How do womens education and career affect their decision on marriage and motherhood a case study for vietnam

RESEARCHPROBLEM

In recent years, economists have increasingly applied economic theory to various social behaviors outside the economic sector, such as crime, education, and politics However, the behavior of marriage has received less attention Today's young women differ significantly from previous generations, benefiting from greater access to education and transforming the labor force This shift has sparked interest in the relationship between women's economic independence and the age of first marriage, making it a central topic among demographers Traditional factors influencing the age of first marriage include ethnicity, place of birth, birth order, and parental social class Over time, research focus has shifted from mere determinants to examining how educational and career achievements impact the timing of first marriage.

Thistrendi n researchanalysisi s p r o p e r l y comprehensiblew i t h v i s i b l e evidenceo f p o s t w a r e r a i n numerouscountries.Themoreinvestmentineducationandopportunitiesforemploymenthasinducedwo ment o l o o k f o r worki n l a b o r market,whichleadst o releasingf r o m financials u p p o r t o f theirhusba ndsandgreatsuccess incareer.

The median marriage age has significantly increased in many developed countries worldwide According to the U.S Census Bureau, the median marriage age for women and men in the 1950-1960 period was 20 and 23, respectively, but by 2013, these figures rose to 27 and 29 This trend is particularly pronounced in countries like Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, the United Kingdom, South Korea, and Taiwan, where the median marriage age ranges from 29 to 32 Research, such as Diekmann's 1990 study in Western Germany, indicates that the expansion of education has contributed to this upward shift in the median marriage age by nearly one year.

Althoughv a r i o u s researchesh a v e beenc o n d u c t e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e m a i n factorsoft h i s trenda m o n g advancedcountries,

(e.gBlossfeld&Huinink,1991;Cherlin,1980;Diekmann,1989;Elder&Rockwell,1976;Hoem,1985;Ho em& Hoem,1987;Hogan,1978;Huinink,1987;Marini,1985),veryfewstudiesareundertaken forlessdevelopedcountries.

Marriage and fertility are interconnected processes, particularly in Southeast Asian countries like Vietnam, where traditional values emphasize that women must be married before having their first child Research indicates an inverse relationship between the age of first marriage and fertility rates Additionally, women's educational attainment significantly influences family formation and pregnancy decisions As women gain more control over their fertility, access to higher education improves, and discrimination decreases, they are more likely to achieve stable incomes, enabling them to better prepare for their children's futures.

InVietNam,theageoffirstmarriageofwomenis22.8yearsofage.Thisfiguredidnotchangeinthel a s t onean dahalfdecade(source),whilethatofmenincreasedfrom25.2to26.2from1999to2009.A g e offirstmarri ageofVietnamesewomeniscomparabletoSoutheastAsiancountries,forexampleCambodiaThailand21,Malaysia25.7,Indonesia22.3,butquitelowcomparingtothatofdevelopedcountries,f o r e x a m p l eCanada2 9 1 , U K 3 0 a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s 3 0 4 W o m e n i n t h e s e developedcountriesobvious lyhavehighereducationandcareeropportunitiescomparedtoVietnamesewomen.

OnequestionarisesisthatwhetherVietnamesewomendelaytheiroptimaltimeforfirstmarriageandb i r t h changewhenhavingm o r e educationandcareeropportunities.Andwhatistheassociation betweeneducationanddelayedfirstmarriagea n d c h i l d b i r t h ?

T h e answerst o t h i s questioni s q u i t e importantforarangeofpolicies,includingfamilyplanning,schoolin gandeducationservices,andthep l a n n i n g ofhealthcare andchildcareservices.

Thispaperisalsotofindouttheanswerforthequestionsandhelptodiminishtheanxietyanddistresswomenha veto encounterwhentheir time offirstchildrenisdelayedmorethantheyorsocietyexpects.

RESEARCHOBJECTIVES

This study investigates how improvements in women's education influence their marriage behavior and childbearing decisions, grounded in the "New home economics" theory It is widely accepted that there is a strong positive correlation between years of schooling and the age of marriage, indicating that higher educational levels contribute to the postponement of marriage The research considers various hypotheses, including the "independence hypothesis," "specialization hypothesis," "human capital effect," and "institution effect," to determine whether higher education delays marriage or reduces its intensity To address this question, the study employs "Survival analysis" to examine how the likelihood of entering first marriage and motherhood changes with age.

Particularlyinthisstudy,theapplicationofsurvivalanalysiswillhelpinvestigatinghoweducationandcareerch angetherate ofwomenenteringfirstmarriageandmotherhood.This is to provideinformationo n t h e potentialbenefitsofpoliciesthatimprovewomeneducationandcareeropportunities.

This paper aims to conduct an online survey to collect data due to the lack of available sources on key information, particularly regarding the age of first marriage or first childbirth among women Drawing on economic theories related to marriage and childbearing, as well as previous empirical studies, several important variables have been identified, including age independence, social class, level of education, and participation in the educational system These variables will be directly addressed in the questionnaire, targeting respondents who are women aged 18 and older.

Thisstudyisdesignedinto5mainpartstotheoreticallyandempiricallyanalyzehowwomeneducationo r care erdevelopmentaswellassocialbackgroundaffectto their decisiononmarriage andchildrearing

Chapter2postulatesthesocialframeworkoftheorythatthispaperisreliedon.Particularly,themostnoticea blet h e o r y i s t h e “Newh o m e economics”o f G a r y Becker( 1 9 8 1 ) , whichshedl i g h t o n t h e deter minantsofmarriageanddemandforchildren.

Chapter3representsthepatternthroughwhichdataonwomeniscollectedandvariablesdefinitionaswellasmo delestimation tocontributeareliableimplication onthisarea.

Chapter4providescomprehensiveresultsfortherelationshipthatwehavesupposedfromthebeginninguntil thispart.Itisexpectedto beconsistentwith theavailabletheory.

Chapter5givesafinalconclusionbasedonthetransparentresultsinpart4,fromthisperception;thispaperwill commit itslimitationandinfersomefurtherstudies.

2.1 THEORETICALLITERATURE

TheoryofMarriage&Thedivision ofLabor

Inthissection,Ipresentthedeterminantsofthebenefitsofmarriagecomparedtosinglelifeforonem a n a ndonewoman.This will bethebasisforanalyzingtheoptimaltiming ofmarriage.

When considering whether a male (M) and a female (F) should marry or remain single, marriage is defined as the couple sharing a household According to Gary Becker (1981), the motivation for both men and women to marry lies in the benefits of marital life, which can enhance their overall utility This utility is influenced not only by purchased goods and services but also by the unique commodities generated within their household These commodities encompass factors such as food quality, the number and well-being of children, reputation, entertainment, friendship, love, and health status Notably, these benefits are non-transferable between households, existing solely among members of the same household.

Consequently,theyc a n n o t b e measuredasa u s u a l mannero f o t h e r o u t p u t , b u t w e assumea singleaggr egate(Z)isacombinationofallthesecommodities Maximizingutilitythusbecomes equalandsimi larforeachperson tomaximizetheamountofZthat he or shereceives.Theproductionfunctionofeachhouseholdwhichconnectsitstotaloutput ofZtodifferentinputsisdisplayedbelow:

Z=f(� 1,… ,� � ;� 1 ,….,� � ; )� (1) Inwhich� �are variousmarketgoodsandservices,� �is timeinputsofdifferenthouseholdmembers,andEare“ environmental”variables.T h e budgetconstrainforthe� � canbewrittenas:

�� � =∑ � � � � � +� (2) Where� �the wagerateofthejthmemberis,��representshowmuchtimeamanspendsonworkingi n themarketsect or,andvisthepropertyincome.� �a n d � �are relatedbythebasictimeconstraint:

� � +� � =T (3) Wherethetotaltime ofeachmember i s denoted byT,s u b s t i t u t i n g (3)into(2),a singlef u l l income constraintcanbeconstructedbythecombinationof thegoodsandtimeconstraintsas(4)

Inwhichifthe� �i s unchanged,fullincomeisappreviatedbyS–themaximumachievableincome, thereisanassumptionthatadecreaseinhousehold’stotaloutput(Z)cannotmakeanymembersbetter offb u t s o m e w o r s e o f f Hence,t o m a x i m i z e t h e totalo u t p u t Z,eachm e m b e r w o u l d n o t h e s i t a t e t o contributehis timeandgoodsto thisallocation.And necessaryconditionsto maximizeZinclude:

Thus,theremustbeanappropriateallocationandcooperationintimebetweenthemarketand nonmarketsectorsamongeachmember.Ifamanandawomanaremarried,theirhouseholdisassumed tocontainonlythetwotimeinputsofthem;inotherwords,wehaveignoredthetimeofchildrenando t h e r peoplelivingin thesamehousehold.

Similarly,asinglehouseholdallocatesonlyhisorhertimebetweenthenonmarketandmarketsectors tosatisfyequation(7).Specifically,singlewoman ism or e likelytoworkmorethanmarriedwoman be causetheydo not have timeandgoodssuppliedbythe otherspartner.

If� � ��� 0 � 0𝑓 representt h e maximum o ut pu ts o f singlem a n andwoman,and� � � 𝑓 ��� �𝑓a retheir marriedincomes,a n e c e s s a r y conditionf o r a m a n anda womant o m a r r y i s t h a t t h e i n c o m e after marriedishigherthanthat if theyremainsingle:

� �𝑓 ≥� 0𝑓 (8) If� �𝑓+ � �𝑓, thetotalincomeachievedbythemarriage,isidentifiedwiththeoutputofthemarriage,ane cessaryconditionformarriageis as below:

� �𝑓 +� �𝑓 ≡� �𝑓 ≥� �0 +� 0𝑓 ( 9) Thepresenceofchildrenis consideredasthemostreasonablereasonformarriagebetweenmenand women.Childrena r e t h e o n l y subjectsd i s t i n g u i s h i n g s i n g l e h o u s e h o l d s frommarriedh o u s e h o l d s becausesexualdemand,careforfoodanddrink,washingandcleaningandmanyotherthi ngscanbeservedbymoneypower,exceptownchildren.Thestrongemotionbetweenthetwoindividuals,calle d“Love”isalsoauniquecontribution to thepurposeofmarriage.

