Education_for_Life_and_Work

This PDF is available from The National Academies Press at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13398 Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century ISBN 978-0-309-25649-0 242 pages 6x9 PAPERBACK (2012) James W Pellegrino and Margaret L Hilton, Editors; Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills; Center for Education; Division on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; National Research Council Visit the National Academies Press online and register for Instant access to free PDF downloads of titles from the NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 10% off print titles Custom notification of new releases in your field of interest Special offers and discounts Distribution, posting, or copying of this PDF is strictly prohibited without written permission of the National Academies Press Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences Request reprint permission for this book Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills James W Pellegrino and Margaret L Hilton, Editors Board on Testing and Assessment and Board on Science Education Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS  500 Fifth Street, NW  Washington, DC 20001 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance This study was supported by the Carnegie Corporation of New York under Contract No B8767, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation under Contract No 2009-5117, the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation under Contract No 10-97354-000-HCD, the National Science Foundation under Contract No DRL-0956223, the Nellie Mae Education Foundation, the Pearson Foundation, the Raikes Foundation, the Susan Crown Exchange Fund, and the Stupski Foundation Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project International Standard Book Number-13:  978-0-309-25649-0 International Standard Book Number-10:  0-309-25649-6 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data are available from the Library of Congress Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://www.nap.edu Copyright 2012 by the National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Suggested citation: National Research Council (2012) Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills, J.W Pellegrino and M.L Hilton, Editors Board on Testing and Assessment and Board on Science Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education Washington, DC: The National Academies Press Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters Dr Ralph J Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engi­ neers It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers Dr Charles M Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education Dr Harvey V Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of S­ ciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities The ­Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine Dr Ralph J Cicerone and Dr Charles M Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council www.national-academies.org Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century COMMITTEE ON DEFINING DEEPER LEARNING AND 21ST CENTURY SKILLS JAMES W PELLEGRINO (Chair), Learning Sciences Research Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago GREG J DUNCAN, Department of Education, University of California, Irvine JOAN L HERMAN, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, University of California, Los Angeles MARGARET A HONEY, New York Hall of Science, Queens PATRICK C KYLLONEN, Center for New Constructs, Educational Testing Service HENRY M LEVIN, Teachers College, Columbia University CHRISTINE MASSEY, Institute for Research in Cognitive Science, University of Pennsylvania RICHARD E MAYER, Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara C KENT McGUIRE, Southern Education Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia P DAVID PEARSON, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley EDWARD A SILVER, School of Education and Mathematics Department, University of Michigan MARGARET L HILTON, Study Director STUART ELLIOTT, Director, Board on Testing and Assessment KELLY IVERSON, Senior Program Assistant v Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century BOARD ON TESTING AND ASSESSMENT EDWARD HAERTEL (Chair), School of Education, Stanford University LYLE BACHMAN, Department of Applied Linguistics and TESOL, University of California, Los Angeles STEPHEN DUNBAR, College of Education, University of Iowa MARK DYNARSKI, Pemberton Research, LLC DAVID J FRANCIS, Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics, University of Houston JOAN L HERMAN, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, University of California, Los Angeles MICHAEL KANE, Test Validity, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey ROBERT D MARE, Department of Sociology, University of California, Los Angeles MICHAEL NETTLES, Policy Evaluation and Research Center, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey DIANA C PULLIN, School of Education, Boston College ANN MARIE RYAN, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University BRIAN STECHER, Education Program, The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California MARK R WILSON, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley REBECCA ZWICK, Research and Development, Educational Testing Service, Santa Barbara, California STUART ELLIOTT, Director vi Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century BOARD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION HELEN QUINN (Chair), Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University GEORGE