Introduction
The formal study of intercultural communication in the United States began with the
The 1946 Foreign Service Act established essential cultural and language training for foreign diplomats, paving the way for the field of intercultural communication, which gained prominence with Edward T Hall's seminal work, The Silent Language, in 1959 As globalization fosters greater interaction among diverse populations for both professional and personal reasons, the significance of intercultural communication continues to grow It is imperative for higher education institutions to cultivate leaders who possess cross-cultural awareness, a deep understanding of cultural differences and their impact on leadership effectiveness, and sensitivity to various perspectives.
As of 2002, 175 million individuals resided in countries different from their birthplace, a significant increase from 1975 (Deardorff, 2009) The United States is witnessing a substantial rise in immigrants from Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia, leading to a diverse population where no single ethnic group, including Whites, holds a majority (Deardorff, 2009) Higher education institutions play a crucial role in preparing future leaders to engage respectfully and understandingly with diverse populations.
Research indicates that universities promoting an inclusive environment and integrating interracial and intercultural communication into both co-curricular and academic programs produce graduates with a greater appreciation for diversity and improved skills for success in their careers and personal lives.
The Greater Expectations Project by the Association of American Colleges and Universities highlights the importance of global knowledge and intercultural competence as crucial learning outcomes across all academic disciplines and majors.
Higher education plays a crucial role in shaping future leaders equipped to navigate diverse workplaces College educators have the vital task of fostering leaders who embody the values, skills, and knowledge necessary to create innovative solutions to social issues, bridge economic divides, and combat social inequality (Hurtado, 2005) In my position focused on student development at a small private liberal arts college, I can significantly impact the discussions and skills that students aged 18 to 25 develop regarding intercultural communication and leadership practices.
Intercultural communication has evolved primarily in an international context but is increasingly relevant in local settings due to changing demographics and advancements in technology (Cornwell & Stoddard, 1999) The processes of internationalization and multiculturalism are enhanced by understanding both diverse cultures and one’s own As the demographics of the United States and the world shift rapidly towards greater multiculturalism, it was noted in 2004 that one in 40 individuals in the U.S identified as multiracial.
By 2050, one in five Americans is expected to identify as multiracial or biracial, highlighting the need for higher education practitioners to prepare students for a diverse global society As cultural diversity increases, educators will encounter more students from varied backgrounds, making effective intercultural communication essential Consequently, the distinction between domestic and international learning is fading, emphasizing the significance of understanding and engaging with diverse perspectives in educational settings.
In the context of the United States' evolving demographics, historian Diane Ravitch emphasizes the necessity for a diverse society to intentionally cultivate shared values and ideals among its citizens Higher education professionals are confronted with shifting student demographics and the changing landscapes of their surrounding communities Many educational institutions are dedicated to their mission of community service, aiming to enhance local conditions while instilling in students the values of critical thinking, work ethic, and personal and social responsibility This commitment underscores the importance of civic engagement in fostering a cohesive society.
Internationalization and multiculturalism, while driven by distinct motives and strategies, share a fundamental principle: the significance of understanding diverse cultures Effective civic engagement necessitates collaboration among individuals from varying backgrounds to tackle shared challenges and accomplish collective goals.
Intercultural competence involves recognizing both differences and similarities, understanding challenges in diverse environments, and developing skills to achieve common goals (Dunlap & Webster, 2009) The field of intercultural communication serves as a vital link between local and global viewpoints by focusing on interactions among individuals and groups with varying values, beliefs, and behaviors (J M Bennett, 2012) This dissertation specifically aims to enhance the intercultural competence of college students by implementing an intervention strategy that examines the impact of training and reflection within the context of civic engagement.
Gregersen-Hermans and Pusch (2012) liken developing intercultural competence to learning to ride a bicycle, emphasizing that it is a complex skill requiring time and instruction Supported by researchers like M J Bennett (1998), Deardorff (2006), and others, they assert that intercultural competence is developmental, necessitating a blend of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through a structured learning process To design effective training for this research project, I incorporated three conceptual models: Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), Sanford’s Challenge and Support theory, and Kolb’s Experiential Learning theory These frameworks were chosen to facilitate a progression from ethnocentric perspectives to a more global mindset among students.
