Research methods in language and education

Encyclopediaof Language and Education SPRINGER REFERENCE Series Editor: Stephen May Kendall A King •Yi-Ju Lai Stephen May Editors Research Methods in Language and Education Third Edition @Springer Kendall A King • Yi-Ju Lai • Stephen May Editors Research Methods in Language and Education Third Edition With 10 Figures and Table 04 Springer Editor in Chief's Introduction to the "Encyclopedia of Language and Education" This is one of ten volumes of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education published by Springer The Encyclopedia —now in this, its third edition —is undoubtedlythe benchmark reference text in its field It was first published in 1997 under the general editorship of the late David Corson and comprised eight volumes, each focused on a single, substantivetopic in language and education These included: language policy and political issues in education; literacy; oral discourse and education; second language education; bilingual education; knowledge about language; language testing and assessment;and research methods in language and education In his introductoryremarks, David made the case for the timeliness of an overarching,state-of-the-artreview of the language and education field He argued that the publication of the Encyclopedia reflected both the internationalism and interdisciplinarityof those engaged in the academic analysis of language and education, confirmed the maturity and cohesion of the field, and highlighted the significance of the questions addressed within its remit Contributors across the first edition's eight volumes came from every continent and from over 40 countries This perhaps explains the subsequent impact and reach of that first edition —although no one (except,perhaps,the publisher!)quite predictedits extent The Encyclopedia was awarded a Choice Outstanding Academic Title Award by the American Library Association and was read widely by scholars and students alike around the globe In 2008, the second edition of the Encyclopedia was published under the general editorship of Nancy Hornberger It grew to ten volumes as Nancy continued to build upon the reach and influence of the Encyclopedia A particular priority in the second edition was the continued expansion of contributing scholars from contexts outside of English-speakingand/or developedcontexts, as well as the more effective thematic integration of their regional concerns across the Encyclopedia as a whole The second edition also foregroundedkey developments in the language and education field over the previous decade, introducing two new volumes on language socialization and language ecology This third edition continues both the legacy and significanceof the previous editions of the Encyclopedia A further decade on, it consolidates, reflects, and expands (upon) the key issues in the field of language education As with its predecessors, it overviews in substantive contributions of approximately 5000 vi Editor in Chief's Introduction to the "Encyclopedia of Language and Education" developments and challenges, and words each the histofical developnwnt, cutTent and education The geofuture directions, of a wide umngeof topics in language experts in their respective graphical focus and location of its authors, all chosen as to provide the most topic areas, also continues to expand, as the Encyclopedia aims representative intemational ovewiew of the field to date over the To this end, some additional changes have been made The emergence last decade of "superdiversity"as a topic of major concern in sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and language education is now a major thread across all volumes —exploring the implications for language and education of rapidly changing processes of migration and transmigration in this late capitalist, globalized world This interest in superdiversity foregrounds the burgeoning and rapidly complexifying uses of language(s), along with their concomitant deconstruction and (re)modification,across the globe, particularly (but not exclusively) in large urban environments.The allied emergence of multilingualism as an essential area of study —challenging the long-held normative ascendancy of monolingualism in relation to language acquisition, use, teaching, and learning — is similarly highlightedthroughout all ten volumes, as are their pedagogical consequences (most notably, perhaps, in relation to translanguaging) This "multilingual turn" is reflected, in particular, in changes in title to two existing volumes: Bilingual and Multilingual Education and Language Awareness, Bilingualism and Multilingualism (previously, Bilingual Education and Language Awareness, respectively) As for the composition of the volumes, while ten volumes remain overall, the Language Ecology volume in the second edition was not included in the current edition, although many of its chapter contributions have been reincorporated and/or reworked across other volumes, particularly in light of the more recent developments in superdiversity and multilingualism, as just outlined (And, of course, the important contribution of the Language Ecology volume, with Angela Creese and the late Peter Martin as principal editors, remains available as part of the second edition.) Instead, this current edition has included a new volume on Language, Education and Technology,with Steven