BOGGS, American Association of Community Colleges, Washington, DC WILLIAM B BONVILLIAN, Washington, DC, Office, Massachusetts Institute of Technology RODOLFO DIRZO, School of Humanities and Sciences, Stanford University JOSEPH S FRANCISCO, Department of Chemistry, Purdue University ADAM GAMORAN, Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin–Madison JERRY P GOLLUB, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Haverford College MARGARET HONEY, New York Hall of Science, Queens JAN HUSTLER, Partnership for Student Success in Science, Synopsys, Inc., Mountain View, California SUSAN W KIEFFER, Department of Geology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign MICHAEL LACH, Urban Education Institute, University of Chicago CARLO PARRAVANO, Merck Institute for Science Education, Rahway, New Jersey BRIAN REISER, School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University SUZANNE WILSON, College of Education, Michigan State University MARTIN STORKSDIECK, Director vii Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century Acknowledgments T he committee and staff thank the many individuals and organizations who assisted us in our work and without whom this study could not have been completed First we acknowledge the generous support of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the John D and Catherine T MacArthur F ­ oundation, the National Science Foundation, the Nellie Mae Education Foundation, the Pearson Foundation, the Raikes Foundation, the Susan Crown Exchange Fund, and the Stupski Foundation We are particularly grateful to Barbara Chow, program director for education, and Kristi Kimball, former program officer, at the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, who identified the need for a consensus study of deeper learning and 21st century skills and conveyed the importance of the study to other sponsors We also thank Bruce Fuchs, director of the Office of Science Education at the ­National Institutes of Health, who initiated and supported a series of previous National Research Council (NRC) workshops on 21st century skills These previous activities provided an important starting point for this study, illuminating key strands of relevant research Thanks are also due to Susan Bales and Nat Kendall-Taylor of the FrameWorks Institute The guidance they provided in written memos, presentations, and informal conversations helped to frame and communicate the messages contained in this report Many individuals at the NRC assisted the committee Board on Testing and Assessment director Stuart Elliott played a critical role throughout the ix Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 228 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK HENRY M LEVIN is the William Heard Kilpatrick professor of economics and education at Teachers College, Columbia University, and director of the National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education, a nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization He is a specialist in the economics of education and human resources, cost-effectiveness analysis, school reform, and educational vouchers Among his 21 published books are Readings in the Economics of Education with C Belfield (2003) and Privatizing Educational Choice with C Belfield (2005) He has served on several National Research Council committees, including the recent Committee on Strengthening Benefit-Cost Methodology for the Evaluation of Early Childhood Interventions, the Committee on Educational Excellence and Testing Equity (2000-2002), and the Panel on Secondary School Education for the Changing Workplace (early 1980s) He received his bachelor’s degree in marketing and economics from New York University and his Ph.D in economics from Rutgers University CHRISTINE MASSEY is the director of research and education at the Institute for Research in Cognitive Science at the University of Pennsylvania She is also director of PENNlincs, which serves as an outreach arm of the Institute, linking recent theory and research in cognitive science to education efforts in public schools and cultural institutions She has directed major projects that combine research investigating students’ learning and conceptual development in science and math with the development and evaluation of new curriculum materials, learning technology, and educational programs for students and teachers These projects include development of mathematics learning software that incorporates principles of perceptual learning, creation of the Science for Developing Minds curriculum series, development of a robotics curriculum for the middle grades, and kits and exhibit enhancements to support family learning in zoos and museums She is an Eisenhower fellow and has also been a fellow in the Spencer Foundation/National Academy of Education’s postdoctoral fellowship program Dr Massey served as a member of the National Research Council’s steering committee for the Workshop on the Intersection of Science Education and 21st Century Skills She earned her Ph.D in psychology with a specialization in cognitive development at the University of Pennsylvania RICHARD E MAYER is professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he has served since 1975 His research interests are in educational and cognitive psychology His current research involves cognition, instruction, and technology with a special focus on multimedia learning and computer-supported learning He is past president of Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the American Psychological Association, past vice president of Division C (Learning and Instruction) of the American Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century