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), proposed by M J Bennett in 1986, outlines the progression of individuals toward greater intercultural adaptability This model describes a series of worldview orientations that enhance the potential for increasingly complex intercultural experiences (Hammer et al., 2003) It posits that as individuals encounter and navigate cultural differences, their competence in intercultural relations improves Each stage of the DMIS builds on the previous one, meaning that unresolved issues from earlier stages can resurface and impact later developmental phases.
The model discussed in Chapter II outlines six stages of cultural awareness, categorized into two groups The first three stages—denial, defense, and minimization—are termed ethnocentric, reflecting a belief that one's own culture is the central reality In contrast, the latter three stages—acceptance of difference, adaptation to difference, and integration of difference—are known as ethnorelative stages, emphasizing that all cultures possess equal complexity and that behaviors should be understood within their cultural contexts.
Sanford’s challenge and support theory emphasizes the need for a balanced approach in learning experiences, where the right amount of challenge is paired with adequate support Excessive support may hinder a student's growth, while overwhelming challenges can lead to frustration and disengagement Striking this balance minimizes frustration, reduces resistance, and fosters deeper learning Complementing this, Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory suggests that engagement in suitably challenging activities enhances immersion and concentration, further enriching the learning experience In 1966, Sanford introduced the concept of readiness, highlighting that individuals must be physically or psychologically prepared to grow and develop effectively.
Experiential learning cycle D A Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle (see
Learning is defined as the process of creating knowledge through the transformation of experiences, which involves both grasping and transforming those experiences This process is encapsulated in the experiential learning cycle, which consists of four distinct stages.
1 concrete experience: where the person is gathering information through a tangible experience and relying on his/her senses to make it into a concrete reality,
2 reflective observation: using the concepts from the experience that either the person had or someone they had been observing had and reflecting on those observations,
3 abstract conceptualization: thinking about and analyzing the concepts from the reflections to create implications for action, and
4 active experimentation: using the concepts to move toward action and actively test the guidelines in new experiences
Figure 1.1 Experiential learning cycle From “The Kolb Model Modified for Classroom
Activities,” by M D Svinicki and N M Dixon, 1987, College Teaching, 35 Copyright 1985 by Taylor & Francis Reprinted with permission
Literature Review
A primary objective of higher education in the United States is to foster informed citizenship, equipping students to actively engage with their local and global communities in addressing societal challenges Guarasci and Cornwell (1997) emphasize the importance of adopting a multidisciplinary and culturally inclusive approach to education that acknowledges the growing diversity within American society This highlights the necessity of citizenship education grounded in college student development theory and intercultural sensitivity, preparing students for a complex and interconnected world.
Chapter II examines the significance of developing intercultural sensitivity as a crucial skill for future leaders, along with relevant conceptual models and definitions It highlights current research on intercultural sensitivity among college students, particularly in the context of study abroad programs The researcher aims to adapt findings from the study abroad literature to enhance intercultural sensitivity in civic engagement experiences The review emphasizes that merely participating in study abroad or service-learning does not inherently boost a student's intercultural sensitivity; instead, it is the reflective process on these experiences that fosters growth, underscoring the importance of guided reflection in enhancing students' intercultural competence.
History and Underpinnings of Intercultural Communication and Sensitivity
Intercultural communication emerged as a vital area of education and research in response to the increasing number of individuals studying, working, and living abroad post-World War II, alongside growing pluralism in the United States Key needs included preparing Americans for overseas assignments, assisting international students, fostering successful interactions with international visitors, and promoting relationships among racially and ethnically diverse groups, particularly during the Civil Rights movement Edward T Hall, a pioneering anthropologist, contributed significantly to this field through his studies of the Navaho and Hopi tribes and his seminal work "The Silent Language," which introduced the term "intercultural communication." This laid the groundwork for academic programs in intercultural studies, which expanded in the 1970s amid rising awareness of domestic interethnic issues highlighted by the Civil Rights movement The interplay between international and multicultural movements has become increasingly recognized, emphasizing the need for higher education to equip students for effective engagement across diverse cultural contexts.