Marriage benefits are influenced by market opportunities and income levels, as rising incomes can motivate individuals to marry The costs associated with marriage, including time spent searching for partners and other marital expenses, can be mitigated by couples sharing a household This analysis suggests that increases in property income and wage rates may enhance the incentive to marry Interestingly, empirical evidence indicates that poorer individuals tend to marry earlier than their wealthier counterparts Additionally, if women's wages rise relative to men's while household responsibilities remain constant, the return on marriage may decrease if women's wages are lower Since single women tend to work more than married women, and single men work less than married men, a higher growth rate in women's wages compared to men's may reduce the incentive to marry.

The traditional family model creates a comparative advantage for women over men by emphasizing women's investment in human capital, which enhances household efficiency, while men are expected to excel in the labor market The "new home economics" theory highlights a gender-specific labor pattern in society, where mutual dependence between sexes serves as a significant incentive to marry However, the decline in women's specialization due to increased economic status—driven by educational expansion—has led to notable changes in marriage dynamics A successful career woman may be viewed as a less attractive partner because she cannot prioritize home production Additionally, as women achieve economic independence and require less financial support from their husbands, they may choose to opt out of marriage altogether Studies by Benard (1972) and Raymo and Iwasawa (2006) indicate that high-status women can significantly contribute to declining marriage rates.

“Specializationhypothesis”s h o w s t h e impactso f educationandt r a i n i n g o n marriagethrought w o ca usalpaths “human capitaleffect”and“institutioneffect”.

“Theinstitutioneffect”refersthelongerthetimeanindividualstaysatschool,thelowerthepossibilityf o r mar riagebecauseofthreemainassumptionsproposedbyT h o r n t o n (1995).Studentsarenotmaturedenoughfo radultrole,studentsdonothavetimeforotherrolesexceptstudying,andmarriedpeopleshouldbeindep endentinfinancialaspects.Thus,spousalroleandstudyingdutyofstudentsareinappropriate.Underthedivi sionoflabor,womentendtoleaveschoolwhentheymarriedsincetheyhavet o spendm o s t o f theirt i m e f o r family.A s a result,futurei n c o m e o f womeni s alsolessenedbecausetheyhave sacrificedtheirinvestmentin humancapitalforhouseholdwork.

Ontheonehand,“humancapitaleffect”hasanessentialimpactonnotonlymarriage,butalsofertilityandmarri agestability att h e endoftrainingoreducationlevel.Despiteahigherpossibility ofstable i n c o m e i nthefuture,investmentoneducationcreateshigheropportunitycostsforwomen.Therefore,iti s expectedt h a t e d u c a t e d womendecreaset h e t e n d e n c y t o marry.Moreover,womenw i t h financialindependencewill not gainmuchfrommarriage,and thus moreofthemwill notmarryatall.

Ifbotheffectsoperate,wecanfindoutthecombinationofthem.“Institutioneffect”increasestheageatmarri age,andthe“humancapitaleffect”alsoraisesthetimingintomarriage.Asaresult,weexpecta negativeeffectf orbothofthem,sincetheymovein thesamedirection.

Thirdly,w e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e c h a n n e l s throughwhichawomanmayn e v e r getmarriage,a ndinvestigateh o w t h e a b o v e t h e o r y worksi n t h i s case.“Institutioneffect”alonecannotl e t women p o s t p o n e theirmarriageforever,andthentheywillmarryastheotherslower- educatedwomendo.Thiss h o u l d n o t h a v e anyspecialimpactson theproportion ofnever marrysincethereis not limit for theageo f marriage,whilefertilityislimitedataspecificage.However,thereisadebateaswomenareolder,t h e y willbehardtofindapotentialpartnerssincethesepartnersareallalreadymarried,atthistime,

16 lotofmenwhoarestaying atschool,delayedmarriage,too.Therefore,wepredictthatinstitutioneffectw i l l notappearintheproportion ofnevermarriage.Ontheotherhand,anegativehumancapitaleffects h o w s a st ro ng correlations i n c e hig hly-educatedpeopleareleastprofitedfromf a m i l y formation, so m o s t o f themwill not marryatall.

TheoryofMarriage Market

The concept of assortative mating in marriage markets highlights the challenges posed by imperfect information in finding ideal partners Individuals often establish a minimum level of acceptance rather than seeking a perfect match, leading to the exclusion of those who fall below this threshold Additionally, young people frequently begin dating in their teens, often without the intention of seeking a marital partner, as their search for companionship coexists with other life activities such as work and school This complexity suggests that rather than solely focusing on whether individuals are actively searching for a spouse, it is crucial to understand the conditions that facilitate or enhance successful partner searches.

Assortativem a t i n g i n h u m a n s occursbasedo n a b r o a d a r r a y o f t r a i t s , i n c l u d i n g s o c i a l e c o n o m i c , characteristic,educational,residential,t r a d i t i o n a l , religious,ands o o n Inreality,t h e r e arem a n y evidencesforassortativematingregardingtoaltruism.Manypeopleinloverevealstheirsimilariti esintermsoftheircontributionstopublicimprovementandcharities,andgenerositycanbeconsideredasap r o x y f o r m a t e c h o i c e insteado f phenotypicconvergence.

(2015),whichconcludescouplesalsosortforappropriate matebyeducationallevels and thistrendtends togoupward overtime.Moreover,assortativematingby

� genomicsimilaritiesshowsitssignificanceinhumanmarriagesinthe United States.Infact,spousesare moregeneticallyidenticalthan two randomlychosen individuals.

Identicalmenreceivethesameincomeinanefficientmarriagemarketregardlessofwhomtheymarryo r whe thertheychoosetoremainsingle.Sincemarriagewithsuperiorwomenproducelargeroutputs,superiorwome nreceivehigherincomesin efficientmarkets.The differencebetweentheincomes of thejthwomanandthe𝑖 𝑡ℎwoman wouldbe:

Where� 𝑓 istheequilibriumincomeofthe� 𝑡ℎ woman,� �i s theequilibriumincomeofmen,and� �� ist h e maritalo u t p u t o f t h e� 𝑡ℎwoman andanym a n Superiorwomenreceivea premiumt h a t i s determinedbytheiradditionalproductivityaswives.

Ifeachpersoni s a u t i l i t y m a x i m i z e r andchoosest h e m a t e w h o maximizesh i s utility,t h e o p t i m a l s o r t i n g musthavetheattributethatpeoplenotmarriedtoeachothercouldnotmarrywithoutmakingatleasto neofthemworseoff.Utilityismonotonicallyrelatedtocommodityincome;thereforeanoncoremarriagec a n n o t producem o r e t h a n t h e s u m o f theincomest h a t i t s t w o matesw o u l d receivei n t h e core.Ifitcouldpr oducemoreandifanydivisionofoutputwerefeasible,adivision could befoundthatw o u l d m a k e eachbetteroff,therebycontradictingthe optimalityofthecore.

Thematingoflikesorunlikeisoptimalasattributesarecomplementsorsubstitutes,becausesuperiorpeoples trengthenands u p p o r t eacho t h e r whentraitsa r e complementsandcompensateeacho t h e r whentraitsa r e s u b s t i t u t e s T h i s theoremalsoimpliest h a t t h e benefitawomancano b t a i n f r o m marriageof agivenqualityisgreaterforanexceptionalmanwhentraitsarecomplements,andisbetterf o r aninferiorman whentraitsaresubstitutes.

Positiveassortativematingfrequentlyoccursinanefficientmarriagemarket,wheresuperiormenarecompat iblew i t h h i g h - q u a l i t y women,andi n f e r i o r m e n arem a t c h e d w i t h l o w - q u a l i t y women.

However,negativea s s o r t a t i v e m a t i n g i s s o m e t i m e s important.Maximizingt h e a g g r e g a t e o u t p u t o f householdcommoditiesisalsoa featureofanefficientmarriagemarket,wherenoo n e canraise the valueofhismarriagewithoutmakingothersworseoff.Thereturnfrommarriagealsocorrelateswithappear ance,education,brillianceandothertraitsthathaveimpactsonnon- marketproductivityaswellasmarketopportunities.Holding themarketproductivityunchanged,theanalysisofmatesortingrefersaccelerationinthevalueoftraitsthataffect tononmarketproductivity,wouldcauseahigherdemandinmarriage.That’sthereasonwhylessbrilliantorless appealingpeoplearegoingtohavealongertimet o marriagethan thosewhoaremoreenchantingandintelligent.

Theanalysisofpositivematesortingprovesthefactthatthetimeofseekingforasuitablematchwillb e ext endedaseducationallevelincrease.Womenwithhigh- educatedleveltendtofindamanthathassimilarorevenhighereducationallevelthanthem.Thecasewillbemor eseriousifaparticularwomanhasallthosetraits,likegood-looking,intelligent,orwell-educated.

Fromtheabovetheory,Iexpectanegativerelationshipbetweenwomen’sexpansionlevelofeducationandrateo f entryinto firstmarriage.

TheoryofFertility

Women’s fertility is influenced by social factors, similar to the dynamics of marriage Research indicates that the optimal time for women to have their first child aligns with their ability to maximize personal and professional goals, including education and career advancement In contrast, a man's career aspirations and financial stability do not significantly affect his partner's decision to have children The postponement of childbearing can be understood through an economic lens: women must allocate time for childcare, which limits their participation in the labor market This time investment also restricts their ability to pursue further education, leading to opportunity costs that weigh the benefits of motherhood against educational and career development Becker (1993) highlights that the cost of a mother’s time is a critical factor in determining the overall expense of raising children.