APPENDIX C 229 Educational Research Association, and former editor of the Educational Psychologist From the American Psychological Association, he received the E.L Thorndike Award for career achievement in educational psychology (in 2000) and the Distinguished Contribution of Applications of Psychology to Education and Training Award (in 2008) He has led many research projects funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, the National Science Foundation, and other agencies He serves on the editorial boards of 14 journals, mainly in educational psychology, and is the author of numerous books and articles, including Multimedia Learning: Second Edition (2009), Applying the Science of Learning (2010), and the Handbook of Research on Learning and Instruction (editor, with P Alexander, 2011) He served on the National Research Council’s Committee on Opportunities in Basic Research in the Behavioral and Social Sciences for the U.S Military and on the Mathematics Learning Study Committee He received a Ph.D in psychology from the University of Michigan in 1973 C KENT McGUIRE was recently appointed president and chief executive officer of the Southern Education Foundation From 2003 to 2010, he served as dean of the College of Education and professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Temple University Previously, he was senior vice president at MDRC, where his responsibilities included leadership of the education, children, and youth division From 1998 to 2001, Dr McGuire served in the Clinton administration as assistant secretary of education, focusing on research and development Earlier, he was an education program officer at the Pew Memorial Trusts and at the Eli Lilly Endowment Dr McGuire’s current research interests focus on the areas of education administration and policy and organizational change He has been involved in a number of evaluation research initiatives on comprehensive school reform, education finance, and school improvement He has written and co-authored various policy reports, monographs, book chapters, articles, and papers in professional journals He is a member of the National Research Council’s Committee on Independent Evaluation of DC Public Schools and previously served as a member of the Center for Education Advisory Board He received his doctorate in public administration from the University of Colorado at Boulder P DAVID PEARSON is a professor in the programs of language and literacy and cognition and development at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley, where he served as dean from 2001 to 2010 His current research focuses on reading instruction and reading assessment policies and practices Previously, he was dean of the College of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign A member of the National Academy of Education, he has served as president of the Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 230 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK National Reading Conference and on the board of directors of both the International Reading Association and the Association of American Colleges of Teacher Education Among his honors are the William S Gray Citation of Merit from the International Reading Association, the Oscar Causey Award for Contributions to Reading Research from the National Reading Conference, and the Alan Purves Award from the National Council of Teachers of English He is the founding editor of the Handbook of Reading Research, now in its fourth volume, and has served on the editorial boards of many journals including Reading Research Quarterly, Science, Journal of Literacy Research, Review of Educational Research, Journal of Educational Psychology, and Cognition and Instruction He currently serves on the National Research Council’s Panel to Review Alternative Data Sources for the Limited-English Proficiency Allocation Formula Professor Pearson received his B.A in history from the University of California, Berkeley, after which he taught elementary school in California for several years, and completed his Ph.D in reading education at the University of Minnesota EDWARD A SILVER is William A Brownell collegiate professor in education at the University of Michigan and holds a joint appointment in the School of Education and the Department of Mathematics He is also currently serving as dean of the School of Education at University of Michigan–Dearborn He was formerly at the University of Pittsburgh, where he was a professor in the School of Education and a senior scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center His research interests focus on the teaching, learning, and assessment of mathematics, particularly mathematical problem solving He is also actively involved in efforts to promote high-quality mathematics education for all students, particularly Hispanic and African American students Dr Silver’s service with the National Research Council includes the Mathematical Sciences Education Board, the Study Group on Guidelines for Mathematics Assessment, the Committee on the Foundations of Assessment, and the Committee on the Study of Teacher Preparation Programs in the United States He received a B.A in mathematics from Iona College, an M.S in mathematics from Columbia University, and an M.A and doctorate in mathematics education from Teachers College of Columbia University Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century Index [Page numbers followed by b, f, n, or t refer to boxed text, figure captions, notes, or tables, respectively.] Assessing 21st century skills in alignment with Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 13, 190 challenges to, 11–12, 