Universities (AAC&U) stated in its 2006 publication “Assessing Global Learning: Matching Good Intentions With Good Practice”
Educating students for a global future is essential, as highlighted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U), which emphasizes global knowledge, ethical commitments, and intercultural skills as key elements of modern liberal education With graduates entering an interdependent and diverse world, more colleges and universities are integrating global learning objectives into their mission statements This presents an opportunity for institutions to incorporate these goals both within the curriculum and through extracurricular activities, thereby expanding the understanding of identity and diversity.
Models of Intercultural Competence/Sensitivity
Many disciplines have studied intercultural communication over the past fifty years, yielding numerous and diverse conceptualizations Building on the work of Spitzberg and
Intercultural competence, as defined by Chagnon (2009), involves the effective management of interactions among individuals with varying emotional, cognitive, and behavioral perspectives While numerous conceptual models exist in the literature on intercultural communication competence, five key models—compositional, co-orientational, adaptational, causal, and developmental—are frequently highlighted Chapter II of the article examines four of these models, placing particular emphasis on the developmental model, which views intercultural competence as a lifelong process and aligns closely with theories of college student development.
Compositional models are analytical frameworks that focus on identifying the essential components required for effective intercultural communication, as outlined by Spitzberg & Chagnon (2009) While these models emphasize the traits, characteristics, and skills necessary for competence, they do not explore the relationships between these components.
Howard-Hamilton, Richardson, and Shuford (1998) delve into attitudes, knowledge, and skills to define various competence levels, while Ting-Toomey and Kurogi (1998) propose a facework model that prioritizes cognitive, behavioral, and outcome factors over motivational aspects This facework model encompasses dimensions such as knowledge, which includes individualism-collectivism and power distance, as well as mindfulness traits like openness to novelty and analytical empathy Additionally, it highlights interaction skills such as trust-building and mindful listening, along with facework criteria that assess perceived appropriateness, effectiveness, and mutual adaptability.
In 2006, Deardorff employed a Delphi method with 23 intercultural experts to reach a consensus on the definition and components of intercultural competence Her pyramid model identifies essential attitudes, knowledge, and skills necessary for achieving both internal and external outcomes This model posits that the foundational levels of the pyramid—knowledge, skills, and attitudes—support and enhance the attainment of higher-level outcomes.
Figure 2.1 Deardorff pyramid model of intercultural competence From “Identification and
Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of Internalization,” by D K Deardorff, 2006, Journal of Studies in International Education Copyright 2006 by Sage
Understanding one's own cultural identity is essential before learning about others' cultural norms Effective cross-cultural participation requires recognizing differences, embracing diversity, and maintaining an open, nonjudgmental attitude, along with a foundational knowledge of globalization and world history (Hunter, 2006) While various compositional models help outline the fundamental concepts necessary for intercultural theory, they fall short in clarifying the relationships between these concepts or defining what truly constitutes intercultural competence.
Co-orientational models examine communication within intercultural interactions, emphasizing how perceptions, meanings, and understanding are conceptualized These models share features with compositional models by addressing awareness, attitudes, knowledge, and skills while focusing on the interaction process Fantini (1995) explored linguistics and semantics to shape worldviews, while Byram (1997) and Byram and Nichols (2001) focused on negotiating identity across cultures Kupka (2008) developed a co-orientation model integrating compositional and adaptive elements, centering on three outcome criteria: appropriateness and effectiveness impressions, awareness and agreement on diverse meaning systems, and mutual relationship satisfaction These models illustrate how individuals adapt to each other's meanings and behaviors, acknowledging their diverse perspectives (Spitzberg & Chagnon, 2009).
Adaptational models build on compositional approaches by examining the process of adapting to cultural competence, highlighting the tension between embracing another culture and preserving one's own Notable theories include Kim's (1988) exploration of individual dispositions in cultural interactions and Berry et al.'s (1989) framework on acculturation, which identifies four styles: assimilation, marginalization, separation/segregation, and integration These models emphasize how individuals adjust their attitudes, understandings, and behaviors when encountering different cultures, suggesting that adaptation is a developmental process essential for achieving intercultural competence (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1989).