(ii)Assoonasaparticularwomanhasherbaby,shemustleavehercurrentjobforaperiodoftimetolookafterher sonordaughter,thismeanstheaccumulatedexperiencewillremainorevendecreaseandherskillfor this job willalsobeaffectednegatively.Then,m o s t o f themoften chooseto delaytheirmajorresponsibilityof being amother.

(2011)drewaconclusiononnegativeeffectbetweeneducationandfertilityandthisi d e a canbesupporte dbythreemainliteraturemechanisms.Firstly,thelongerwomenstayinschool,t h e longerthetimingoffi rstmarriageandfirstchild,thisisconsideredastheresponsibilityofdelayinfirstchild(Blossfelda n d H u i n i n k , 1991).Secondly,womenw h o i n v e s t m o r e i n h u m a n capitalw i l l havehigher probabilityofachievingsuccessin theircareer,asaresult, theopportunitycostofmarriageandgivingbirthalsoincreasesleadingtolowerfertility.

(Becker1991;BlossfeldandHuinink,1991).Thirdly,m o r e educatedwomenpracticet h e i n d i v i d u a l i s m o n t h e i r careerandl i f e m o r e t h a n l e s s educatedone,sothisdiscouragesfamilyformationa ndchildbearing.(LesthaegheandMeekers1987;Liefbroer2005;Millsetal.,2011).

Asw e havediscusseda b o v e , C h i l d r e n areu s u a l l y n o t purchasedb u t a r e t h e productso f marriage betweent w o p e o p l e f r o m o p p o s i t e s e x ; thought h i s processrequiresa h u g e s a c r i f y i n t i m e o ft h e mothers.Eachfamily hastheirowncostofconsumptionordifferentincome,thecostofproducingandbearingchildrencannotbethes ame.

Assume𝑃 �d enotesthiscostand thecostofZbyπz,thebudget constraint of a familyequals:

WhereIisfullincome,given𝑃 � ,𝜋 𝑧a ndI,thethebudgetconstraintandthemarginalutilitycondition areemployedto determineoptimalquantitiesof nandZ:

Therelativepriceofchildrenandfullincomearetwo maindeterminantsofdemandforchildren,thus, anincreaseintherelativepriceofchildren,in𝑃 �r elativeto𝜋 𝑧, willlowerthedemandforchildrenand boostt h e demandf o r o t h e r commodities(wherereali n c o m e i s heldc o n s t a n t ) T h e relativepriceo f childrenisaffectedbymanyvariables,someuniquetochildren,andseveralofthemoreimportantaren o w c onsidered.Theevidenceoverhundredsofyearsindicatesthat farmfamilieshavebeenlargerthanurbanfamilies.Parto f t h e explanationi s t h a t f o o d andhousing,i m p o r t a n t i n p u t s i n t h e r e a r i n g ofchildren,havebeencheaperonfarms.

Ifchildrencanhelpinhouseholdchores,familybusinessormarketplace,thenthenetcostofchildrenw i l l b e reduced.Thus,along withthe potential gainfromchildren,the incentiveforhaving childrenals oincreases.Infact,farmfamiliestendtohavemorechildrenbecausechildrenareconsideredmoreproductivef orfarmingthaninthecities.Thecontributionoffarmchildrenhasdeclinedasagriculturehasbecomemore mechanizedandcomplexin thecourseofeconomicdevelopment.

Bothoftheseelementshavemotivatedfarmfamiliestoextendtheirchildren'sschooling.Becauseruralschoolsa reoftentoosmalltobeefficient;anditmaytaketoomuchtimeandmoneyforfarmchildrent o attendschool.T hecostadvantageofrearingchildrenonfarmshasnarrowed,asfarmchildrenhavespentmoretimeatschool. Consequently,nowadays,thefertilitydifferentialsbetweenurbanandruralareahavebeennarrowedindeve lopedcountries;whileruralfertilityissometimeslessthanurbanareai n s o m e countries.

Furthermore,thebetteropportunitiesofwomeninlabormarketortheincreaseinthevalueoftimeofmarried womenhasasignificantimpactontherelativecostofchildren.Thehigherincomeawomancano b t a i n , t h e h i g h e r opportunitiescosto f rearingandp r o d u c i n g childrenbecausecosto f mother’st i m e isthedomin antcostofchildren.Indeed,overthelastfewdecades,thesteadilyincreaseinearningpowerofwomenhasbeco methemainexplanationforboththelargeproportionofmarriedwomeninl a b o r forceparticipationandt h e m a j o r d e c r e a s e i n fertility.S i n c e f a t h e r s haves p e n t r e l a t i v e l y little t i m e onchildren,thegro wthintheirearningpowerhasnosignificantimpactsonthecostofchildren andi n factw o u l d havereducedt h e r e l a t i v e costi f childrenusedr e l a t i v e l y lesst i m e o f f a t h e r s t h a n

Household surveys provide clear evidence of the relationship between parental time value and the incentive for having children There is a notable distinction between the effects of fathers' and mothers' time value on child demand Specifically, an increase in a father's wage is positively correlated with the number of children, while a mother's higher wage is inversely related, leading to fewer children This dynamic arises partly because women tend to invest more in non-market skills, while men, facing financial responsibilities, often develop market skills when families have more children Nonetheless, there is significant causation from wives' time value affecting their demand for children.

REVIEW OFEMPIRICALSTUDIES

Several studies have examined the effects of education on the timing of marriage and first childbirth A comparative study using data from national surveys in the U.S and Germany investigated whether higher education solely delays marriage or also reduces its intensity The research compares educational impacts in the U.S and West Germany, employing a log-logistic distribution model to estimate age-dependent marriage probabilities To differentiate between human capital effects and institutional effects, the authors utilized a generalized log-logistic model The dependent variable in this analysis is the waiting time until a woman marries, calculated as the difference between her marriage age and the minimum marriage age, allowing the authors to infer the rate of first family formation.

H (t).T o seeh ow t h i s ratefluctuates,t h e m o d e l includessomesocialvariablessuchasyearsofeducation,pro fessionalprestigeoffather,religion,placeofresidenceandnumberofsiblingsetc.Basedontheaimofthestu dy,educationvariableisclearlydefinedanddividedintosomedifferentvariables,specifically:Yearsofeducat ion(EDUC)isseparatedbylevel,suchasprimary,secondary,high- school,collegeanduniversityandEDUCismeasuredbythenumbersofyearswhichaparticular womancanachievethatdegree.Lowereducationisadummyvariable,andcode1referspeoplewith

22 levelofeducationislessthannineyearorilliteracy.Yearsofeducationafteramarriageprocessisthet i m e of trainingafterminimummarriageage,andisformulatedbyEDUC+6whichistheminimummarriageage,ifa womanstopsstudyingbeforeminimummarriageagethenthisindexisequal0.Thepurposeofthisvariablei stoseparatetheinstitutionandhumancapitaleffect.Professionalprestigeoffatheristheprofessionalofwome n’sfatherwhenawomanwas16yearsold.Religionisdefinedasad u m m y variableofCatholics,Jewisha ndothersreligion.ThereferencegroupisProtestantsandnon- religiouspeople.Placeofresidencereferstowhetherwomenliveinruralareaorcitywhentheywere

In both the U.S and Germany, a negative educational impact was observed for both genders, indicating that the longer individuals spend in school, the longer the delay until their first marriage Women, in particular, exhibit a strong negative effect on human capital across birth cohorts, aligning with family economic theory In the U.S., lower education levels significantly correlate with delayed marriage, with a median delay of two years, while Germany shows no such effects Each additional year of education can delay marriage by 5% to 11% East Germany, influenced by socialist policies, also faces educational vulnerabilities that contribute to postponed marriages and increased rates of individuals choosing not to marry A study by Wong (2005) utilized hazard analysis to investigate first marriage determinants, categorizing education into primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels Results indicate that women with post-secondary education have a lower risk of marriage compared to those with only secondary education, and those in higher job positions marry less frequently Additionally, women with traditional views tend to marry earlier than their counterparts with modern attitudes, highlighting the complex interplay of education, job status, and societal norms on marriage timing.

A recent study by Abalos (2014), consistent with Wong's findings (2005), analyzes marriage trends among men and women in the Philippines using data from the National Demographic and Health Surveys of 2003 and 2008 Abalos defines marriage as a formal union or cohabitation between two individuals, emphasizing that the age at first marriage is a dependent variable in this research The study employs event-history analysis to assess the timing of marriage, accounting for censored cases as many women remain single at the time of the survey The hazard rate function model is utilized to incorporate the effects of various covariates, including education, ethnicity, religion, and place of residence Education is categorized by the highest level attained, while birth cohort refers to women's years of birth, and place of residence is classified as rural or urban Abalos's findings align with Wong's, highlighting that educational expansion and residential location significantly influence the postponement of marriage, particularly for women.

24 peri s t h e increasingi n t h e n u m b e r o f l i v i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t marriagetrendamongmenandwome ninPhilippine,itmustbeaninaccurateresultifthedataignoresthiscase.

The delay in first marriage and subsequent postponement of women's fertility is particularly evident in Asian countries with traditional cultural norms Research by Ida and Albert (2015) utilized a log-logistic model to analyze factors influencing the age of first marriage and the likelihood of not having a first birth Key variables included a woman's place of birth (rural or urban), education level, religion, wealth index, history of abortion, contraceptive use, and the ages at first marriage and intercourse Their findings indicated that only the age at first marriage, education level, and type of contraceptive used significantly impacted women's fertility, while wealth had a lesser influence Glick et al (2015) employed a continuous-time hazard model to explore age at first birth, considering variables such as parental education, mortality rates, asset index, religion, ethnicity, and women's education Notably, Glick's study also examined the effects of time since marriage on the timing of first birth, revealing that the risk of childbirth increases over time.

3yearsaftermarriageandt h e n decreases.T h i s s t u d y a l s o revealst h e importanceo f schoolingo n w o m e n ’ s fertility,specifically,oneaddedyearofschoolingaccountsfor0.5yearofdelaying fertility.

Sincethereareanumberofresearchersinvestigatinginthisarea,thispapertendstocontributetosheda lightfo rthecaseofAsiancountries–Vietnam.