149–150, 189–190 challenges to systemic implementation of interventions for deeper learning, 190–191, 193 classroom systems for, 179 for collaboration, 148, 149 cost of, 12, 189–190 evidence-based approach in, 144 intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, 12, 148–149, 189 meaningful learning, 83 measurement of typical performance, 149–150 measures of cognitive competence, 22, 145–147 problem-solving skills, 145 to promote deeper learning, 165–166, 176–180, 188–190 psychometric analysis, 25–27, 189 purpose, 176–177 qualities of measures for, 177 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9, 10, 181, 182 A Achievement competency, academic performance and, 45–46 Adaptability and flexibility, 25, 55, 64, 89, 93, 138 After-school programs See Informal learning environments Agreeableness, 24, 29 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 125–126 Antisocial behavior cognitive skills to reduce, 22 educational outcomes, 45–47, 94 employment outcomes, 51–52 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 65 Anxiety, 45, 59 Apprenticeship teaching, 169–170 Argumentation skills, learning goals for mathematics, 123–124 Assertiveness, 24 231 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 232 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK recommendations for development of Common Core Standards and science standards, 13, 192 recommendations for research, 12–13, 67, 192 recommendations for systemic implementation of interventions to promote 21st century skills, 13–14, 192–193 research needs, 12–13, 67, 189, 191 self-regulation skills, 95 student self-assessment, 178–179 study goals, teacher capacity for, 12, 190 transfer of competencies, 144–145 Assessment, traditional current approach, 11, 12, 145, 188–189 intelligence testing, 22 retention and recognition tests, 83 study goals, 2, 17–18 transfer tests, 83 See also Assessing 21st century skills Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills, 16, 24 ATC21S project, 18, 149 Attention competency academic performance and, 45–46 educational outcomes, 94 role of, 94 Auditory perception, 28 B Bar exams, 145–146 Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 125–126 Bloom, B S., 21 Board games, for mathematics instruction, 120b Bowling Alone (Putnam), 59 C Carnegie Corporation, 16–17 Cisco, 16 Civic engagement definition, 59 determinants of, 60–61 educational attainment as predictive of, 5, 66 trends, 59, 60 Cognitive competencies achievement competency and, 45 assessment, 22, 145–147 component skills, 168 components of cognitive architecture, 75–76 deeper learning and, 74, 84–85 development of, to promote capacity for transfer, 8–9, 180–181 differential psychology, 22–23 domain-general knowledge in problem solving, 76–77 domain of 21st century skills, 3, 4, 21 employment outcomes and, 49–50 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4, 37, 65–66 goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 133–135 health outcomes and, 58 for learning, 98 learning goals for mathematics, 122–125 models of human thinking and learning, 73–74 noncognitive determinants, 52 practice and feedback in, 79–82 to promote transfer, instructional design for, 159–173 skill clusters, 4, 32t stability over time, 23 strategies for coping with complexity, 104 structure of scientific knowledge, 128 successful interventions to promote deeper learning, 150–159 taxonomy of reflective latent variables, 27–28 trends in workplace demands, 54–56 types of intelligences, 23 See also Critical thinking skills; Problem-solving skills Cognitive load theory, 98 Collaboration See Teamwork and collaboration College and career readiness, 1, 17, 35 Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics anchor standards for reading, 109–111, 110f articulation of 21st century competencies in, 11 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 233 INDEX assessment frameworks and methods, 13, 190 conceptual approach to English arts instruction, 108–111 evolution of mathematics standards, 113–117 goals for capacity to transfer knowledge, 6, 7, 141 implementation challenges, 189, 191 NRC science framework and, promotion of deeper learning principles in, promotion of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies in, recommendations for assessment systems, 13 significance of, for future of education, 6, 101, 108 sociocultural perspective in, 74 study goals, 17 21st century skills in context of, 2, 102, 111–112, 114–115b, 122–124, 123f, 139–141, 189 Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, 117 Communication skills, 4, 16, 17, 24 as component of 21st century skills, 1–2 as element of interpersonal competence, 3, 59 goals of NRC science framework, 138 learning goals for mathematics, 123 trends in workplace demands, 54 Communities of practice, 95–96, 187 Competencies definition, 3, 23 developmental psychology taxonomy, 45 O*NET content model, 30, 31t psychometric analysis, 25–27, 189 See also Cognitive competencies; Interpersonal competencies; Intrapersonal competencies Complexity, 104 Conduct disorders, 45 Conflict resolution, Congress recommendations for, 14 Conscientiousness, 24, 29, 89 in development of expertise, as educational outcome factor, 38–39 employment outcomes, 50–51 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 65 health outcomes and, 58 Construction of meaning, 104–105 Costs assessment, 12, 189–190 employer investment in employee training, 155 Council of Chief State School Officers, 2, 17, 101 Creativity, 16, 17 as component of 21st century skills, Critical thinking skills four resources model of reading, 106–107 importance of, 16, 122–123 societal demand for, study goals, 1–2, 17 See also Cognitive