Causal path models aim to illustrate intercultural competence as a linear system, highlighting the relationships among its various components Research by Griffith and Harvey (2001) indicates that cultural understanding and communication competence directly and indirectly influence cultural and communication interactions, which subsequently affect relationship quality Ting-Toomey (1999) identifies how antecedent factors at different levels impact change processes, ultimately influencing outcomes Deardorff (2006) employs a grounded theory approach to demonstrate how enhancing a person's attitudes through motivation can lead to improved knowledge and skills, resulting in more effective communication and behavior in intercultural contexts While causal path models are valuable for theoretical research, their excessive feedback loops can limit their practical applicability (Spitzberg & Chagnon).
Developmental models in intercultural communication emphasize that competence evolves over time, building on experiences rather than being episodic (Spitzberg & Chagnon, 2009) These models often adopt a lifespan approach, suggesting a progression through stages of maturity that enhance intercultural competence Key models, such as the Developmental Model of Intercultural Maturity by King and Magolda (2005) and the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) by M J Bennett (1986, 1993), highlight the dynamic nature of relationships and social systems, illustrating growth from ethnocentric to ethnorelative perspectives They categorize intercultural development into initial, intermediate, and mature levels, focusing on students' awareness, sensitivity, and adaptability across cultural distinctions.
King and Magolda’s intercultural maturity model (2005) outlines a multidimensional framework encompassing cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal dimensions that evolve over time This model identifies three levels of intercultural development: initial, intermediate, and mature In the cognitive dimension, the initial level is characterized by limited cultural knowledge and resistance to challenges, while the intermediate level shows an emerging awareness and acceptance of diverse perspectives, leading to autonomous knowledge The mature level demonstrates the ability to shift perspectives and utilize multiple cultural frames For the intrapersonal dimension, the initial stage reflects a lack of awareness regarding social identities, whereas the intermediate stage involves developing a distinct identity and recognizing other cultures' legitimacy The mature level allows for the integration of self-identity and critical reflection on social roles In the interpersonal dimension, the initial level focuses on identifying with similar individuals and viewing differing perspectives as incorrect, while the intermediate level encourages interaction with diverse groups and understanding social systems Ultimately, the mature level fosters engagement in interdependent relationships, appreciation of differences, and advocacy for others' rights.
The model suggests that individuals engage with representatives of different cultures, leading to increased cultural awareness and sensitivity Over time, these interactions help individuals shift from an ethnocentric view of other cultures to a more ethnorelative understanding and appreciation This progression is a fundamental aspect of Bennett’s (1986) stage model of intercultural sensitivity.
Milton Bennett (1986) proposed a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity, which stated that, for individual growth to occur, the person must be open to the concept of
Methods
Intercultural competence has expanded from intercultural communication to various fields, highlighting its importance in higher education, business, and government Institutions recognize the necessity of equipping individuals to engage effectively with diverse populations in both domestic and international contexts Consequently, accrediting bodies and the federal government require colleges and universities to demonstrate measurable outcomes that reflect how they prepare students for an evolving global landscape.
Intercultural assessment measures can be categorized into three main types: cultural difference assessments, intercultural adaptability assessments, and global leadership competency assessments (Bird & Stevens, 2013) This study investigates the impact of experiential learning, diversity training, and guided reflection with mentors on the development of intercultural sensitivity among first-year students at Wagner College The research focuses on participants in the Wagner Plan first-year program, which includes three interconnected courses, supplemented by a lab component designed for training and reflection.
This chapter outlines the research design and data collection methods employed in the study, detailing the analysis plan and the validity of the selected instruments It also emphasizes the ethical considerations and relevant issues addressed throughout the research process.
In 2006, Darla Deardorff conducted a Delphi study to identify effective methods for assessing intercultural competence, concluding that a blend of qualitative and quantitative measures provides the most comprehensive insights Key qualitative assessment methods utilized by colleges include student interviews, papers, presentations, portfolios, and peer observations Additionally, many institutions employ quantitative approaches such as pretests, posttests, and professor evaluations, which can be either quantitative or qualitative.