3.1 DATA

METHODOLOGY

8 9 ; BlossfeldandHuinink,1991;Tuma&Hannan,1984),Iusethemethodofsurvivalanalysistomodelt h e behaviorofentryintofirstmarriageandmotherhood.Lettheeventunderconsiderationbethefirstmarriage o r m ot he rh oo d, t h e survivalfunction,whichindicatet h e r a t e atwhicht h e womanr e m a i n s single(forth ecaseofmarriage analysis)ornot havinganychildren(forth e caseofmotherhood) at time�,is

�(�)=1−�(�) where�(�)isthecumulativedistributionfunctionfortheevent(marriageorchildbirth)tooccur.The distributionsusually assumedareexponential,Weibull,log- normal andgamma.Thehazard function

Early Adolescent factors, e.g Peer pressure, lived with both parents, age at first marriage Two edged factors e.g Education, career plans

Age at first Child birth

Biological and individual factors e.g Use of contraceptive stillbirths and miscarriages before 1st birth Age at first sex and marriage

Background factors e.g Religion, Residence, Race, Parents Education, Economic status, Employment status

Cultural and Social factors e.g norms, practices, taboos, international factors e.g.War, famine h(t)=l i m 𝑃 (𝑡≤ < � 𝑡+∆𝑡| ≥ � 𝑡) (

InwhichT d e n o t e s t h e t i m e (measuredi n years)u n t i l a particularwomanentersi n t o marriageo r motherhoodi n t h e intervalo f ( t , t +∆ )� ,assumedthatsuchane n t r y h a s n o t happenedbeforet h e beginningofthisinterval.WhereP(.)isthetransitionprobabilityo f enteringintomarriageor motherhoodintheinterval(t,t+∆ )� Bydefinition,thehazardfunctionis

Where�(�)𝑖th eprobabilitydistributionfunctionisassociatedwith�(�)and�(�)i sthesurvivor functiondefinedabove.

Inaddition,I alsoanalyzeds o m e crucialf a c t o r s affectingt o t i m i n g offirstb i r t h f o r w o m e n , i n differenctlevels,i n c l u d i n g i n d i v i d u a l aspect,f a m i l y aspect,social,e c o n o m i c , i n t e r n a l an dexternalaspectas thebelowgraph

Toanalyzet h e i m p a c t s o f educationandcareero n t h e e n t r y i n t o firstmarriageandchildbirth,w e modelthehazardfunctionℎ(�)asafunctionofeducationandcareerrelatedvariables,togetherw i t h oth ercontrolvariables,with theassumptionof theexponentialdistribution

VARIABLES’SDEFINITION

Dependent variable is theageatfirstmarriageorfirstentryintomotherhood(Measuredbyyears), andevent- historyanalysisisappliedtofindoutthemaximumtimeuntilawomanmarriesorhaveherfirstbabyrelatedto thebelowregressors(orcovariates).

Other independentvariables(time-invariantcovariates) include

Father’ssocialclass or Mother’ssocialclass with thesetofclasscategories:unskilledandskilled manualworkers( 1 ) ; u n s k i l l e d andskilledadministrativeandserviceworkerso r Clerical( 2 ) ; professionals ands e l f - e m p l o y e d ( 3 ) U n s k i l l e d ands k i l l e d manualworker’sc l a s s i s c o n s i d e r e d asreference category.(Table 3.2)

2/ Fat her’seducati on an d Mother’seducati on is dividedintofourcategories,inwhichSecondaryis baselinegroup, vocationaltraining (1),college(2), universityorhigher(3).(Table3.2)

Vietnam's history of two devastating wars has severely limited women's access to advanced education, reflecting the country's traditional agricultural economy Given the long-standing feudal system, male children have historically had priority over educational resources compared to female children Additionally, the traditional division of labor assigns fathers the role of breadwinners while mothers manage household duties, making father's education a more relevant indicator of parental resources Nevertheless, both father's and mother's social class were included in the analysis to assess any distinguishing effects.

Iexpecta positiverelationbetweenhighfather’ssocialclassandmarriagedelay,because parentsoft h e s e socialclasses tend toinvestmoreintheirchildren’sfuturethrougheducation.Consequently,them o r e educationalopportunities theyoffertotheirchildren,thelongertheirchildrenstayatschool,leadingtoanincreaseinmarriageage.This is consistent with the“institutioneffect”.

The type of residence, whether urban or rural, significantly influences women's marriage behavior and family formation Research indicates that women from rural areas tend to marry earlier than their urban counterparts, particularly in Eastern countries, a finding supported by Huinink (1987) and Huinink and Wagner (1989) This demographic difference is also linked to early childbirth rates among rural women Urban areas typically offer better infrastructure and job opportunities, enabling women to pursue further education, which may contribute to the postponement of their first birth Additionally, parents in urban settings often provide greater guidance and motivation for their children to achieve academic success, leading to the conclusion that women from rural areas may feel pressured to have children at a younger age.

T h e number o f siblings i s collectedbyd a t a o f eachh o u s e h o l d andconsideredasa factorwhich influencesthetimeofentryintofirstmarriage,sincethelargerthefamily,thehigherprobabilityoflowlevelofedu cation,sotheyinclinetogetmarriageearlieraswellashavingchildren.

29(Table3.2)Firstly,womenfromlargerfamiliesaredisadvantagedfromeducationalinvestment,sinceveryfe wcouplesof parentscanfullyfocusontheirchildrenfuture’scareer.Secondly,thesewomenarereadyforhousewifeandm otherhoodastheyarerequiredtotakecareoftheirsiblingswhenparentsareatwork.T h i s predictionisbase donthefindingsofearlierstudies,Huinink(1987),HuininkandTuma(1988),H u i n i n k (1988b).

Birth- cohortDifferentb i r t h cohorti s appliedt o p r e d i c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n maritalt i m i n g a m o n g generations.

(Table3.1).Thetremendoussocioeconomicchangethatoccurredsince1975shasp r o b a b l y alterna tedt h e marriageattitudeso f w o m e n aswell.Overall,w e expecta p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n betweenmaritaltim eandearlierbirthcohorts,inotherwords,womenborninearlierbirthcohortsmaym a r r y atyoungeragest h a n thosein later birth cohorts.This variableis anothersetofdummy,eachrepresenting4- yearbirthgroupof1992-1998; 1987-1991;1981-1986and1950-1980(referencegroup:

Our objectivewastoseeifthereisanindependentcohorteffectaftercombining theotherdeterminantssuchasjobpositionandeducation.Finally,werealizedthatwomenfromyoungerbirt hcohortshaveenteredm a r r i a g e ata c o n t i n u o u s l y later age.T h e remainedquestionw a s whethert h i s c o h o r t effect,whichrepresentedasanindicatorofchangingattitudestowardmaritaltiming,wasstillsignificant evenafterwehadincluded otherexplanatoryvariablesinourmodel.

Chief incomeearner It isobviouslyunderstandablethatawomanwithburdensoffinancial obligationtotheirparentsorevensiblingsmaymarryatlaterage.

(Table3.2)Asachiefincomeearneri n hernatalfamily,women’sbehaviorisalsodifferentsincetheyhavehigh erresponsiblesoulandtheyw i l l notmarryuntiltherearealternativearrangementstosupportherfamily.Thisi sadummyvariablew i t h basedlineisgroupofwomenwhoarenot chiefincomeearner inherfamily.

Ancestral worship is anindicatorofrespectfortheancestors(deceasedparentsarealsoincluded),as

30 wellasa considerablemechanismo f transferringt r a d i t i o n a l valueso r culturesthroughgenerations. (Table3 2 ) Givent h e factt h a t w o m e n w h o r e g u l a r l y worshipa n c e s t o r s areconsideredash o l d i n g s t r o n g traditionalvalues,andtheycaneasilyacceptearlymarriageandchildbearing.Forthisreason,it isreasonablet o investigatewhethertherei s anydifferencei n t h e t i m i n g o f e nt ry intofirstmarriagebetween women who worshipancestorsandthosewhodon’t.

In Confucianism, children often must wait their turn to enter marriage based on their birth order, which can significantly affect women with many siblings Those from large families may face even longer delays in finding a partner Our data categorizes birth order into three groups: the oldest child, the youngest child, and a third group representing others, with the reference group being women who are the oldest children in their families.

Job position significantly influences women's prospects and achievements, as shown in Table 3.1 This variable is categorized into several groups: unemployed and unskilled or skilled labor, clerical, managerial, and professional Unskilled labor encompasses blue-collar workers, farmers, and service jobs, serving as the reference group Clerical positions primarily consist of office workers, while managerial and professional roles include administrative positions, managers, and small business owners It is assumed that women with higher skill requirements and established careers will take longer to marry Consequently, it is predicted that Managerial and Professional women will experience the longest delay in marriage, while those in the unemployed and unskilled labor group will marry the earliest.

E t h n i c W e expects o m e u n i q u e ethnicw i l l havedifferentm a r r i a g e andchildbearingb e h a v i o r comparingtothemajority.

(Table3.1)Inthispaper,Idividedintotwoseparatedgroupsofethnicityi n c l u d i n g Kinh,Hoaand otherswhichaccountedforhighestproportioninourcountry’spopulation.Iexpecttoseetherearesomethin gdifferencesintimingtomarriageandhavefirstbirthbetweenthesegroups.

Income data was collected from respondents regarding their earnings at the time of their first marriage or their current income if they are unmarried The income levels were categorized into multiple groups: less than 5 million VND per month, 5 to 7 million VND, 7 to 10 million VND, 10 to 15 million VND, 20 to 25 million VND, 25 to 30 million VND, 30 to 35 million VND, 35 to 40 million VND, 40 to 45 million VND, 45 to 50 million VND, and over 50 million VND per month The average income for each group was calculated, with the group earning less than 5 million VND per month assigned an average of 2.5 million VND However, in the regression model, this variable is treated as continuous, taking into account the median value of each income range For instance, a woman with a monthly income between 0 to 5 million VND would be assigned a corresponding value based on this range.