competencies Crystallized intelligence, 23, 28 Curriculum developmental considerations in design of, 186 divergent approaches to English arts instruction, 103–104 integrated, 7, 114–115b, 133–134 problem-solving and metacognitive strategies in, 170–171 to promote deeper learning, 7, 186 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181–182 recommendations for systemic implementation of interventions to promote 21st century skills, 13–14, 192–193 research needs, 186, 191 study goals, 2, 17–18 typical mathematics instruction, 113, 118 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, 116 D Decoding texts, 106, 107–108 Deeper learning assessment, 83, 176–180 case examples of learning environments for, 86–88, 120–122b, 134–135b cognitive competencies and, 74, 84–85 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 234 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK components of, 84–86 current understanding of, 82–83, 160b definition, 1, 2–3, 5, 17, 74, 99 development of 21st century competencies and, 8, 19, 70, 74, 99 early instruction to promote, 161 evidence-based guidelines for instruction to promote, 159–161 evidence of successful instructional intervention to promote, 150–159 formative assessment to promote, 165–166, 188–190 four resources model of reading, 106–108 goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 111–112, 114–115b, 123f, 189 guided discovery and feedback to promote, 162–164 instructional features for, 7–9, 97–99 interpersonal processes in, 95–97 in mathematics instruction, 119–122 objectives, 5–6, 69–70 practice and feedback in, 79–82 priming student motivation for, 164–165 questioning techniques to promote, 162 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181 in science instruction, 129–131 study goals, 16–18 systemic implementation of interventions to promote, 19, 185–186 teacher preparation for promoting, 186–188 through problem-based learning, 166–167 use of examples and cases to promote, 164 use of multiple and varied representations to promote, 9, 161–162, 163b, 181 See also Transfer of knowledge and skills Department of Education, U.S., 13, 190 Depression, 45 Development considerations in curriculum design for deeper learning, 186 early academic competencies and later academic achievement, 45–47 intelligence, 23–24 intrapersonal and interpersonal domains, 24 personality traits, 24, 38 Differential psychology, 22–23 Digital technology cognitive demands, societal demand for 21st century skills, 53–54 study goals, See also Information and communications technology literacy Discourse skills, Disparities in adult outcomes, development of 21st century competencies to reduce, 13, 190, 192–193 Diversity issues, 137, 138 Domain-general knowledge, 76–77 E Edison, Thomas Alva, 16 Educational outcomes civic engagement and, 60–61 correlations between competencies and behaviors in, 45–47 development of 21st century competencies to reduce disparities in, 13–14, 190, 192–193 early competencies and later achievement, 45–47 employment outcomes, 47–49 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4, 5, 37, 66, 99 evidence of 21st century skills as causal in, 4–5, 40–41t, 44t, 65–66 health outcomes and, 56–57 international comparison, 15–16 interpersonal processes in, 96 personality factors, 38–39, 44t rates of monetary return, 47–48 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 235 INDEX significance of 21st century skills in, 2, 18–19 social good, 1, 15 socioeconomic factors, 16 study goals, 17 transfer in the labor market and, 61–64 Education and training of teachers, 186–188 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 14, 193 Emotional functioning instructional design principles for enhancing, 175 intrapersonal competency in, 3, 21 stability, 30, 51 successful interventions to promote competence in, 151–152, 153–154 Engaging Schools: Fostering High School Students’ Motivation to Learn, 119 English language arts deeper learning goals, Common Core Standards and, 111–112, 114–115b development of Common Core Standards for, 101–102 divergent approaches to instruction, 102–106 four resources model, 106–108 instructional interventions promoting intrapersonal competencies, 151 integrated approach to instruction in Common Core Standards, 108–109, 114b See also Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics; Reading skills Essential processing, 98–99, 163b Ethics, 2, 17 Examples and cases, instructional use of, 9, 164, 181 Expertise current understanding of, 78–79 development of metacognition in, 91–92 problem-solving strategies and, 77 self-regulated learning in, 93 transfer of knowledge and, 82, 85–86, 97–98 Externalizing behaviors, 45 Extraneous processing, 98–99, 163b Extraversion, 26, 30 Extroversion, 29 F Facebook, 53 Feedback in formative assessment, 177–178 in guided discovery, 162–164 importance of, in learning, 80–82, 147, 171 to promote problem solving and metacognition, 10, 182 self-regulated learning and, 93 Fifth Dimension, 154 Fluid intelligence, 23, 27 Forecasting ability, assessment of, 145 Formative assessment, 10, 165–166, 176, 177–180, 182, 188 Formative latent variable, 26, 27, 30 Four resources model, 106–108, 109–111 Framework for K-12 Science Education, A (NRC science framework), 18 articulation of 21st century competencies in, 11 assessment frameworks and methods, 13, 190 cognitive competency goals in, 136–137 Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics, core disciplinary ideas, 132 crosscutting concepts, 132–133 deeper learning goals in, 130–132 goals for capacity to transfer knowledge, 6, 7, 141 goals for science instruction, 128–129 historical evolution of standards, 125–126 implementation challenges, 