Figure 3.1 Methods of assessment of intercultural competence used by institutions By D
Research on intercultural communication reveals a divide in assessment methodologies, with 90% of administrators favoring quantitative measures like pre- and post-tests, while only 65% of scholars support these approaches This debate highlights differing perspectives on how to effectively train students in intercultural competence, as scholars often prefer qualitative methods over standardized testing.
In 2006, researchers argued that quantitative measurements alone are insufficient for assessing growth in intercultural competence They emphasized the importance of combining these metrics with qualitative measures to gain a comprehensive understanding of development Ongoing assessments are deemed optimal due to the evolving nature of intercultural skills, and employing mixed methods offers a more complete view of this growth (Deardorff, 2004).
This research employed a mixed methods approach, as outlined by Creswell (2013), which emphasizes pragmatic, consequence-oriented, and problem-centered knowledge claims To effectively address research problems, data was collected both simultaneously and sequentially, encompassing numeric data from instruments and qualitative data from interviews As an education researcher, I view myself as an integral part of the inquiry, utilizing Action Research to collaborate with stakeholders at Wagner on enhancing intercultural sensitivity development To ensure comprehensive data collection, I implemented the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) as a quantitative pre and post measure to evaluate students' intercultural sensitivity alongside their learning styles.
Early implementation of Inventory (LSI) facilitated course development, while a journaling process was employed to document students' reflections on their civic engagement experiences Additionally, ongoing meetings and interviews with faculty and mentors were conducted to assess students' growth and development.
Qualitative research Qualitative research varies in concepts, methods, and constructs Some common characteristics of qualitative research as determined by Creswell (2013) include:
research takes place on location;
researchers gather data from a variety of sources such as interviews, documents, and observing behavior;
researchers develop their theory from the data collected instead of using the data to verify a predetermined hypothesis;
researchers focus on their participants’ understanding of the research;
the design of the study emerges during the process of research;
researchers interpret what is seen and heard; and
Action research is a qualitative research method aimed at generating local knowledge that can be applied to various settings, as noted by Herr & Anderson (2015) This approach is rooted in the philosophies of John Dewey, who emphasized knowledge production through reflective experiences; Kurt Lewin, who focused on intergroup dynamics and social action; and Paulo Freire, who highlighted the importance of praxis and reflection for social change Commonly utilized in fields such as education, nursing, and social work, action research is often referred to as practitioner research, where researchers are insiders addressing specific issues within their settings According to Herr and Anderson (2005), this method serves as an effective means for exploring and resolving pertinent issues in practice.
(2007) describe practitioner research in the following way,
A practitioner action researcher aims to achieve distinct outcomes compared to traditional qualitative researchers by integrating data collection and analysis into their environments to drive change Action research, at its core, is transformative, often challenging and disrupting routine practices to foster improvement (Anderson et al., 2007, p 158).
It is crucial to recognize that practitioner research can create challenges when community members or participants feel marginalized in the research process Therefore, action research plays a vital role in fostering collaboration, ensuring that all voices are included and centered in the research efforts.
Argyis and Schon (1991) describe the goals and methods of the action research tradition as:
Action Research is guided by the insights and challenges faced by practitioners in specific local contexts It focuses research efforts within these defined environments, developing descriptions and theories relevant to the practice This approach involves conducting intervention experiments that simultaneously test hypotheses and aim to bring about meaningful changes in the situation.
The double burden in action research involves balancing the dual responsibilities of enhancing practices and generating valid knowledge about those practices Action research comprises three essential components: action, research, and participation.
Figure 3.2 Necessary components for action research
Action research thrives on collaboration with stakeholders invested in the issue being studied (Herr & Anderson, 2015) Unlike traditional qualitative research, which typically discourages intervention, action research actively incorporates it as a fundamental component This approach involves a structured cycle of activities designed to facilitate meaningful change and improvement.
To enhance existing initiatives, it is essential to create a strategic action plan that begins with establishing a shared understanding of the issue at hand This initial phase involves collecting preliminary data and formulating a robust research methodology to guide the subsequent research phase effectively.