Thorne as principal editor While widely discussed across the various volumes in the second edition, the prominence and rapidity of developments over the last decade in academic discussions that address technology, new media, virtual environments, and multimodality, along with their wider social and educational implications, simply demanded a dedicated volume And speaking of multimodality, a new, essential feature of the cunent edition of the Encyclopedia is its multiplatform format You can access individual chapters frorn any volume electronically, you can read individual volumes electronically and/or in print, and, of course, for libraries, the ten volumes of the Encyclopedia still constitute an indispensible overarching electronic and/or print resource As you might expect, bringing together ten volumes and over 325 individual chapter contributions has been a monumental task, which began tor me at least in 2()13 when, at Nancy Hornberger's invitation, Springer first approached me about the Editor-in-Chief role All that has been accomplished since would simply not have occurred, however, without support from a range of key sources First, to Nancy Hornberger, who, having somehow convinced me to take on the role, graciously Editor in Chief's Introduction to the "Encyclopedia of Language and Education" vii agreed to be Consulting Viditorfor the third edition of the Encyclopedia, providing advice guidance, and review support throughout The international and interdisciplinary strengths of the Encyclopedia continue to be foregmunded in the wider topic and review expertise of its editorial advisory board, with seveltll tnennbets having had direct associations with previous editions of the Encyclopedia in various capacities My thanks to Suresh Canagarajah, William Cope, Viv Edwards, Rainer Enrique Hamel, Eli Hinkel, Francis Hult, Nkonko Kamwangamalu, Gregory Kamwendo, Claire Kramsch, Constant Leung, Li Wei, Luis Enrique Lopez, Marilyn Martin-Jones, Bonny Norton, Tope Omoniyi, Alastair Pennycook, Bernard Spolsky, Lionel Wee, and Jane Zuenglcr for their academic and collegial support here The role of volume editor is, of course, a central one in shaping, updating, revising, and, in some cases, resituating specific topic areas The third edition of the Encyclopedia is a mix of existing volume editors from the previous edition (Cenoz, Duff, King, Shohamy, Street, Van Deusen-Scholl), new principal volume editors (Garcia, Kim, Lin, McCarty, Thorne, Wortham), and new coeditors (Lai, Or) As principal editor of Language Policy and Political Issues in Education, Teresa McCarty brings to the volume her long-standing interests in language policy, language education, and linguisticanthropology,arising from her work in Native American language education and Indigenous education internationally For Literacies and Language Education, Brian Street brings a background in social and cultural anthropology,and critical literacy, drawing on his work in Britain, Iran, and around the globe As principal editors of Discourse and Education, Stanton Wortham has research expertise in discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology, identity and learning, narrative self-construction,and the new Latino diaspora, while Deoksoon Kim's research has focused on language learning and literacy education, and instructionaltechnology in second language learning and teacher education For Second and Foreign Language Education, Nelleke Van DeusenScholl has academic interests in linguistics and sociolinguistics and has worked pHmarily in the Netherlands and the United States As principal editors of Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Ofelia Garcia and Angel Lin bring to the volume their internationally recognized expertise in bilingual and multilingual education, including their pioneering contributions to translanguaging, along with their own work in North America and Southeast Asia Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorter, principal editors of Language Awareness,Bilingualismand Multilingualism,bring to their volume their international expertise in language awareness, bilingual and multilingual edu- cation, linguistic landscape, and translanguaging,along with their work in the Basque Country and the Netherlands Principal editor of Language Testingand Assessment, Elana Shohamy, is an applied linguist with interests in critical language policy, language testing and measurement, and linguistic landscape research, with her own work focused primarily on Israel and the United States For Language Socialization, Patricia Duff has interests in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics and has worked primarily in Nonh America, East Asia, and Central Europe For Language, Education and Technology,Steven Thorne's research interests include second language acquisition, new media and online gaming environments, and viii of Language Editor in Chiefs Introductionto the "Encyclopedia and Education" interactivity, and development, theoretical and empirical investigations of language, Europe And for Research with his work focused primarily in the United States and has research Methods in Language and Education, principal editor, Kendall King, respect to interests in sociolinguistics and educational linguistics, particularly with United Indigenous language education, with work in Ecuador, Sweden, and the States Finally, as Editor-in-Chief,I