Women's education is categorized into three levels: college or lower, university, and master's or higher This education is measured by the number of years required to attain specific degrees, with primary education taking 5 years, secondary education 9 years, high school 12 years, vocational training 14 years, college 15 years, university 16 years, and master's degrees requiring more than 16 years The years of schooling are directly queried in the questionnaire, and the lowest educational group serves as the baseline for comparison.

(Table3.1).Weexpectthehighertheeducationallevel,thelongertime tomarriageor motherhood.

Wo men’s promotion in hercareer This isasetofdummywith1iscodedasevergetapromotion and0 i s understandasnevergeta p r o m o t i o n , whichi s usedt o measuret h e careero p p o r t u n i t i e s o f wo men.Weexpectanegativerelationshipbetweenpromotionandtimeatfirstmarriageorfirstbirth.

Wom en’sJob mov ement a dummyvariablewith1iscodedaseverchangejobbeforeand0isnever changejob This shows thestabilityinincomeorwomen’scareer.(Table 3.1)

15/ Living arrangement is setasdummyvariablewith 0 fornot livingwithparentsand1forviceversa, weexpectl i v i n g arrangementbeforemarriagem a y affectt h e i r d e c i s i o n o n marriage.Particularly,w omenlivewiththeir ownparentsus ua ll y delaymarriageorevenfirstbirthsincetheymayhavetot a k e careof theirparentsorsiblings.(Table3.4)

Besideallthevariablesintheequationoffirstmarriagearereused,therearesomenewvariablesintheequationof entryinto first birth,includingthe belowvariables:

Ever terminateda pregnancy This isatypeYes/Noquestionandiscoded1forYesand0forNoin themodel.

(Table3.4)Thenegativerelationbetweenearlybirthsandhavingterminatedapregnancyispredicted,s i n c e womenw i t h t h e experienceofabortionmayu n d e r s t a n d c l e a r l y t h e r i s k s o f t h i s operation, andtheyprobablyearlieraccepttogivebirthrightaftermarriage.

Wealth index this variableisself-explained andisclassifiedbyproperty.

(Table 3.4)Respondents areasked a questiono f whethertheyhaveav al ua bl e caratt i m e o f marriaget o evaluateth e w e a l t h s t a t u s AndIonlyseparatedthisvariableintolowerincomeandhigherincomegroups.Accordingtoprevio usempiricalstudy(ChenandMorgan),theeffectofpovertyontimeatfirstbirthisneededtobeconsidered.Wom enfrompoorhouseholdswithlowlevelofeducationtendtomarryearlierthanthosefrommoreeducatedandw ealthierfamilies.

Age at first intercourse is encountered,sincechildrearingcannotoccurunlessoneengagesinsexual activitieswhicheventuallycausepregnancy.

(Table3.4)Thedateoffirstmarriageistheconventionalmarkerofthebeginningo f hazardofpregnancy.How ever,sexualactivityi s notconstrainedtomarriageandmanywomenstillhavechildrenbefore thedateofmarriage.Thus,ageatfirstintercourseanddateo f firstb i r t h a r e suitablep r o x i e s o f t he beginning o f s ex ua l e x p o s u r e th an t h e d a t e o f firstmarriage.

Thep o s i t i v e relationbetweent i m e t o firstbirthandageatfirstintercourserepresentsthatlaterbeginning of sexualintercourseextend thewaitingtime tofirstbirth.

Knowledge about contraceptionseparated bytwocategories,unknownis0andknownis1.(Table

Contraception typeThis variableisdividedinto:Neverused,Condom,Contraceptivepill,setacoil andothers.

(Table3.4)Womenwithmoderntypesofcontraceptiveisexpectedtodelaytheirtimeatfirstbirth,because themoremoderntechnique, thelowerriskof unexpectedpregnancy.

Age at firstmarriage The respondentsareaskedatwhichagetheymarried,iftheyhavenotmarried yet,theircurrentagewillbetakenintoaccountforthisvariable.

( Ta bl e 3.4)Womenmarriedatlateragea r e expectedt o h a v e childrenlatert h a n t h o s e w h o marriedearl ier.Although,w e constructt h i s variable,i t i s n o t feasiblet o puti t i n t o o u r e q u a t i o n s i n c e t h e r e a r e m a n y c e n s o r e d d a t a att i m e o f s u r v e y forthosewhoremainedsingleuntiltimeofsurveyandtheirinf ormationisconsideredincomplete.

Educationallevel ofpartners Educational levelofpartnerisexpectedtobeanadvantageforwomen tohavechildrenearlier,soitneedstobetakenintoaccount.

(Table3.4)Thisvariableisclassifiedfromp r i m a r y toprofessorlevel,whichismeasuredbythenumber ofschoolingyears.Primarylevelisusedasreferencegroup.Froma theoreticalp o i n t o f view,m e n w i t h goo dj o b , highlevelofi n c o m e andcareerneedmoretimetopreparefortheirmarriagelife,Oppenheimer(198 8).SimilartoAgeatfirstmarriage,wecannotobservethepartner’seducationallevelfor thosewomen whohavenotmarriedyet,that’sthereasonwhythisvariabledoesnotappearin ourregressionmodel.

Housework This variableaimstoinvestigatewhetherawomanholdtraditionalvaluesornot,since thosewhousuallydohouseworkaresupposedtobereadyforwives’ormothers’rolethanthosewhod o n

’ t Therefore,thisvariableiscodedas0forthosewhodonotoftendotheirhouseworkand1isforanother.Obvi ously, 0 isconsideredasreferencegroup.(Table3.4)

Table3.1.First-Marriage VariablesDescription(EducationandCareer Variables)

U n i v e r s i t y 2-Master andhigher MeasuredbyYearsthatawomano b t a i n a particulardegree 1- Vocationaltraining 2- Clerical

Negativelyrelatedto timeatfirstb i r t h o r marriage Referencegroupisexpectedto marryearliest.

Measuredbyyearsatwork Thelongerthe timeatwork, the longerwaitingtime untilfirstmarriage.

Table 3.2.First-Marriage VariablesDescription(SocialBackgroundVariables)

2 Father’ssocialclass 0- Unskilledandskilledworkers Womenwithlowerfather’ssocial

(0-Base line) 1- Clerical classtend togetmarriageearlier.

3 Father’seducation 0- Secondary Women’swithwell-educatedfather

1- Vocationaltraining tends tohave higherlevel of 2- College andUniversity education,andthen latermarriageis

4 Mother’ssocialclass 0- Unskilledandskilledmanual Womenwithlowermother’ssocial workers classtend togetmarriageearlier.

5 Mother’seducation 0- Secondary Women’swithwell-educatedmother

1- Vocationaltraining tends tohave higherlevel of 2- College andUniversity education,andthen latermarriageis

Awomanusuallyworshipsherancestorsm aygetmarriageearlier.Expectedtosee differencein timetomarriagebetweenethnicity. 11.

13 Religion 0-Non- religious1- Buddhist 2-Christian

1 Women’seducationat 0- Collegeor lower Referencegroupisexpectedtohave firstbirth 1- University childrenearliestcompared toother

(0-Base line) 2- Master andhigher group

2 Women’syearsofscho olingatfirst birth(Years)

Measuredbyyearsatwork Thelongerthe timeatwork, the longerwaitingtime untilfirstbirth.

7 Income atfirst birth(.milVND/m onth)

1 Everterminateda 0- No Awomanwithanswer“yes”is going pregnancy 1- Yes togivebirthearlier

2 Wealthindex(by 0- No Awomanfrompoorer familytends to askingadirect questionofproperty)

3 Ageatfirst 0- Notyet Theearlierthetimeatfirst intercourse 1- Lowerthan18yearsold intercourse,the sooner awomanhas

2- 18 to 22yearsold probabilityof first birth.

4 Knowledge about 0- Yes Womenwithknowledgeof contraceptive 1- No contraceptive canpreventher from unexpectedpregnancybetter.

5 Contraceptivetype 0- No use Wewould liketo seethedifferences

7 Partners’Education Numberofschoolingyears Thehigherlevelof education, the shortertimeoffirstbirth.

Themoreindustrious a womanwas,theearliertimeto first birth isexpected.

Womenl i v e w i t h t h e i r o w n pare ntsdelay marriageorevenfirst birth.

1 Residence atfirst birth 0- Ruralarea Womenfromruralareaisgoingto

(0-Base line) 1- Urbanarea have childrenearlier

2 Father’ssocialclass 0- Unskilledandskilledworkers Womenwithlowerfather’ssocial

(0-Base line) 1- Clerical classtend tohavechildrenearlier.

3 Father’seducation 0- Secondary Women’swithwell-educatedfather

(0-Base line) 1- Vocationaltraining tends tohave higherlevel of

2- College andUniversity education,andthen laterfirstbirthis

4 Mother’ssocialclass 0- Unskilledandskilledworkers Womenwithlowermother’ssocial

(0-Base line) 1- Clerical classtend tohavechildrenearlier.

5 Mother’seducation 0- Secondary Women’swithwell-educatedmother

(0-Base line) 1- Vocationaltraining tends tohave higherlevel of

2- College andUniversity education,andthen timeto first birth 3- Masterorhigher is usuallylengthened

Themoresiblingsawomanhas,thelongert imeto first birth

Thelowerthebirth order, themorewaitingtime untilfirstbirth.Expectedto seedifferencein timetof e r t i l i t y amongReligion.

4.1 EMPIRICALRESULT

Statistics

Variable Obs Mean Std.Dev Min Max

Table 4.1 provides detailed information about the income, work experience, number of siblings, and years of schooling of women in the dataset The average monthly income for the 304 women in our sample is approximately 8.748 million VND, with a minimum of 2.5 million VND and a maximum of 50 million VND These women have an average of over 6 years of work experience, although some have not yet entered the labor market The number of siblings varies from 0 to 10, reflecting the trend of previous generations having more children compared to modern women The years of schooling indicate the total time a woman has spent to complete a specific level of education, with a maximum of 24 years noted for one individual in the dataset.