2 to act to implement the plan; this is the action phase where the activities or interventions are occurring (Action Phase);
3 to observe the effects of the action in the context in which it occurs: the observation phase where the researcher and participants analyze the data (Participation Phase); and
Results
This study investigated how four courses incorporating civic engagement in their syllabi impact students' intercultural sensitivity development As an action research initiative, it aimed to enhance understanding of the influence these courses have and to offer recommendations for improvement at the research site college The goal is to provide opportunities for more students, especially those unable to study abroad, to enhance their intercultural sensitivity within their home environment.
In the fall of 2014, four learning community courses at the college were selected for a study that involved comprehensive data collection from various participants Student participants completed the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) at both the beginning and end of the course, while also maintaining journals to share insights with peer facilitators Additionally, students filled out a questionnaire regarding their course experiences Regular follow-up meetings were held bi-weekly with peer facilitators to discuss assignments and address any challenges they faced The researcher also met with the course professors three times to discuss curriculum, assess class progress, and share IDI and questionnaire results, facilitating a dialogue on improving future practices The collected data from students, peer facilitators, and professors were integrated into the study's analysis.
Initial strategy meeting with Center for Leadership and Community
Engagement Meeting with Faculty to determine appropriate learning communities (LCs)
Debriefed IDI results with faculty and mentors each individually
After class 3: Individual meetings with Faculty and Researcher
Mentor and Faculty Meetings and Strategy
Discussions Identify and meet with
Had students provide feedback trough Likert-scale survey
The study aimed to collect data from all 102 students in four learning communities, with 95 signing informed consent forms However, eight students were excluded for not being 18 by the initial data collection date, leaving 87 eligible participants Of these, 84 completed the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) online at the semester's start, while only 50 finished it by the end Ultimately, 48 students completed both the initial and post-course IDI, resulting in a response rate of 57% The demographics of these participants included 27 women and 21 men from 14 states and 3 countries.
Number of Students Who Completed the Intercultural Development Inventory
Prior to course After the course Both prior and after the course
Four courses were used; however, due to extenuating circumstance the initial design comprised of an experiential component, one of the four courses, Learning Community 3:
In the 21st century, the "Spanish at Work" program had to adapt its experiential component after a local community partner withdrew due to community politics, resulting in only site visits without ongoing civic engagement In contrast, the other three learning communities successfully maintained their experiential and civic elements.
This study employed a paired sample t-test to analyze the impact of training and reflection on students' intercultural competence by comparing two correlated population means Commonly used in 'before-after' studies, the paired sample t-test assesses the effectiveness of interventions The analysis relied on several key assumptions: the use of matched pairs, the assumption of normal distributions, equal variances between samples, and the independence of cases The objective was to determine whether the training and reflection positively influenced the students' intercultural competence.
This study investigated various learning communities to determine their impact on the development of intercultural competence The average developmental orientation score on the Pre-test IDI for 48 students was 84.76, while the Post-test IDI score increased to 89.27, reflecting an overall gain of 4.52 Detailed results for each learning community's pre and post averages are presented in Table 4.2.
Difference Scores of Averages of Developmental Orientation Prior to Course and After Course
In the analysis of the four learning communities and mentor groups, 14 students improved by one category, four advanced by two categories, while 22 experienced no change Additionally, five students saw a decline of one category, and one student lost two categories Notably, four out of the five groups demonstrated an average gain, although one learning community reported a loss.
Figure 4.2 Students’ gains and losses in developmental stages
Loss of 2 Loss of 1 No Change Gain of 1 Gain of 2
The intervention significantly influenced students' developmental orientations, as illustrated in Figure 4.3 Ethnocentric stages of denial decreased from 19% (9 students) to 4% (2 students), while polarization slightly increased from 31% (15 students) to 38% (18 students) Additionally, minimization rose from 48% (23 students) to 50% (24 students), and the ethnorelative stage of acceptance increased from 2% (1 student) to 8% (4 students), with adaptation remaining unchanged at 0% Overall, the data indicates a positive impact of the intervention on the intercultural growth of most students.
