that use a finder pin, instead of the hex wrench tip to locate the tool on the collar and pin (Fig 6-29) Otherwise, installation steps for interference-fit holes are the same as for standard Hi-Lok® fasteners Figure 6-29 Finder pin on Hi-Lok® driving tool (courtesy Hi-Shear Corporation) For field service, all sizes of Hi-Lok® fasteners can be installed with hand tools (standard Allen hex keys and open-end or ratchet-type wrenches) Inspection after installation Hi-Lok® and Hi-Lok®/Hi-Tigue® fasteners are visually inspected No torque www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com wrenches are required The Hi-Lok® protrusion gauges offer a convenient method to check Hi-Lok® pin-protrusion limits after the Hi-Lok® pin has been inserted in the hole and before or after collar installation (Fig 6-30) Individual gauges accommodate Hi-Lok® pin diameter sizes of inch, inch, ¼ inch, inch, and ⅜ inch Gauges are made of 0.012 inch stainless steel and are assembled as a set on a key chain Figure 6-30 Protrusion limits for standard Hi-Lok® pins; ⅜ gauge is shown as an example (courtesy HiShear Corporation) Removal of the installed fastener Removal of fasteners is accomplished with standard hand tools in a manner similar to removing a nut from a bolt By holding the pin with a standard Allen wrench, the collar can be removed with pliers Hollow mill-type cutters attached to power tools can also remove the collars without damage to the pin, and the pins can be reused if they are undamaged Special hand and power removal tools are also available Lockbolt Fastening Systems The lockbolt is a two-piece fastener that combines the features of a high-strength bolt and a rivet with advantages over each (Fig 6-31) In general, a lockbolt is a nonexpanding fastener that has either a collar swaged into annular locking groves on the pin shank or a type of threaded collar to lock it in place Available with either countersunk or protruding heads, lockbolts are permanent type fasteners assemblies and consist of a pin and a collar www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-31 Shear and tension lockbolts Often called huckbolts, lockbolts are manufactured by companies such as Cherry® Aerospace (Cherry® Lockbolt), Alcoa Fastening Systems (Hucktite® Lockbolt System), and SPS Technologies Used primarily for heavily stressed structures that require higher shear and clamp-up values than can be obtained with rivets Three types of lockbolts are commonly used: pulltype, stump-type, and blind-type The pulltype lockbolt is mainly used in aircraft primary and secondary structure It is installed very rapidly and has approximately one-half the weight of equivalent AN steel bolts and nuts A special pneumatic pull gun is required for installation of this type lockbolt, which can be performed by one operator since buckling is not required The stump-type lockbolt, although not having the extended stem with pull grooves, is a companion fastener to the pulltype lockbolt It is used primarily where clearance does not permit effective installation of the pulltype lockbolt It is driven with a standard pneumatic riveting hammer, with a hammer set attached for swaging the collar into the pin locking grooves, and a bucking bar The blind-type lockbolt comes as a complete unit or assembly and has exceptional strength and sheet pull-together characteristics Blind-type lockbolts are used where only one side of the work is accessible and generally where it is difficult to drive a conventional rivet This type lockbolt is installed in a manner similar to the pulltype lockbolt Installation procedure Installation of lockbolts involves proper drilling The hole preparation for a lockbolt is similar to hole preparation for a Hi-Lok® An interference fit is typically used for aluminum and a clearance fit is used for steel, titanium, and www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com composite materials A pneumatic pull gun is used as shown in Fig 6-32 Figure 6-32 Installation of pulltype lockbolt Lockbolt inspection After installation, a lockbolt needs to be inspected to determine if installation is satisfactory as shown in Fig 6-33 www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-33 Lockbolt inspection Inspect the lockbolt as follows: The head must be firmly seated The collar must be tight against the material and have the proper shape and size Pin protrusion must be within limits Lockbolt removal The best way to remove a lockbolt is to remove the collar and drive out the pin The collar can be removed with a special collar cutter attached to a drill motor that mills off the collar without damaging the skin If this is not possible, a collar splitter or small chisel can be used Use a backup block on the opposite side to prevent elongation of the hole Blind Bolts www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Blind bolts have a higher strength than blind rivets and are used for joints that require high strength Sometimes, these bolts can be direct replacements for the Hi-Lok® and lockbolt Many of the new generation blind bolts are made from titanium and rated at 90 KSI shear strength, which is twice as much as most blind rivets Blind bolts are available in a pull or drive style Cherry Maxibolt® blind bolt system The Cherry Maxibolt® blind bolt, available in alloy steel and A-286 CRES materials, comes in four different nominal and oversized head styles (Fig 6-34) One tool and pulling head installs all three diameters The blind bolts create a larger blind side footprint and they provide excellent performance in thin sheet and nonmetallic applications The flush breaking stem eliminates shaving while the extended grip range accommodates different application thicknesses www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-34 Cherry Maxibolt® installation information Cherry Maxibolts® are primarily used in structures where higher loads are required The steel version is 112 KSI shear The A286 version is 95 KSI shear The Cherry® G83, G84, or G704 installation tools are required for installation Figure 6-35 shows the installation procedure www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com Figure 6-35 Cherry Maxibolt® installation procedure Drive-nut-type blind bolt Jo-bolts, Visu-Lok®, Composi-Lok®, OSI Bolt®, and Radial-Lok® fasteners use the drive nut concept and are composed of a nut, sleeve, and a draw bolt as shown in Fig 6-36 These types of blind bolts are used for high-strength applications in metals and composites when there is no access to the blind side Available in steel and titanium alloys, they are installed with special tooling Both powered and hand tooling is available During installation, the nut is held stationary while the core bolt is rotated by the installation tooling The rotation of the core bolt draws the sleeve into the installed position and continues to retain the sleeve for the life of the fastener The bolt has left-hand threads and driving flats on the threaded end A break-off relief allows the driving portion of the bolt to break off when the sleeve is properly seated These types of bolts are available in many different head styles, including protruding head, 100-degree flush head, 130-degree flush head, and hex head Figure 6-36 Drive-nut-type blind bolt www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com ... The Standard Aircraft Handbook for Mechanics and Technicians is presented in shop terms for the mechanics and technicians engaged in building, maintaining, overhauling, and repairing metal and composite aircraft. .. Fastener Materials Drilling Countersinking Chapter 14 Standard Parts Standard Parts Identification Standard Parts Illustrations Additional Standard Parts (Patented) Appendix www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com.. .Standard Aircraft Handbook for Mechanics and Technicians www.EngineeringBooksPDF.com ABOUT THE EDITORS Larry Reithmaier, a retired aerospace engineer, helped design and develop jet fighter and bomber aircraft and NASA spacecraft