Table4.2representsfemales’educationallevel,womenfromcollegeanduniversity accountsforthe larges tproportioninthissample,whichisabout70percent.Itcanbeinferredthatwomenhavebetteraccesstoadvanc ededucationalsystemthanbefore.

Att h e ageo f firstmarriage,t h e r e i s abouta quarterofrespondentsevergotp r o m o t i o n att h e i r work place,itispredictedfromourtheorythathigherstatusinlabormarketwilldecreasetheincentivet o m a r r y forwomen.

Jobstabilityisoneofthedeterminantsofmarriage,thusthevariableofjobmovementwhichinvestigateswhet hera womanhadeverc h a n g e d j o b befores h e gotmarriage,i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t A p p r o x i a m a t e l y two third offemalesin our samplehadmoved to another jobbeforehermarriagelife.

Fromt h e abovetable,Officeworkeri s t h e m a i n parto f o u r samplewhichi s over7 0 percentandwomenwo rkingasofficeworkeraremorethan theotherscompositionof job isreasonable.

Itisapparentthat50percentofourdataisconcentratedonwomenbornfrom1987to1991,andtheleastfract ionisbetween1950 to 1980, this is oneof thecommonweaknessofdataconductedbyonlines u r v e y sinceelder peopleareless likelytoaccesstotheinternetfrequentlythanyoungerone.

Residenceindicatestheliving environmentwhich awomanwasbornandgrewup,i t isdividedintorurala ndurbanareaandthenumberofwomenfromurbanareaismuchmorethancountrywithnearly7 0 percent,this groupisexpectedto marryandhavechildrenlater.

Table 4.8.Summarystatisticsofbeing achiefincome earnerat firstmarriage

Chiefincome earner Freq Percent Cum.

Atthetimeofentryintofirstmarriage,thereare52womenshoulderingtheresponsibilityforfinancials u p p o r t t o theirfamily.Thesewomenoftenmarrylateruntiltheycanfind a substituteresourcesfor thisburden.

Almostallwomeni n o u r sampleh a s preservedt h e traditionalv a l u e s o f worshippingt h e i r a n c e s t o r , p r o v i n g byt h e percento f 7 9 2 8 percentfemalew h o hadanancestralaltari n t h e i r f a m i l y b e f o r e marriage.

Table4.10givesusabriefinformationonwomen’sreligion,surprisingly,therearealotoffemalesino u r sa mpledo not practiceanyreligion,approximately34percentofBuddhist isrevealedwhile thereiso n l y 8percentof Chirstian.

Itisfoundfromthedatathatbirthorderofwomeninafamilywasunchangedevenattheirmarriageageo rtheir ageatfirstchild,womenareeldestchildinfamily stillholdsthe largestamount.Eldestchildrenu s u a l l y marriedatearlieraget h a n t h e o t h e r s childreni n a f a m i l y basedo n t h e traditiono f gettingmarriag efromeldestchildrentoyoungestchildren.

Father’seducation Freq Percent Cum.

Asshownintable4.12,father’seducationisnotdifferentfromtheirchildren’smarriagetimeandhavefirstchild pointoftime.Althoughuniversitygroupis stillhigher,it is onlyonethird ofour sample.

Table4.13.SummarystatisticsofMother’seducation at firstmarriageandfirstbirth

Mother’seducation Freq Percent Cum.

Similartofather’seducation,mother’seducationalleveldonotchangeoveraperiodoftimefromtheirchildren’s marriageandreproductivity.Accordingtotable4.13,wecanseeacomprehensivedifferencefromfathers’educa tionattainment,mothers e e m s t o havelowere d u c a t i o n Iti s consistentw i t h o u r predictioninchaptertw o,asourcountryisaffectedbyFeudalism,thereisinequality betweenmalesandfemales,thus, men werein priorityto staylonger ineducationalsystem.

Table 4.14.SummarystatisticsofFather’sjobat firstmarriageand firstbirth

Father’sjob Freq Percent Cum.

Over50percentofrespondents’fatherisfromskilledorunskilledworkers,thisgroupisalsousedasreferenceg r o u p t o investigatewhethert h e differencei n father’sj o b hasa n y impactso n women’sdecisiononfirstm arriage andfertility.

Table 4.15.SummarystatisticsofMother’sjobat firstmarriageand firstbirth

Mother’sjob Freq Percent Cum.

Mother’sjobisseperatedsimilarlytofather’sjob,comparingtoFather’sjob,elderwomenalsoworksm o r e a sskilledorunskilledlabor with 55.26 percent in ourdatacomposition.

Variable Obs Mean Std.Dev Min Max

Income,workexperienceandyearsofschoolinginthistableareunderstoodastheprevioustableforfirstmarria ge.Thereareonlythreenewvariables, includingageatfirstmarriageistheageatwhichwomenf i r s t l y enteredi n t o t h e i r marriagelife,ageatfirstb i r t h alsoreferst o t h e t i m i n g off i r s t r e p r o d u c t i v i t y andcontributiontofamilyincomeisthepercentageawomansetasidefortheirfamily’sconsumptio n.

Basedo n t h i s table,t h e r e a re 11 5 womeni n o u r samplewho hadgotmarriage.T h e averageag e o f marria geisabout25yearsold,theyoungestmarriedwomenis19yearsoldandtheeldestis36yearso l d Likewise,8

8 respondentshadchildrenandt h e mediana g e atfirstchildi s 2 6 yearso l d , iti s surprisingthatnearlyoneye araftermarriage,almostthesewomenhadtheirfirstbaby.Inaddition,the maximumageoffertilityis44,whichis mucholderthantheidealageoffertilityencouragedbyHealthDepartment.

0 percentd o u b l e thant h e percento f t h e r e s t T h i s datai s notdifferentm u c h fromw o m e n ’ s ed ucationallevelatfirstmarriage.

Table 4.18.SummarystatisticsofPromotionachievementatFirstbirth Promotionachievementatf i r s t birth Freq Percent Cum.

Promotionachievementi s anticipatedt h a t w i l l beo n e o f t h e m a i n factoro f havingfirstb i r t h , s i n c e whe nwomenareontheir potentialpathofcareer,itmaybehardforthemtosacrificetheirtimeforbeinga mother.Thisstatisticsreveals78womenhadevergotpromotionwhentheywereinnonmarketsector.About75 percentoftheothersdoesnothaveanypromotionachievement,itisnottoohardtoe x p l a i n sinceoursam ple consistsofnumerousyoungwomenwithout anyworkingexperience.

JobmovementatFirst Freq Percent Cum. birth

Groupofthosewhohavechangedjobbeforefertilityareaboutdoublethenumberofwomenwhoholdt h e i r l o y a l t y t o t h e i r currentc o m p a n i e s T h e r e i s s o m e evidenceo n t h e relationshipbetweenj o b s t a b i l i t y andearlymotherhood.

Job atFirstbirth Freq Percent Cum.

Jobatfirstbirthisdividedinto3categorieslikejobasfirstmarriage,thenoticeablegroupofabout72percentstillbe longstoOfficeworker.Nearly20percentis from skilledandunskilledlabor.

Table 4.21.SummarystatisticsofLivingarrangementatFirstbirth Livingarrangementatfirstb irth Freq Percent Cum.

Thisvariableisquiteequal,womenwholivewithparentsisabout55percentand45percentforthosen o t l i v e withtheirparents.The meaningofthisvariableis to identifywhethertakingcareofparentshasa n y effecton childbearingdecision ornot.

Over50percentofrespondentsdohousework,it is highlyevaluatedthatthiswomanis atraditionalgirlandtheymaybereadyformother’sroleearliercomparingto19.08percentwomenneverdoho useworkathome.

Over303respondents,thereisonly20womenadmittingthattheyhadeverterminatedanunexpectedpregn ancy.Indeed,w o m e n wh o haved on e ana b o r t i o n t e n d t o havechildrensoonerth an t h o s e w h o d o n ’ t , sincetheymayclearlyunderstand the harmfuleffectof this kind ofoperation.

Ageat firstintercourse Freq Percent Cum.

Womenrespondentshaven o s e x u a l intercourseu n t i l currentageh o l d s t h e largestproportioni n o u r datab aseo f4 2 90 p e r c e n t A s t h i s i s ansensitivequestion,i t i s unavoidablet h a t thereis b i a s i n t h e answeroft hisquestioncomparingtothereality,butthisisacommonmistakeofallsurvey.Thereares t i l l 39.96perce ntofwomen admittedthattheyhadgotinto bedwiththeir partnerswhentheywereabove22yearsold.

Alongwithanumberofwomenwhohavenothadtheirfirstsexualintercourse,therearemanywomend o n o t u s e anyk i n d ofcontraceptivem e t h o d , whichi s about4 3 3 8 percent.T h e secondt y p e o f preventin gfromunexpectedpregnancyiscondomwith38.08percent.Theleftof20percentisbelongt o contraceptive pills,setacoilorothermethod.

Table 4.27.SummarystatisticsofWomen’swealth at firstmarriageandfirstbirth

Wealth(Car’sowner) Freq Percent Cum.

Actually,t h i s variablei s n o t appliedi n t o o u r m o d e l , s i n c e therei s a hugegapbetweent h e s e t w o gr oups.Thenumberofrespondentswhohadtheirowncarattimeatfirstmarriageandfirstbirthonlyaccountfor 3percentagainst 97percent.Therefore,Idecidedto exclude itfromourmodel.

Accordingtothisgraph,at18yearsold,almostallwomeninourdatasetstilldidnotmarryyet.Overt e n years, nearlyhalfofthesewomengotmarriage.Untiltheageof36,probabilityofbeingalonestopsat20%, inotherwords,thereis a fraction ofwomenabove36 remainunmarried.