bring my interdisciplinary background in the sociology of language, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and educational linguistics, with particular interests in language policy, Indigenous language education, and bilingual education, along with my own work in New Zealand, North America, and the UK/'Europe In addition to the above, my thanks go to Yi-Ju Lai, coeditor with Kendall King, and lair Or, coeditor with Elana Shohamy.Also to Lincoln Dam, who as Editorial Assistant was an essential support to me as Editor-in-Chief and who worked closely with volume editors and Springer staff throughout the process to ensure both its timeliness and its smooth functioning (at least, to the degree possible, given the complexities involved in this multiyear project) And, of course, my thanks too to the approximately 400 chapter contributors, who have provided the substantive content across the ten volumes of the Encyclopedia and who hail from every continent in the world and from over 50 countries What this all indicates is that the Encyclopedia is, without doubt, not only a major academic endeavor, dependent on the academic expertise and goodwill of all its contributors,but also still demonstrablyat the cutting edge of developments in the field of language and education It is an essential reference for every university and college library around the world that serves a faculty or school of education and is an importantallied reference for those working in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics The Encyclopedia also continues to aim to speak to a prospective readership that is avowedly multinationaland to so as unambiguouslyas possible Its ten volumes highlight its comprehensiveness, while the individual volumes provide the discrete, in-depth analysis necessary for exploring specific topic areas These state-of-the-artvolumes also thus offer highly authoritative course textbooks in the areas suggested by their titles This third edition of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education continues to showcase the central role of language as both vehicle and mediator of educational processes, along with the pedagogical implications therein This is all the more important, given the rapid demographicand technological changes we face in this increasingly globalized world and, inevitably, by extension, in education But the cutting-edge contributions within this Encyclopecliaalso, crucially, always situate these developments within their historical context, providing a necessary diachronic analytical framework with which to examine critically the language and education field Maintaining this sense of historicity and critical reflexivity, while embracing the latest developments in our field, is indeed precisely what sets this Encyclopedia apart The University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand Stephen May Volume Editors' Introduction to "Research Methods in Language and Education" Introduction Research methods in language education have blossomed, diversified, and matured in the decades between the first edition of the Encyclopediaof Language and Education, published in 1997, and this third edition This maturation is evident in the development of increasingly sophisticated theoretical approaches as well as the adoption and refinement of specialized data collection and analysis techniques, both of which are describedin this volume in great detail in its 39 timely chapters, organized into four sections Evident in this volume, but also apparent more broadly throughout the Encyclopedia as well as across the field, are the ways the study of language and education has benefited from sustained and serious discussions of research methodology (e.g., Blom and Unsworth 2010; Gass 2015; Mackey and Gass 2012; Polio 2014) A dominant, although not always productive strand in many discussions of methodol- ogy has been the debate about quantitativevs qualitative methods, sometimes characterized as a division between more cognitive and more social approaches to studying language and educationin general and second language (L2) learning in particular (King and Mackey 2016) Indeed, a great deal of ink has been spent on the relative merits and limitationsof supposedly dichotomous paradigms and their respective approaches and methods, a tension which characterized many social science fields and applied linguistics throughout the 1990s (e.g., Beretta et al 1994; Firth and Wagner 1997; van Lier 1994) as well as more recently (e.g., Gregg 2006; Watson-Gegeo 2004) As the field increasingly grapples with methodologically sophisticated ways in an attempt to address a growingnumber of urgent, real-worldproblems in language education, we are pleased to note that contemporary conversations now take a more open, productive, and conciliatory tenor on both sides (see King and Mackey 2016, for extended discussion) Researchers of all stripes have come to (near) agreement that there is "no single, monolithic social-cognitive gap in L2 learning and teaching research"(Hulstijnet al 2014, p 414) As DeKeyser (2014) argued in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, "the quantitative-qualitativedistinction does not belong here at all Counter-examplesabound of the cognitiveequals quantitative ix x Volume Editors' Introduction to "Research Methods in Language and Education" and social equals qualitative