189, 191 interpersonal competencies in, 138 intrapersonal competencies in, 137–138 key practices, 133, 138 organization of, 131–132 promotion of deeper learning principles in, Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 236 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK promotion of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies in, recommendations for assessment systems, 13 significance of, for future of education, 6, 101 sociocultural perspective in, 74 study goals, 17 21st century skills in context of, 2, 102, 131, 133–134, 136–141, 136f, 189 FrameWorks Institute, 18 G Generative processing, 89, 98–99, 108, 163b Gestalt psychology, 72, 82–83 Goal-setting, 21–22 Guided discovery, 162–164 H Handbook of Educational Psychology, 159–161 Handbook of Reading Research, 105 Health outcomes cognitive competency and, 58 educational attainment and, 56–57, 66 evidence of 21st century skills as causal in, 4–5, 43, 65 personality traits and, 58 Hewlett Foundation, 18, 24, 131 Higher order thinking, 1, 17 How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom, 121b I Individual differences, 22–23 Informal learning environments exhibit design to promote deeper learning, 162, 164, 165 priming student motivation in, 165 settings, 2, 17–18, 153 study goals, 2, 17–18 successful interventions to promote deeper learning, 153–154 Information and communications technology literacy, societal demand for, 24, 53–56 Information processing model memory, 75–76, 75f Initiation, 93 Innovation, 2, 16, 17 Insight, 72 Institute of Education Science, 159–161 Intel, 16 Intellectual openness, 89 Intelligence developmental stability, 23–24 testing, 22, 168 types of, 23, 27–28 Internalizing behaviors, 45 Internet and social media utilization trends, 53 See also Information and communications technology literacy Interpersonal competencies assessment challenges, 12, 149, 189 assessment measures, 22 current assessment practices, 148–149 deeper learning and, 95–97 developmental stability, 23, 24 development of, to promote capacity for transfer of knowledge, 8, 180–181 domain of 21st century skills, 3, 4, 21, 22 employment outcomes, 55–56 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 37, 65, 66 in goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 111–112, 123–125, 138, 140 instructional design principles, 173–175 learning goals for mathematics, 125 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 10–11, 182–183 self-regulated learning and, 93, 97 significance of, in learning, 22 skill clusters, 34t, 95 successful interventions to promote, 150–159 teaching practices to support deeper learning, 7–8 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 237 INDEX Intrapersonal competencies assessment challenges, 12, 149, 189 assessment measures, 22 current assessment practices, 148–149 for deeper learning, 99 developmental stability, 23, 24 development of, to promote capacity for transfer of knowledge, 8, 180–181 domain of 21st century skills, 3, 4, 21–22 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 37, 65, 66 in goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 111– 112, 123–125, 135–137, 140 instructional design principles, 173–175 learning goals for mathematics, 125 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 10–11, 182–183 significance of, in learning, 22 skill clusters, 4, 33t, 88–89 successful interventions to promote, 150–159 teaching practices to support deeper learning, 7–8 See also Motivation; Self-regulation J Jangle fallacy, 25 John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation, 16–17 L Latent variables, 25–27 formative, 26, 27, 30 reflective, 26, 27–30 Leadership skills, 4, 95 Learning 21st century skills formative assessment to promote, 176 problem-based approach, 166–167 role of beliefs and motivation in, 89–91 self-regulation in, 92–95 study goals, 2, 17–18 See also Deeper learning; Teaching 21st century skills and competencies Learning theory memory processes in, 98 sociocultural perspective, 73–74, 95, 99 strong and weak problem-solving strategies, 76–77 of transfer, 70–72 21st century skills in, 2, 17 use of schemas, 78–79 Learning to learn, 1–2, 17 Lexical hypothesis, 28 Locus of control, 30, 30n Long-term memory, 76 M Mathematics attention competency and, 94 case example of environment for deeper learning, 86–88, 150–151 cognitive skills in, 122–125 deeper learning expectations in, 119–122 early academic competencies and later academic achievement, 45–47 early instruction, 120–122b evolution of Common Core Standards, 113–117 international comparison of student performance, 15–16 learning goals for intrapersonal and interpersonal competency, 125 recommendations for pedagogical reform, 118–119 research perspectives on teaching for understanding, 117–119 study goals, 17 typical instructional approach, 113, 118 See also Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics Memory for expertise, 79 information processing model, 75–76, 75f learning theory, 98 long-term, 76 in metacognitive skills, 92 schematic knowledge, 78 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 238 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK taxonomy of cognitive abilities, 28 types of learning outcomes, 83, 83t working, 75–76 Mental health, academic performance and, 45–46 Metacognition definition, 8, 22, 91, 167 design principles for teaching, 168–172, 172b function, 167–168 mathematics instruction to promote, 122 recommendations for instruction to enhance, 10, 182 significance of, in learning, 8, 91–92 Microsoft, 16 Model building skills, 145 Modeling, 10, 164, 169, 182 Monitoring and reflecting, 145, 170 Motivation in Common Core Standards framework, 111–112 