Figure 4.3 Number of students in each developmental stage pre- and post-intervention
A paired-samples t-test was performed to assess the developmental orientation of four learning communities and a mentor group before and after the intervention Despite the small sample sizes that typically diminish the reliability of t-test results, the findings, as presented in Table 4.3, revealed mixed outcomes, with only two groups achieving statistical significance at the p = 05 level.
Denial Polarization Minimization Acceptance Adaptation
Correlated T-Test results for Pre and Post Course Developmental Orientations
Meana ‐Meanb t df P (one‐tailed) Learning
An analysis of each learning community and the mentor group was conducted to explore the data in greater depth The findings revealed a mixed set of results, as detailed in Table 4.3, which compares the performance of the various learning communities alongside the mentor group.
A paired-samples t-test was performed to assess the developmental orientation of Learning Community 1 before and after the intervention The analysis revealed no significant difference in the scores for Learning Community 1 between the pre-intervention and post-intervention phases.
(M = 83.05, SD = 24.43) and Post-Intervention (M = 86.38, SD = 28.25) conditions; t(9) = -1.09, p = 0.1520175 For Learning Community 1 the results suggest that the intervention was not effective overall for the group
A paired-samples t-test was performed to assess the developmental orientation of Learning Community 2 before and after the intervention The results revealed a significant difference in the scores between the pre-intervention and post-intervention phases for Learning Community 2.
(M = 86.55, SD = 9.47) and Post-Intervention (M = 94.17, SD = 0.17) conditions; t(12) = -2.23, p = 0.0228055 For Learning Community 2 the results suggest that the intervention was effective overall for the group
A paired-samples t-test was performed to assess the developmental orientation of Learning Community 3 before and after the intervention The results indicated no significant difference in the scores for Learning Community 3 between the pre-intervention and post-intervention phases.
(M = 79.89, SD = 0.92) and Post-Intervention (M = 81.30, SD= 1.95) conditions; t(5) = -0.28, p = 0.395346 For Learning Community 3 the results suggest that the intervention was not effective overall for the group
A paired-samples t-test was performed to assess the developmental orientation of Learning Community 4 before and after the intervention The results indicated no significant difference in scores between the pre-intervention and post-intervention phases for Learning Community 4.
(M = 88.22, SD = 0.07) and Post-Intervention (M = 88.28, SD = 10.58) conditions; t(12) = -0.01, p = 0.496093 For Learning Community 4 the results suggest that the intervention was not effective overall for the group
A paired-samples t-test revealed a significant difference in the developmental orientation scores of Mentors before and after the intervention, with pre-intervention scores averaging 81.08 (SD = 7.75) and post-intervention scores averaging 93.62.
SD = 27.92) conditions; t(5) =-2.26, p = 0.036676 For the Mentors, the results suggest that the intervention was effective overall for the group
Discussion
Action research is a collaborative approach that involves researchers and community members working together to generate knowledge aimed at fostering social change (Herr & Anderson, 2005) To explore and enhance the college curriculum for developing intercultural competence, I conducted research at Wagner College with active participation from internal stakeholders, including faculty and students Engaging these stakeholders was crucial due to the evolving nature of the student experience; as faculty modified their course designs, I adapted the curriculum accordingly—such as rescheduling community engagement activities—and incorporated feedback from mentors to refine class discussions and activities.
A key aspect of enhancing students' intercultural competence is the generation of insightful questions and innovative ideas, as highlighted by McIntyre (2008).
Action Research is a non-linear, recursive process characterized by a spiral of adaptable steps It begins with questioning a specific issue, followed by reflection and investigation, leading to the development of an action plan This plan is then implemented and refined, creating a cycle of further questions and opportunities for reflection and investigation Ultimately, this ongoing process fosters new ideas for action plans that benefit all participants involved.
This study utilized an action research approach to implement an intervention aimed at enhancing intercultural competence among first-year students through civic engagement and peer reflection The results were mixed, highlighting the need for meaningful discussions with mentors and faculty regarding effective student learning practices that promote intercultural sensitivity Additionally, the findings emphasized the importance of integrating specific elements into the curriculum to better prepare students for a diversifying world.
Two out of five student groups exhibited a significant change in their Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) scores at the p < 05 level The study of the four learning communities identified four essential elements necessary for enhancing intercultural competence.
1 Sustained and meaningful interaction with others
Research shows that a combination of four key elements is essential for fostering significant improvements in intercultural sensitivity Relying on just one or two of these components is inadequate; all four are crucial for achieving meaningful progress in this area.
Learning Community One engaged in meaningful interactions with the owner of a Mexican restaurant and had some content knowledge and reflection with mentors, but it lacked a teaching or mentoring component The interaction was limited due to the disparity of one community member engaging with 24 students, and the content knowledge was not reinforced in the classroom Additionally, the reflection process was not cohesive, as mentors were not involved in the civic engagement experience Students in this group did not have opportunities to teach or mentor others Overall, the learning community met three out of four criteria and achieved an average gain of 2.36 points on the IDI.
Learning Community Two engaged in significant interactions with an immigrant artist and fourth graders at a local elementary school, focusing on essential themes such as diversity, power, and privilege They received instruction from both mentors and professors on topics including immigration and race, fostering deep reflections with their mentors and educators Additionally, they educated the fourth graders about population movement and immigration, enhancing the learning experience for all involved.
Learning Community Two were asked not only to learn about immigration, race, and diversity; they were broken into three groups that had to support various thesis statements on race:
Thesis 1: Race does not matter and does not exist;
Thesis 2: Race doesn’t exist but matters; and
Students engaged in writing and presenting statements on "otherness," which they supported with relevant literature, highlighting the importance of teaching others in their intercultural development The study reveals that mentoring during civic engagement enhances intercultural sensitivity, aligning with Vande Berg, Connor-Linton, and Paige's (2009) findings that significant coaching while studying abroad leads to improved intercultural sensitivity, as measured by IDI scores This learning community met all four criteria for substantial intercultural sensitivity gains, evidenced by an average increase of 5.78 points among participants.
Learning Community Three faced challenges in establishing meaningful relationships due to the last-minute withdrawal of their civic engagement partner Students engaged with course content through both mentors and professors, focusing on themes of diversity, power, and privilege, as well as social justice discussions However, reflection proved difficult as students participated in varied activities at different times, and there was no mentoring of other groups This learning community met two of the four established criteria, resulting in an average gain of 0.98 on the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI).
Learning Community Four engaged with a local elementary school, where college students taught healthy eating habits; however, many students expressed dissatisfaction with the community engagement experience, indicating a lack of understanding and interest Mentors focused on themes of diversity, power, and privilege, while professors addressed socioeconomic issues, yet mentors found it challenging to facilitate reflection due to the students' reluctance to participate Research suggests that mandatory volunteer work can lead to resentment and reinforce negative stereotypes about communities (Reitenauer et al., 2013) Consequently, the overall meaningfulness of the civic engagement and reflection for these students was subpar, resulting in a 1.36 point decrease on the IDI.
The mentors engaged in meaningful interactions with first-year students in their learning community, enhancing their understanding of intercultural development Through reading articles, watching videos on cross-cultural communication, and participating in relevant activities, they deepened their knowledge Weekly reflections allowed them to ask insightful questions, seek clarifications, and receive practical tips This acquired knowledge was effectively utilized to teach first-year students, fostering a richer learning environment.
Throughout the semester, mentors shared their reflections on the evolving teaching process, expressing initial nervousness that transformed into confidence in both the material and their roles as facilitators.
Initially, I felt apprehensive about my ability to engage in sensitive discussions with students However, weekly reflections with Ruta and other mentors provided valuable insights These discussions introduced me to new strategies for addressing challenges and fostering a positive classroom atmosphere Ultimately, this reflective practice allowed me to connect my experiences and enhance my approach to teaching.
I believe the experience of mentoring others was helpful, because it boosted my confidence with public speaking and presenting information eloquently in front of a large group
Facilitating class activities allowed me to explore diverse cultural perspectives and encounter opposing views that challenged my own beliefs Through self-reflection and research, I developed a deeper understanding of intercultural sensitivity, enhancing my ability to appreciate and navigate cultural differences.