equations" (p 366) This more open, collaborative, cross-tertilizationapproach is evident in the chapters of this volume as well Echoing a parallel petspective, albeit frotn a slightly different vantage point, the distinction between the so-called "micro" (that is, individual)and "macro" (group) language and education processes has been widely discussed and in more recent years, critiqued Like the first edition, coedited by Nancy H Hornberger and David Corson (1997), and the second edition (King 2008), this volume of the Encyclopedia is organized into four sections following Hornberger's (1989) quadrant typology (see also McKay and Hornberger 1996).I Within this typology, the two axes are defined by micro/macro-linguisticand micro/macro-sociallevels of analysis, yielding four quadrants These axes reflect research in language and education that emphasizes the linguistic, the social, and perspectives running the gamut from macro- to micro-levels of analysis With respect to social context, for example, one might be concerned with the (macro) national level (e.g., state language policy), the (micro) face-to-face interactional level, or with the level of domains or communities of practice, which bridge macro to micro With respect to linguistic issues, questions might revolve around learners' choice of one language or another (so-called macro), use of a panicular phonological variant (so-called micro), or around the intermediary levels of discourse, which bridge macro to micro (McKay and Hornberger 1996) As Hornberger observed in her introductionto the first edition of this volume (Hornberger and Corson 1997), an important assumption of this typology is that perspectives that bridge micro- to macro-understandings,as well as societal and linguistic analyses, are crucial to understandingmost language and education processes Put differently, in order to gain a complete picture of, for instance, language learning in immersion classrooms, we need not only so-called "macro-level" understanding of the development of supporting national and local language education policy but also fine-grained, so-called "micro-level" analyses of teacher—studentand student—studentinteractional patterns in this context Another example: in order to fully understandthe classroom role of minority languagevarieties such as AfricanAmerican English in the USA, we need not only micro-linguistic level, variationist analysis of how different English varieties are employed in classroom contexts, but also broader, macro-language-and-societal level analyses of language contact over time, including language ideologies and policies The importance of these connections across so-called "micro" and "macro" processes has been taken up by numerous scholars over the last decade One line of work has critiqued this "micro"/"macro" distinction Wan-iner (2012), for IWhilc the numbering of the quadrants and varies across Hornberger and Corson (1989) and King (20()8),the notion of four broad areas of scholarship is consistent: macro-social and macrolinguistic; macro-social and micro-linguistic; micro-social and macro-linguistic; and microlinguistic and micro-social The typology usefully highlights varied levels of analytical focus with respect to the context examined (e.g., a piece of text or discourse, a speech event, small group conversation, classroom, community, society, and nation) and language features studied (e.g., one phoneme vs choice of language) Volume Editors' Introduction to "Research Methods in Language and Education" xi instance, argued that these "terns atv often used as if their meanings are self-evident and also as if the relationship between then) is well-thcorizcd and well understood" (p 173) She notes that thete is relatively "little awarcncss that the terms themselves profoundly shape what counts as data (and knowledge), how such data are analyzed, and what the consequences tilight be flor theorizing and investigating language, learning, and identity" (p 173) have sought to develop theoretical and methodological tools to bridge what is increasingly seen as a problematic and unproductive dichotomy between micro and macro Some analysts have suggested reframing this distinction with the classic constmcts of "agency" and "stillcture." The notion of "agency" provides a means to account for change over time and the emergence of new or unexpected behaviors; in turn, consideration of "structure" captures the powerful constraints at work in all language learning contexts However, as Wortham (2012) notes, this reframing does not satisfactorily resolve the core problem of "where exactly does such structure reside?" (p 130) Indeed, "just as microanalysts too often explain their core insight about emergence with reference to one homogeneous factor like 'agency' or interactional creativity, however, macroanalysts too often explain their core insight about constraint with reference to 'structure"' (p 130).As Wortham and others have noted, "a narrow focus on micro or macro, agency or structure will thus fail to explain many phenomena" within both the anthropology of education as well as second language (L2) learning (p 131) In response to this challenge, a number of alternatives have been proposed and/or applied to the field of language and education, including "practice theory" (Oltner 2006), "timescale" approaches (Lemke 2002), and nexus analysis (Scollon and Scollon 2004), many of which are addressed in this present volume Warriner (2012), building on Hornberger's suggestion (1989), notes that these two sets of factors —micro and macro —cannot be taken as opposites but rather argues that it is more "productive to think of them collectively as a set of mutually beneficial resources" (p 173) A related approach has been suggested by Lemke (2000), who argues that human semiotic processes are characterizedby interdependenceamong processes at widely varying timescales (cf Archer 1995; Layder 1997) Collins (2012) adopts this approach in his analysis of family and school language learning among Indigenous Mexican immigrants in New York His close, ethnographically informed description highlights the ways in which processes happening at a global scale (e.g., migration, increasing stratification of economic and social capital) constrain local events (e.g., use of Spanish in public spaces and signs), often reproducing and intensifying inequality As Wortham (2012) notes, this work "does not posit 'macro' scales as naturally and eternally central to all social processes Instead, [Collins] relates large-scale processes to the more local scales that they are mediated through" (p 135) As detailed below, while the basic organizational structure of this volume remains intact across the three editions, these insights are reflected both in updates to original chapters and in the inclusion of new chapters Contents Partl Language, Society, and Education Sociology Theoretical and Historical Perspectives on Researching the of Language and Education Joshua A Fishman Sociology of Language and Education: Empirical and Global Perspectives 15 Valerie S Jakar Researching Globalization of English Joseph Sung-Yul Park Investigating Language Education Policy 39 Bernard Spolsky Ethnography of Language Policy 53 Teresa L McCarty and Lu Liu Researching Historical Perspectives on Language, Education, and Ideology 67 Thomas Ricento Censuses and Large-Scale Surveys in Language Research Jennifer Leeman 83 Researching Language Loss and Revitalization 99 Leena Huss Researching Media, Multilingualism, and Education Ingrid de Saint-Georges 113 Researching the Continua of Biliteracy Nancy H Hornberger 125 xxv Contents xxvi and Part Il Language Variation, Acquisition, Education Education Variationist Approaches to Language and 143 145 Kirk Hazen Social Class in Language in Education Research 159 Block Researching Identity in Language and Education 171 Saeed Rezaei Second Language Acquisition Research Methods 183 Rebekha Abbuhl and Alison Mackey Methods in Multilingualism Research Beatriz Lado and Cristina Sanz 195 Research Perspectives on Bilingualism and Bilingual Education 215 Li Wei From Researching Translanguaging to Translanguaging Research 227 Li Wei and Ofelia Garcia Research Approaches to Narrative, Literacy, and Education 241 Gigliana Melzi and Margaret Caspe Second Language Acquisition and Identity Viniti Vaish 255 Part Ill Language, Culture, Discourse, and Education 267 Ethnography and Language Education 269 Ariana Mangual Figueroa Researching Language Socialization Paul B Garrett 283 Discourse Analysis in Educational Research Doris Warriner and Kate T Anderson 297 Researching Multimodality in Language and Education 311 Jennifer Rowsell and Diane R Collier Researching Developing Discourses and Competences in Inunersion Classrooms 325 Anne-Marie de Mejia Linguistic Ethnography Angela Creese and Fiona Copland 339 Contents xxvii Arts-Based Approache€ to Inquiry in l,nngunge Melisa Cahnnmnn raynor 353 Researching Titnescnles in I,nngunge nnd Education Flaine Allard 367 Critical Ethnography 381 Debomh Palnwr and Blanca Caldas Visual Methods in Researching Language Practices and Language Learning: Looking at, Seeing, and Designing Language 393 Anne Pitkänen-Huhta and Sari Pietikäinen Narrative Inquiry and Multicultural Education 407 Jubin Rahatzad, Hannah Dockrill, and JoAnn Phillion Language Teacher Research Methods 421 Manka M Varghese and I-Chen Huang Part IV Language, Interaction,and Education 433 Microethnography in the Classroom Pedro M Garcez 435 Interactional Approaches to the Study of Classroom Discourse and Student Learning 449 John Hellermann and Teppo Jakonen Conversation Analytic Approaches to Language and Education 463 Hansun Zhang Waring Researching Body Movements and Interaction in Education Xiaoting Li 475 Code-Switching in the Classroom: Research Paradigms and Approaches Angel M Y Lin 487 Researching the Language of Race and Racism in Education 503 Danny C Martinez and Ramon A Martinez Research Approaches to the Study of Literacy, Learning, and Technology 517 Ilana Snyder and Ekaterina Tour Researching Computer-Mediated Communication 531 Wan Fara WanMansor and Mohamad Hassan Zakaria Index 545 ... University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand Stephen May Volume Editors' Introduction to "Research Methods in Language and Education" Introduction Research methods in language education have blossomed,... in Language in Education Research 159 Block Researching Identity in Language and Education 171 Saeed Rezaei Second Language Acquisition Research Methods 183 Rebekha Abbuhl and Alison Mackey Methods. .. and assessment ;and research methods in language and education In his introductoryremarks, David made the case for the timeliness of an overarching,state-of-the-artreview of the language and education