as component of 21st century skills, 1–2, 17 as determinant of intelligence, 23–24 in learning, 89–91, 99 priming, 10, 164–165, 181 social dimensions of, 97 Multimedia learning, 98, 161–162, 163b N National Council of Bar Examiners, 145–146 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 116 National Governors Association, 2, 17, 101 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 105 National Science Education Standards, 126–127, 132 National Science Foundation, 17 Nellie Mae Education Foundation, 17 Neuroticism definition, 29 developmental patterns, 24 educational outcomes and, 38–39 employment outcomes and, 51 health outcomes and, 58 interpersonal relationship success and, 59 21st century competencies aligned with, 89 New basic skills, 1, 17 Next generation learning, 1, 17 Next Generation Science Standards, 13, 101, 190 No Child Left Behind, 116, 129 Nonverbal communication skills NRC science framework See Framework for K-12 Science Education, A O Occupational Information Network, 25 O*NET content model, 30, 31t, 35–36 Openness to experience, 29, 30, 38–39, 89 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 15–16, 23 Out-of-school programs See Informal learning environments P Packet Tracer, 178 Parenting interventions to promote 21st century competencies, 154–155 Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 16, 131 Pearson Foundation, 17 Peer modeling, 165 Persistence, 1–2, 17, 125, 140 Personality theory determinants of relationship success, 59 determinants of school success, 38–39, 44t developmental stability, 23–24, 38 in differential psychology, 22–24 employment outcomes, 50–51 evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 65–66 Five Factor model, 24, 28–30, 38, 50–51 predictors of health outcomes, 58 taxonomy of reflective latent variables, 28–30 Positive Action Program, 153 Power law of practice, 80 Practice, 79–82, 171 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 239 INDEX Practice-based professional education, 186–187 Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, 105 Priming student motivation, 10, 164–165, 181 Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, 116 Problem-based learning, 166–167 Problem-solving skills adult outcomes and, 16, 17 assessment, 145 definition, 167 design principles for teaching, 167–172, 172b instructional features of deep learning for, 8–9 learning goals for mathematics, 123–125 recommendations for instruction to enhance, 10, 182 societal demand for, strong methods, 77 weak methods, 76–77 See also Cognitive competencies Procedural information, 76 Productivity, 62–63, 66 Professional development, teacher recommendations for systemic implementation of interventions to promote 21st century skills, 13–14, 193 reforms to support instruction for deeper learning, 186–188, 191 study goals, 2, 17–18 Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics, 118 Programme for International Student Assessment, 15–16, 145, 146, 149 Prompting, in problem-solving instruction, 169 Putnam, Robert, 59 Q Questioning techniques, 162 R Raikes Foundation, 17 Reaction time, 28 Reading skills anchor standards in Common Core Standards, 109–111, 110f attention competency and, 94 divergent approaches to instruction, 102–103 early academic competencies and later academic achievement, 45–47 four resources model, 106–107, 109–111 integrated approach to instruction in Common Core Standards, 108–109 international comparison of student performance, 15–16 study goals, 17 See also Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics; English language arts Reciprocal teaching, 169–170 Recommendations for design of instructional practices for deeper learning, 9–10, 181 for development of assessments of 21st century competencies, 12–13, 192 for research into instruction targeted to transferable intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, 11, 182–183 for research into linkage between 21st century skills and adult outcomes, 5, 66–67 for research into transfer of knowledge and skills, 7, 141 Reflective latent variables clusters of 21st century competencies, 35 cognitive abilities taxonomy, 27–28 definition, 26 personality taxonomy, 28–30 Representations of concepts and tasks, 9, 98, 128, 133–134, 161–162, 181 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 240 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK Research needs assessment of 21st century competencies, 12–13, 189, 191, 192 curriculum to develop 21st competencies, 186, 191 instruction targeted to transferable intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, 10–11, 182–183 linkage between 21st century skills and adult outcomes, 5, 66–67 self-regulated learning, 93–94 self-regulation, 95 transfer of knowledge within and across disciplines, 7, 141 Retrieval ability, 28 Rote learning, 9, 72, 82–83 S Schematic knowledge, 78–79 Science and engineering instruction case example of deeper learning in, 134–135b content and process approaches, 126–127 current practice, 128–131 development of sophisticated scientific knowledge in, 128 evolution of national standards for education in, 125–126 hands-on activities in, 126–127 inquiry in, 127 in integrated curriculum, 132–135 international comparison of student performance, 15–16 science practices goals for, 130–131 strands of science proficiency, 133–135 study goals, 17 teacher preparation for, 188 See also Framework for K-12 Science Education, A (NRC science framework) Science for All Americans, 126 Scientific method, 126–127 Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 25, 35 Seeds of Science/Roots of Reading, 114b Self-affirmation theory, 91 Self-direction, 93 Self-efficacy beliefs, 30, 51, 89–91, 139–140, 