Fromtheabovegraph,wecaninferthatCohort3orwomenbornfrom1950to1980clearlymarriedearlierth an thoseingroupof1988to 1992,specifically,atage24,onlyabout

3percentofwomenfrom1 8 to24yearsoldmarried,whilenearly20percentofwomenfrom36to66yearsoldal readyhastheiro w n families.Itc a n b e convincedt h a t t h e r e i s anapparenttrendi n marriagebehavioramong e l d e r womenandyoungerwomenthroughthe presentation ofthisgraph.

The educational levels of women, categorized as College, University, and Master's or higher, significantly influence their timing of first marriage The data reveals that women with a College education or lower have a 70% probability of marrying by age 28 and typically conclude their single life by age 35 In contrast, 90% of women with a Master's degree or higher remain single at that age Furthermore, for this highly educated group, the likelihood of first marriage remains stable after age 30.

Jobisdividedinto3categoriesofunskilledandskilled labor,clericalandmanagerandprofessional respec tively.Althoughtheeffectofjobonfamilyformationisnotdifferentmuch,itcannotdenythefactthatunskill edandskilledlabor womenwillgetintomarriagelifeearliercomparingtowomenwithhighsocietystatus,sincetheyaresupposed to gain morefrommarriagethanothers.

Graph 5 highlights the promotion achievements of women in the workforce, shedding light on their career opportunities in the labor market It indicates that women who have received promotions before marriage tend to have more job opportunities and spend more time in their careers, often leading to postponed marriages The data reveals a significant gap between two groups: by age 28, 60% of women who never receive promotions are no longer single, while around 70% of women in non-market sectors remain unmarried.

Similartotheanalysisoffirstmarriage,wealsotake intoaccounttheprobability ofnothavingfirst b i r t h throughsomecovariates.Graph7refersprobabilityofnot havingfirstchild acrossage.Infact,nowomenhavetheirfirstchildfromtheageof 18to22yearsold Themaximum timeof havingfirstbirthhereis 39yearsold.

Birthcohortissupposedtobearrangedbyincreasingorder,fromcohort0tocohort3arewomenbornfrom1992 to1950.Itisreasonabletoexplainthatwomenfromolderagehavetheirfirstchildsoonert h a n otherbirthc ohort.At39age,nearlyallwomenfromcohort3haveeverhadchildrenandthereiso n l y fifteenpercentof them havenosignonfertility.

Itshouldbenotedthateducationallevelinthisgraphisincreasedfrom0to2,andthisresultissimilart o thecase offirstbirth,well- educatedwomenholdthehighestprobabilityofnothavingchildrenandt h e y oftendelaytheirtimeentryi ntomotherrolescomparingtowomenfromlowerlevelofeducation.T h e groupofwomencomegraduatedfro mcollegeorlowerallhadtheirownchildrenaround39yearso l d

DividedbyJo b , t h i s resulti s t o t a l l y the samea s education,meansw o m e n w i t h goodj o b s h o l d t h e hi ghestp r o b a b i l i t y o f n o t havingchildrenandt h e y o f t e n d e l a y t h e i r t i m e e n t r y i n t o motherr o l e s comparingtowomenfromlowerlevelofeducation.Theskilledandunskilledwomenworkersallhadt h e i r ownchildrenaround 39yearsold.

Aswesupposedbefore,promotionatfirstbirth=0meansthatthiswomanhasnotgotanyadvancementi n h erj o b p o s i t i o n before,t h u s , t h e y mayhave t h e i r f i r s t childearlierthant h o s e w i t h encouragementi n career.Especially,w h e n theyare3 1 yearso l d , womenw i t h n o incentivei n theirl a b o r forcea r e m o r e r e a d y t o becomemotherswith probabilityo f 70percent,whilet h e others’p r o b a b i l i t y is only40 percent.

Graph 13 illustrates the relationship between marriage probability and education level Overall, there is no significant difference in marriage trends between individuals with secondary education and those with less than a university degree; however, a notable gap exists when comparing secondary graduates to individuals with master's degrees or higher Specifically, at age 27, the likelihood of first marriage is 7% higher for women with secondary education compared to those with master's degrees Additionally, the increase in marriage probability for low-educated women is significantly greater than for their well-educated counterparts For instance, the transition from age 25 to 26 can result in approximately a 2% increase in marriage probability for low-educated women, whereas women with master's degrees experience only a 1% increase in marriage frequency during the same age transition.

Accordingt o t h i s graph,i t i s reasonablet o i n f e r t h a t womenw h o h a v e evergotp r o m o t i o n att h e i r w orkplacehavehigherprobabilityofremainingsinglethanthosewhodon’t.Theincreaseinoneageoffemalewho neverhavejobpositionenhancement,resultsinadramaticalriseinprobabilityofmarriagecomparingto bettercareeropportunitiesfemale.

Thiscaseissimilartothosetwoabove,butthedifferenceisnotashighastheotherspreviousvariable.Itcanbeseen fromthegraphthatstabilityinjobisgoingtodecreasethestabilityinmarriageageofwomen.F o r exa mple,a t age2 8 , o l d e r o n e moreyeari n g r o u p o f j o b variationw i l l h a v e l o w e r p r o b a b i l i t y ofentryintomarriagelifethanloyalfemale,whichis nearly2percentgap.

Surprisingly,womenwithhigherjobstatustendtohavehigherincentivetomarrywith4percentmoret h a n u n s k i l l e d femaleworkersatageof27.As womenareolderbyoneage,for examplefrom26 to27,t h e p r o b a b i l i t y ofgettingmarriage of ma na ge ri a l andprofessionalw o m e n risesbynearly1p e r c e n t , w h i l e t h i s figureofunskilledworkersisonly0.5percent.

Age at first childbirth - 18 educationallevelatfirstbirth0cth = 0educationallevelatfirstbirth0cth educationallevelatfirstbirth0cth = 2 1

The graph indicates that low-educated females tend to have their first child earlier than their well-educated counterparts, with a gap of 0.008 percent This can be attributed to the fact that well-educated women often prioritize their education, sacrificing time in school to attain specific degrees, which subsequently delays motherhood Overall, by the age of 36, the likelihood of childbearing stabilizes for all women in the sample.

Age at first childbirth - 18 promotionatfirstbirth = 0 promotionatfirstbirth = 1

Fromtheabovegraph,thecurveofevergetpromotionisflatterthantheother,indicatingthathigherj o b positionisalongwithlowerchanceoffertility.Thegapbetweenthesetwogroupsis0.013percenthigher;inad dtiononeyearaddedofagewillrisethefrequencyofhavingchildrenmorefornevergetp r o m o t i o n gro up.Thisisnotdifficulttogiveanexplanationaspromotionrefersthehigherpositionofwomenatworkplace,t hus theircostof timewillalso behigherwhichreduces thedemandforchildren.

Age at first childbirth - 18 jobmovementatfirstbirth = 0 jobmovementatfirstbirth = 1

Thereisadistinctdisparitybetweenwomenwhoareloyaltotheirjobandthosewhoarenot.Femalesw i t h p ermanentjobtendtohavehigherincentiveforbeingmotherssincetheyarestableinfinanceinordertoensure abetterlifefortheirownchildren,andthedecisiononfertilityismadeeasier.Foroursample,atage29, thedivergenceof thesetwogroupsisabout0.014 percent.

Age at first childbirth - 18 jobatfirstbirth = 0 jobatfirstbirth = 2 jobatfirstbirth = 1

Skilledorunskilledlaborisgroupofthosewhohavelowestprobabilityoffirstchild,at28yearsold,t h e figu reforhavingchildrenisnearly0.015percent,whilemanagerialandprofessionalgroupisabout

0.029percent.Itis indicatedthatthebetterjob awomanachieves,ahigherdemandforchildren.

RESULTS

***1%significance,**5% significance,*10% significance–Robust standarderrorsinparenthesis

Table 4.28 presents the results of Exponential coefficient estimates and the Cox regression model, highlighting that five out of eighteen variables are significant Key significant factors include income, educational attainment (master's or higher), promotion achievement, and birth cohort Specifically, income is significant at the 5% level and positively correlates with the timing of first marriage, suggesting that an increase of one million VND per month in income may lead women to marry later This relationship can be attributed to higher opportunity costs associated with dating and seeking a partner, as women with higher incomes are less likely to benefit from marriage due to their financial independence Furthermore, this finding aligns with Gary Becker's traditional division of labor theory, which posits that women with higher income, stemming from educational advancements and career opportunities, may be perceived as less attractive marriage partners because they are unable to dedicate as much time to domestic responsibilities Notably, the Exponential model offers stronger evidence than the Cox model, which only demonstrates a 10% significance level.

The analysis reveals a negative correlation between women with a Master's degree or higher and the timing of marriage, suggesting that this group tends to delay their first marriage compared to those with only a college degree or lower This delay can be attributed to the "human capital effect" and "institutional effect," where women who invest more time in education tend to spend less time dating or seeking a partner Additionally, the demands of student life often hinder women's preparation for marriage, as their focus remains on academic achievements Attaining a higher level of education is perceived as a significant milestone in readiness for marital life; however, only the highest educational qualifications demonstrate a notable impact, while other educational levels show no significant effect in both models.

Research indicates that women's career opportunities significantly influence their decision to marry, with those having better advancement prospects typically marrying later than their less career-oriented counterparts Both models demonstrate a strong negative correlation, highlighting that women's entry into marriage is evidently contingent upon their professional opportunities.

Finally,w e a r e n o t s u r p r i s e d bytheestimationeffecto f b i r t h c o h o r t ; I cand r a w a p o s i t i v e relation betweenbirthcohortandageatfirstmarriage.Inotherwords,elderwomenfrompreviousgenerationalwaysma rriedatolderagethan modernwomen.

Research indicates that factors such as religion, parental education, working experience, and parents' occupations do not significantly influence the age of first marriage While the education level of fathers and their social class are not direct determinants, their impact is indirectly reflected in children's educational opportunities Higher social class fathers typically provide better access to education, which correlates with a longer wait time for their children to marry.

Residence,numberofsiblings,ethnicandbirth- orderinfamilyareconsideredasimportantfactorsinf a m i l y formation,buttheshownoimpactsonther ateofentryintomarriage.Withthisresult,womenfromruralaread o n o t m a r r y earliert h a n t h o s e from urbanarea.Ina d d i t i o n , i t i s reasonablet h a t n u m b e r o fbrothersandsistersandb i r t h ordercannotpr eventfrommarryingin o u r modernsociety,whensocialconvention is not asstrictas in thepast.

***1%significance,**5%significance,*10% significance–Robust standarderrorsinparenthesis

Atfirst,wecaneasilyrealizethenegativesignofincomeatfirstbirthandtimetofistbirth.Holding allt h e otherthingsunchanged,higherincomewomenwillchoosetogivebirthlaterthanthosewithlowerinco me.Itisabsolutelyconsistentwithoureconomictheoryonthedemandforchildren,aswomenhashighincome,t heircostoftimealsoincreasesiftheyhaveababy,theyhavetosacrificetheirtimeinl a b o r forceformothe rs’role,thenit should beachoiceof opportunitycost.

Int h e analysiso f e d u c a t i o n a l attainmento n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f firstb i r t h , w e f o u n d n o resultss i n c e educationallevelinbothmodelareinsignificant,ortimingoffirstbirthisnotdependentonwomen’s educationallevel.

Second,promotionachievementisfoundtobeassociatedwithageatfirstchildbirthsincethisvariablei s sign ificantat5percentlevelinbothmodels.Thehigherpositionatworkplaceawomanisthelesshazardofhavin gearlyfirstchild.Thisprovedthefactthatcareeropportunitiesinnonmarketsectorareo n e of themaindeterminantsof delayingparenthood.

Similartotheeffectsofjobmovementonfirstmarriage,itisconvincedthatwomenwithpermanentj o b h avehigherprobabilityofearlyfirstbirthanditisinoccurrencewithouroutcomes.Althoughwecaneasilyo bservefromthepastthatwomeninpreviousgenerationhavemorechildrenandhavefirstb i r t h earlierthan today, theactualresultsarenotthesameaswethought.

Controllingf o r Birthc o h o r t , w e f o u n d n o differencef o r t h i s case.T h e signoft h e s e socialf a c t o r s remainedt h e same.A s w e expectedb e f o r e , i t m u s t b e elderp e o p l e f r o m previousgenerationcouldhav etheirfirstchildearlierthantoday,surprisinglytheresultis not aswhatweguessed.

***1%significance,**5%significance,*10% significance–Robust standarderrorsinparenthesis

The contribution of family income significantly influences the timing of entry into motherhood Women who are primary earners in their families often delay parenthood due to financial responsibilities Without a reliable source of support from their natal families, they may hesitate to make decisions regarding fertility Additionally, our study found that Christian women tend to marry earlier than those who do not practice any religion, highlighting the impact of religious beliefs on family planning decisions.

UndertheestimationofCoxregressionmodel,mothers’jobhasimpactonbehavioroftheirchildren’sfertility. Specifically,w o m e n w i t h highs o c i a l s t a t u s m o t h e r s m a y havet h e i r firstchildearliert h a n groupo fwomenwithmothers’jobasunskilledorskilledworkers.However,thisresultonlyhappensi n t h e model ofCoxregressionanditssignificanceis only10percent.

Tot h e e x t e n t o f ageatfirsts e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e , w e f o u n d a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n U n d e r t h e s a m e conditions,h o l d i n g allotherthingsunchanged,w o m e n w h o havelatert i m e o f firstinte rcoursem a y havelowerriskofbeingamother.Particularlyinourdata,womenwhohavefirstintercoursebet ween1 8 and22yearsoldhavehigherprobabilityofhavingchildrenthangroupofwomenwhohavenothadfirs ts e x u a l intercourseyet.Finally,womenw h o usedcontraceptivem e t h o d w i l l havehigherp r o b a b i l i t y ofearlyfirstbirthratherthan thosewhodon’tuse.

Othervariablesi n c l u d e educationall e v e l , j o b , workexperience,contraceptivek now le dg e, residence,fa thers’ormothers’jobandevergetanabortionshow noimpactson time tofirstbirth.

Thispaper’sp u r p o s e i s t o assessb o t h e m p i r i c a l l y andt h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e hypothesiso f n ewh o m e economicswhichstatesthatwomen’sincreasingeconomicindependence,stemmingfrombettera ccesst o higherl e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n andcareerachievement,i s o n e o f t h e m a i n factorsi n t h e gro wtho f postponedmarriageandmotherhoodinourcountry.Usingself- surveyeddata,Iestimatetheeffectsofeducationallevelandjobachievementon thetimingoffirstmarriage andfirst child.

Firstly,i n t h e processofanalyzingfirstmarriage,i t i s referredt h a t educationallevelarep o s i t i v e l y related todelayedfirstmarriage.Accordingtonormativeexpectationsinthesociety,asyoungwomenareintheirsch ooltime,theyareconsiderednotatriskofenteringmarriage.Graduationfromschoolisa remarkablelandmar kinwomen’slife - event,whichemphasizesthetransitionfromyouthtoadulthood.Theprocessofaccumulatingqualificationsha stakentimesanddelayedthistransition.

The timing of women's family formation is influenced not only by educational investment but also by their income levels According to Gary Becker's theory, as women earn higher incomes, they perceive the cost of marriage to be greater, leading to a delay in marriage Analysis of different birth cohorts reveals that modern women tend to marry later than previous generations, with significant factors including birth order, number of siblings, and father’s education showing limited impact Interestingly, women from rural areas do not marry earlier than those from urban settings, contradicting initial assumptions Furthermore, while prolonged education does not significantly affect the timing of the first child, it negatively correlates with the probability of motherhood, as highly educated women often face medical challenges related to delayed childbirth The timing of first sexual intercourse and contraceptive use also play critical roles in motherhood entry Ultimately, career opportunities significantly influence both the timing of first marriage and motherhood, with women taking longer to enter these phases as their career prospects improve.

Accordingt o t h e m e n t i o n e d results,i t i s understandablet h a t peoplew h o chooset o wellpreparef o r t h e i r futurewouldmostlikelytodelaytheirtimeintomarriageandparenthood.Indeed,educationisanefficientin strumentalinofferinganindividualbetteropportunitiesin labormarket,butlengthenschoolingtime,findasuitablejob andattemptingforcareeraremorelikelyto postponetheirmarriage.Basedonthispaper,governmentshouldtakeintoaccountwomen’sageatfirstmarriage becausethisist h e crucialfactorsoffemales’h e a l t h andc h i l d b o r n e,t h u s , m a s s m e d i a canb e consideredasaneffectivemethodrelatingto thisconcernandawareness.

Moreover,f ro m t h e p o s i t i v e relationbetweent i m e atfirstintercoursean d t i m e e n t r y intofirstb i r t h , po liciesmustemphasiseontheimportanceofcontraceptivetypeassoonaswomenwerestillintheirschooltim etoensureusefulknowledgeforgirl’shealthaswell.

5.1 MAINFINDINGS&RECOMMENDATION

LIMITATIONAND FURTHERSTUDIES

Research on the impact of education and career achievement on the timing of first marriage and marital life has become a significant topic among economists interested in human capital investment This paper aims to contribute to this field both theoretically and empirically, although it acknowledges certain limitations that could inspire further studies One key implication is the inability to account for all responses in the dataset due to the censoring problem; many female respondents have not yet married at the time of the survey, raising questions about their future marital commitments This issue is common in empirical measurements involving censored data, and the solution lies in the continuous collection of data and model estimation with updated information Therefore, the area of age at first marriage or first birth remains a topic that warrants ongoing research as new data becomes available.

Second,theweaknessofmyp a p e r isdataresources,duetotheproblemoftimeandexpensesl i m i t a t i o n , mydatasetisincludedonlyasmallfractionofwomeninVietnam.Therefore,theresultoft h i s papermayno tberepresentativethenIcannotgivespecificimplicationfor thewholeVietnamese’sfemales.Basedonthispaper’sinspiration,furtherstudycanbeexpandedwithbig gerdatasettofindm o r e accurate resultsforVietnamese women.

The article highlights a significant oversight in the analysis, specifically the neglect of time inconsistency for certain variables, such as parental educational levels and income For instance, the societal respect for individuals with a college education has shifted over the past two decades, and the value of 5 million VND has drastically changed over the last 30 years due to inflation To address this issue, it's essential to incorporate a controlling variable, like the inflation rate or GDP per capita, into the study Alternatively, reconstructing the questionnaire to reflect specific time periods could provide more accurate insights, although this approach would require considerable time and effort.

Infact,giventheriseintheageatfirstmarriageandfertilityacrosscountriesasIhavementionedint h e intr oduction,morecountry-specificstudiesandcross- countrycomparisonshouldbeconducted.Ana r r a y ofcross- nationalstudieshasprovedthefactthatthisrelationshipmaybedifferentdramaticallyfromonecountr ytoanother.Finally,acomparativepapermustbemoreinterestingwhencomparingt h i s topicsamongnati ons,e s p e c i a l l y Vietnama n d t h e o t h e r countriesinS o u t h e a s t area,alsom a l e respondentsshould be inourconcernforthis issue.

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1 What is yourgender? a Male(IfMale,respondents will be automaticallymovedto appreciation sheet) b Female

5 Attimeoffirstmarriage,what wasyour educationallevel? a Illiteracy b Literacy c Primaryschool d Secondaryschool e High-school f Vocationaltraining g College h University i Masterorhigher

8 Attimeoffirstmarriage,what wasyourjob? a Unskilledlabor b Skilledlabor c Clerical d ManagerorProfessional e Owner f Housewife g Unemployed h Others

9 Beforeyourfirstmarriage,didyouever getapromotionatyour workplace? a Yes b No

- Ifyes,what was thereasonfor thischange?

11.What was yourincomeatthe timeyoumarried? a