164–165 Self-esteem, 30, 51 Self-evaluation, 30, 89, 178–179 Self-regulation academic and social outcomes predicted by, 94–95 assessment, 95 defining features of, 21–22, 94 instructional interventions based on, 93 in learning, 92–94, 97, 99 learning goals for mathematics, 125 overlap with 21st century skills, 35, 93, 140 research needs, 93–94, 95 social dimensions of, 97 successful interventions to promote, 152–153 Semantic information, 76 SimScientists, 146–147, 178 Skill acquisition curves, 80–82, 81f Social and cultural competency determinants of success in personal relationships, 58–59 role of social relationships in learning, 95–96 successful interventions to promote, 151–152, 153–154 as 21st century competency, 24, 35 See also Interpersonal competencies Sociocultural models of learning, 73–74, 95, 99 Socioeconomic disparities academic performance and, 16 civic engagement and, 60 State assessments, 11, 111, 189, 191 Stereotype threat, 91 Student centered learning, 1, 17, 103 Study skills, 35 Stupski Foundation, 17 Summative assessment, 176, 188–189 Susan Crown Enchange Fund, 17 Systems thinking, 123 T Taking Science to School, 128, 133 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 241 INDEX Teaching 21st century skills and competencies case example of learning environment for, 86–88 challenges to systemic implementation, 190–191, 193 cognitive competencies to promote transfer, instructional design for, 159–173 early intervention, 161 implications of sociocultural model of human learning, 73–74 instructional features for deeper learning, 7–9, 97–99 intrapersonal and interpersonal domain, instructional design principles for, 173–175 problem-solving and metacognitive strategies, 167–172 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181–182 resources for implementation, role of assessment in, 176–180 study goals, 2, 17 successful intervention to promote deeper learning, 150–153 teacher assessment skills for, 12 teacher preparation for, 186–188 use of examples and cases, 9, 164, 181 Team training, 159, 175 Teamwork and collaboration assessment, 148, 149 component skills, 95 for learning, 95–96 in mathematics instruction, 118–119 in science education, 138 self-regulated learning and, 93 as 21st century skills, 1–2, 4, 16, 17, 24 Tools of the Mind, 152 Transfer of knowledge and skills, 19, 143 assessment challenges, 144–145 assessment goals, 144 challenges to systemic implementation of interventions to promote, 190–191, 193 as characteristic of 21st century skills, 23, 74 cognitive competencies for, instructional design for enhancing, 159–173 current understanding, 70–72, 82, 99 definition, 15 delineation of learning goals for instruction in, 144 development of 21st century competencies to promote, 8–9, 180–181 domain-general knowledge for, 76–77 domain-specific teaching for, 170, 172–173 educational attainment and capacity for, expertise and, 85–86, 97–98 as goal of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 7, 141 instructional challenges, 98 labor market outcomes of educational attainment, 61–64 as product of deeper learning, 5–6, 8, 69–70, 99 recommendations for research, 7, 141 role of beliefs in, 89 shortcomings of current practice and research needs, specific and general forms, 70–72 successful instructional interventions to promote, 150–159 types of knowledge and, 84–86 types of learning and, 83, 83t use of schemas, 78 workplace interventions to promote, 155–159 See also Deeper learning 21st century skills and competencies alignment with personality factors, 31–35 assessment challenges, 11–12 clusters of component skills, 1–2, 3–4, 25, 32–34t deeper learning for development of, 5–6, 8, 70, 74, 99 definition, 1, 2–3, 5, 6, 17, 23, 25, 35, 67, 74 degrees of correlation with adult outcomes, 37–38 domains of competence, 3, 21–22, 25 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century 242 EDUCATION FOR LIFE AND WORK evidence of causality in educational and adult outcomes, 4–5, 37, 40–44t, 64–67 goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework and, 111–112, 123f, 131, 133–134, 136–141, 136f, 189 interactions among, 22 knowledge base, 24–25 parenting interventions to promote, 154–155 recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181 recommendations for research, 5, 66–67 recursive relationship with deeper learning, 8, 99 resources for implementation in current instructional practice, 7, 140 self-regulated learning and, 93 societal benefits of promoting, 190 societal demand for, 1, 15, 16, 53–56 study goals, 1–2, 16–18 successful instructional interventions to promote, 150–159 systemic implementation of interventions to promote, 13–14, 19, 185–190, 192–193 taxonomy, 35–36 transferable knowledge as characteristic of, 23, 74 trends in education, 16 See also Teaching 21st century skills and competencies Twitter, 53 V Visual perception, 28 W William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, 16–17 Work ethic, 89 Working memory, 75–76, 98 Work outcomes adaptability of firms to technological change, 62–63 cognitive competency and, 49–50, 54–56 earnings, 47–48, 49, 54, 55, 63–64, 66 educational attainment and, 37, 47–49, 61–64, 66 evidence of 21st century skills as causal in, 4–5, 37, 42–43t, 65–66 interpersonal skills as factor in, 55–56 noncognitive correlations, 51–53 nonmonetary rewards, 48 personality factors in, 50–51 significance of 21st century skills in, 2, 18–19, 70 study goals, 17 team training interventions, 159 transferability of skills across occupations, 62–64 trends in marketplace demands, 53–56, 70 workplace interventions to promote transferable competencies, 155–159 Writing skills, 107 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved