towards-a-shared-understanding-of-skill-shortages-differing

1 Towards a shared understanding of skill shortages: Differing perceptions of training and development needs Denise Skinner, Mark NK Saunders, & Richard Beresford Oxford Brookes University Business School Wheatley Campus Wheatley Oxford OX33 1HX Tel: 01865 485912 E-mail: denise.skinner@brookes.ac.uk Abstract For the last decade the question of how to develop human capabilities to meet the current and future needs of organizations has become an important issue at national, organisational and individual levels An essential ingredient would seem to be a shared understanding among all those involved of the skills and competences deemed necessary and/or desirable for current and future performance This understanding needs to encompass not only those currently working in a given industry or sector but also prospective employees and external training providers Current indications are, at least in the UK, that this shared understanding may not exist and that there is an incompatibility between provision, existing skills and future needs This paper reports on a research project undertaken in the UK automotive sector to explore the extent and nature of the differences in perception among stakeholders relating to the skills and development needs of current and future employees Key words: skills gaps, life long learning, automotive, training needs, training provision Whether developed through formal education, training or experience the skills and competences of individuals have long been recognised as essential for economic growth and activity In the turbulent business environment of the last decade the question of how to develop human capabilities to meet the current and future needs of organizations has become an important issue at national, organisational and individual levels Current exhortations within the management literature urge organisations towards the creation of a learning environment as the key to competitive success (Altman and Iles, 1998, Senge 1990) and the available evidence suggests that training improves the commitment of workers, fosters a common culture within firms and helps to attract high quality workers (Coffield, 2002) However, Coffield (2002) also notes that the tendency has been for national policies on development to be focused on the individual, a view supported by Rainbird’s (2000) observation that both European and national policy debates stress the need for all individuals to take responsibility for their own learning Life long learning it is argued is beneficial to the individual because it will lead to increased employability and improve the potential to maximise earnings In the context of work the focus tends to on the competencies or skills that individuals will need (Bryans and Smith (2000) to gain employment, in their current employment, and/or to ensure employment in the future Unsurprisingly then, training and development are frequently cited in the literature as the cornerstone of Human Resource Management (Heyes, 1998) and are portrayed as indisputable win-win scenarios Organisations benefit from a more flexible, committed and motivated workforce while employees experience the psychological rewards of feeling valued by the organisation and are able to undertake more interesting and challenging work However, a necessary ingredient to ensure that these truly are win-win scenarios would seem to be a shared understanding among all those involved of the skills and competences deemed necessary and/or desirable for current and future performance This understanding needs to encompass not only those currently working in a given industry or sector but also prospective employees and external training providers Current indications are, at least in the UK, that this shared understanding may not exist and that there is an incompatibility between provision, existing skills and future needs ( see for example (Coffield, 2002; Stevens 2002) Purpose of the Research This paper reports on a research project undertaken in the UK automotive sector to explore and capture differences in perception relating to the skills and development needs of employees The research took place in the West Midlands region in Great Britain This region accounts for 40% of national employment in vehicle production, and 35% of national employment in vehicle parts and accessories This equates to approximately 40,000 people working in vehicle production and 60,000 in parts and accessories, almost 5% of the region's jobs The automotive sector also accounts for almost 5% of the regional GDP However, the spread of globalisation brings to the sector both challenges and opportunities Most companies have realised that competing on cost alone is impossible, leading a drive for comparative advantage in quality, niche production, diversification and customer services This process of change places greater pressure on the skills base of the current workforce, an area already considered to be a barrier to business Recent skills surveys show that there may often be a discrepancy between the perceptions of employees and the perceptions of employers in relation to skills Many surveys show that employees largely seem to feel that they have the necessary skills, while surveys of employers suggest significant skills gaps (for example, Performance and Innovation Unit, 2001; Road Haulage and Distribution Training Council Report, 2001) This suggests employers are not necessarily communicating their skills needs to employees, nor are they working to ‘upskill’ where gaps exist Alternatively, it could equally be that employees are not attuned to the needs of the business, or that there is complacency among employers and/or employees Either way, the need for dialogue between the two over the nature of skills required and how these needs are best met is important The Research Method As with all HRM strategies there is a need to give voice to all the players and an important aspect of this is the differences of perception which exist between the groups involved i.e those that initiate strategies and policies , those that implement them and those who are affected by them An area of difficulty is identifying a means to gather the different perspectives in a way which allows comparison, discussion and ultimately the possibility of moving towards a shared understanding Within the context of this research project the data were collected and analysed using the Template Process (Saunders and Williams 2000) This process enabled respondents from each of the stakeholder groups to capture their expectations and perceptions as they related to the skills and development needs of employees in the automotive industry The constructs against which perceptions and expectations are measured are neither generic nor pre-specified but are created by each group as part of the process Samples were selected purposively to ensure that those in each sample could represent and explain the extent of the diversity and key dimensions of the knowledge, skills and understanding required in the automotive sector Template Generation and Validation Separate meetings of between two and three hours were held with each of the groups identified Their purpose was twofold: -To help each group independently to make explicit their ideas of the knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) that a worker needs to her or his job well -To enable each characteristic needed and the gap (if any) between perceptions and expectations to be captured visually as a Template The meetings with each group followed four stages: Preparation The purpose and nature of the research and the Template process were outlined (this process has its origins in focus groups) Exploration of characteristics needed The knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) that a person needs were elicited from the group members using a brainstorming type process Clarification of meanings was sought to ensure all group members had the same understanding Subsequently, the list of characteristics was refined with the group and their generation of positive and negative descriptors for the extremes of each characteristic facilitated Along with the characteristics, these descriptors were used to build a Template Plotting requirements against identified characteristics The nature of knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) that a person needed were then mapped by recording the participants' expectations and perceptions for each characteristic relative to the descriptors on their Template (see fig 1) Ranges of performance indicated by group members were also recorded Interpret and validate issues Each completed Template was then explored with the group that generated it This helped confirm the validity of the Template and that the group’s perceptions and expectations of those characteristics that are important have been captured Finally, the group was asked to identify and weight those characteristics they considered most important by allocating 100 points between the characteristics 4 Fig 1: Annotated Extract of a Template for the generic skills required by a production worker Knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) identified by the group CHARACTERISTIC Positive extreme or ‘ideal situation’ for each characteristic identified by the group WT Materials’ properties 40 Plant maintenance –TPM (Total Productive Maintenance) Use of IT 30 Group’s weighting of the importance of each characteristic (out of 100) 20 POSITIVE EXTREME 10 understand basic differences between metals/glass/plastics minimum level inputs data and understands output What could reasonably be expected for each characteristic N.B The shorter the bar, the less the variation in responses within the group Negative extreme or ‘worst situation’ for each characteristic identified by the group e p e p e p Gap between group’s perceptions and expectations for that characteristic NEGATIVE EXTREME use wrong fixings/torque less than level 4, no understanding can’t switch it on What the position is perceived to be for each characteristic N.B The shorter the bar, the less the variation in responses within the group Data were collected from a range of stakeholders involved in either the provision or the consumption of these attributes The sample included representatives from a large and medium sized organisation, the relevant professional body, Further and Higher Education providers This enabled data to be collected from and validated separately by coherent groups of people such as training managers, production line workers, students and lecturers Within this process, gaps between perceptions and expectations for each group were represented pictorially as a separate Template Subsequent analysis of these Templates allowed those aspects of the knowledge skills and understanding required for the automotive industry to be explored using the participants’ own words, thereby capturing their perceptions Findings The Prospective Employee Data was collected from both FE and HE as providers in these institutions are delivering training aimed at skill levels suitable for different entry points into the automotive industry In FE the focus was on students attaining modern apprenticeships while the expectation in HE was that students would enter at a higher skill level for example as graduate trainees, junior managers, designers Further Education Both the lecturers and the students in an FE college were asked about their perceptions and expectations of the knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) that would be needed by someone entering the automotive industry as a modern apprentice (for the courses that both students and staff were engaged in a modern apprenticeship place was viewed as a successful outcome) As part of this process, both groups were asked to prioritise the characteristics they considered most important and the results are presented in Table The lecturers identified four characteristics as having primary importance for modern apprenticeship students; the ability to transfer skills, motivation and the ability to respond to instructions, spatial ability and shop floor safety: In the context of the ability to transfer skills, the lecturers felt that the expectations of employers varied quite widely but did believe that their students’ abilities for this characteristic fell within what employers could reasonably expect They described the best students as being able to undertake “problem solving” and “look as though they know what they are doing” In terms of motivation and the ability to respond to instructions lecturers believed that employers expected students to be able to “implement instructions” and not to “resent doing it” However, in relation to this characteristic they perceived that the capabilities of their students were far more varied Whilst part-time students in general were close to employers’ expectations (these students were combining work with study and therefore were likely to be working on a shop floor), full time students ranged from those matching employers’ expectations to a minority who did not want to be there and were “obstructive” In relation to spatial ability they felt that employers expected reasonably good conceptual skills with regard to “form and symmetry” and perceived that their students had these skills at the expected level Lecturers also felt that employers expected a modern apprentice who would have “no accidents” and be “aware of environs” They perceived that their students either met or nearly met this requirement The FE students’ identified two characteristics with equal ranking as the most important characteristics needed by someone entering a modern apprenticeship In the minds of the students CAD (Computer Aided Design) and Wiring were the key characteristics required In the context of CAD students felt employers’ expectations of reasonably “quick and accurate drawings” were matched by students’ abilities and wiring The level of skills expected by an employer in relation to wiring however, was felt to vary quite widely dependent upon the precise apprenticeship, the ideal being a student whose wiring was “put together correctly” Whilst students felt there was some overlap between employers’ expectations and their perceptions of students abilities, they felt that in some cases they would be lower than expected Maths was ranked by students as the third most important characteristic They felt that employers usually expected a modern apprentice to be able to “use a scientific calculator” but perceived that students did not meet this expectation, some students’ skills being described as close to “can’t count” 6 Table Perceptions of FE Lecturers and Students Negative extreme Doesn’t want to be there obstructive Characteristic CAD Wt 17 FE Students Positive Extreme Quick and accurate drawings Form and symmetry – take a 2D form and conceptualise as 3D The earth is flat Wiring 17 Puts together correctly Blow everything up 10 No accidents, aware of environs First name terms with first aider Maths 12 Can use scientific calculator Can’t count Logical thought processes and understands how things fit together Badly planned, disorientated Understands materials strengths Always specify right material Don’t know what material is Understands materials types Know what everything is Don’t know what material is Understands materials properties Tell the difference – magnetic properties etc Don’t know what material is Characteristic Motivation –responds to instructions Wt 10 Spatial ability 10 Shop floor –safety Shop floor –processes FE Lecturers Positive extreme Implements instructions doesn’t resent doing it Adaptability Willing to different jobs, flexible Reluctant to anything other than main job Interest in engineering No enthusiasm Dealing with peopleinterpersonal skills Involved, even in leisure time Friendly and open Integration into workforce Gets on readily with people Doesn’t fit in Introspective and self centred Negative Extreme Can’t turn computer on, don’t understand programme An understanding of materials’ strengths, types and properties was ranked by students as the fourth most important characteristic Students felt that employers expected a modern apprentice to be able to “specify the right material”, “know what everything is” and “tell the difference” between materials properties For each aspect of materials, they perceived that students did not quite meet employers’ expectations Comparison of all the characteristics identified by the two groups shows a marked difference in perception between provider and prospective employee While lecturers placed greatest emphasis on the ability to transfer skills and possession of general skills such as spatial ability, these were not highlighted by the students Students accorded greater importance to specific job related knowledge and skills than the lecturers did (although many of these did appear on the lecturers’ template including numeracy, IT skills (such as CAD), and use of materials) In addition, both lecturers and students included the need for oral communication skills in their Templates Lecturers did not, however, specifically highlight written communication skills whereas the students did The lecturers included a number of attitudinal characteristics which did not appear on the students template Adaptability for example was something that lecturers felt that employers expected, a modern apprentice should be “willing to different jobs” and be “flexible”, requirements which they perceived that their students generally met Interpersonal skills and integration into the workforce were also perceived to be important, with lecturers believing that employers expected all modern apprentices to be “friendly and open” and to “get on readily with people” While believing that their students would mix readily with other employees they felt that some might find being friendly and open more challenging Students did identify motivation as a characteristic in terms of having a good attitude to work, but it was not ranked by them as being important This difference in focus between lecturers’ and students’ templates is emphasised further by the characteristic ‘an interest in engineering’ appearing on the lecturers’ template with no equivalent on the students Lecturers felt that employers expected an interest in engineering such that nearly all modern apprentices would be “involved, even in leisure time” However, their perceptions of the students were lower and far more varied At worst, they felt that some students would be close to having “no enthusiasm” This may reflect the full-time students’ limited experience of the real world of work Higher Education Similarly in Higher Education data were collected from a group of tutors involved in engineering degree courses preparing students for work in the automotive sector and a group of final year undergraduate students enrolled on relevant courses As with the FE groups the HE respondents were asked about their perceptions and expectations of the knowledge skills and understanding (characteristics) which would be needed but in this case the focus was a graduate entering their first job They were also asked to put the characteristics identified in order of importance (See Table 2) 8 Table Perceptions of HE Lecturers and Students HE Lecturers Characteristic Wt HE Students Positive Extreme Negative Characteristic Wt Positive Extreme Negative Extreme Designs something which can be made, has done it No concept of limitations of method Complete, including costings Has no clue how to it, considers only process Analyses any part of vehicle to determine its behaviour, impact and interaction elsewhere, knows intuitively right Brainstorming + other techniques, creative flair Doesn’t understand analysis or outcomes no concept of vehicle realities CAD literate, efficient, good spatial understanding Drawing can’t be understood, takes all week to drawing Extreme Creation of engineering concepts 40 Imaginative Conventional Manufacturing methods -practical knowledge -theoretical knowledge 17 To specific criteria 20 Functional Doesn’t meet criteria/work Synthesis 15 Integrative -considers all should, balanced – correct weightings comprehensive Fragmented and disjointed, biased, simplistic Vehicle dynamics 14 Drawing dimensionally 10 Communicates precisely using common language/ standards Inaccurate representation -sloppy, deviates from standard Misrepresents the essence Generation of ideas and concept design CAD systems (solid modelling) Narrow minded and inflexible From the lecturers perspective the creation of engineering concepts to specific criteria clearly emerged as the most important characteristic, followed by life skills and synthesis Creation of Engineering Concepts to Specific captured the lecturers belief that employers had quite high expectations in relation to the graduates abilities to create concepts which were both imaginative and functional, however, they also believed that these were not currently being met as student skills lay more towards creating the ‘conventional’ Life skills were described in terms of self management and personal development Lecturers believed that the best students demonstrated self control and a willingness to learn and there was an overlap between what they perceived employers wanted and the reality of student achievement Synthesis related to the ability to integrate, taking a comprehensive view rather than one which was biased and simplistic Lecturers believed that employers had quite high expectations in this area whereas they perceived that the reality of students’ abilities would lie in the mid ranking From the students perspective the key characteristics were, in priority order, a theoretical and practical knowledge of manufacturing methods, vehicle dynamics, generation of ideas and concept design and CAD systems (solid modelling) Students placed theoretical and practical knowledge of manufacturing methods as the top ranked characteristic for a graduate entering their first job feeling that employers expected graduates to be able to “design something which can be made” and to have experience of doing this However, with regard to the ability to design something that could be made they also perceived that graduates’ skills were not as good as employers expected They felt that employers expected theoretical knowledge to be reasonably complete and include costings, but perceived that not all graduates met these expectations Vehicle dynamics was ranked second by students and consisted of two components The first of these related to the understanding and analysis of “any part of the vehicle to determine its behaviour, impact and interaction elsewhere” Students felt employers expected a good level of knowledge here and perceived that this would be met by some graduates The second component related to the ability to know that something was “intuitively right” Here it was perceived that graduates were just below what employers expected In relation to the generation of ideas and concept design students felt that, in general, employers expected graduates to have “creative flair” and to make use of “brainstorming and other techniques” For both aspects, despite feeling that employers’ expectations were in some instances greater than their perceptions of graduate skills, they believed that the employers’ expectations were met in most cases CAD systems (solid modelling) was ranked equally with generation of ideas For this characteristic, students felt that employers expected graduates to be “CAD literate” and “efficient” However their perceptions of graduates’ ability were wide ranging, at worst meaning that their “drawing can’t be understood” and it “takes all week to a drawing” As in the findings from the FE sector there was a difference in emphasis between the students and lecturers The students emphasised the specialist technical skills while the lecturers saw the importance of ‘softer’ skills Although both lecturers and students identified ‘self management’ and ‘personal development’ as characteristics, the students did not rank these very highly while lecturers combined them within the characteristic that they deemed the second most important characteristic Both groups produced similar ranges for graduate skills and shared a similar perception of the limited extent to which this met employer expectations A comparison of the HE lecturer and student templates shows that elements of those characteristics ranked highly by students appear in the lecturers’ template, for example, students emphasised the importance of ‘manufacturing methods’ and ‘vehicle dynamics’, which were incorporated in the lecturers’ characteristics of ‘industry and product 10 knowledge’ and ‘commercial awareness’ However, the lecturers did not place a similar level of importance against them giving industry and product knowledge a low weighting and with commercial awareness not attracting any weighting at all Lecturers identified the characteristic "creation of engineering concepts to specific criteria" as the most important This equates to the characteristic "generation of ideas and concept design" which was ranked highly (third) by students who felt that in general graduates met employers’ expectations The lecturers, however, felt that students did not meet employers’ expectations being neither sufficiently functional nor, to a lesser extent, imaginative Employers’ expectations of "mathematical skills" are, according to the lecturers, far higher than the lecturers’ perceptions of graduates’ skills, a distinct gap being evident This contrasts with the students’ characteristic of numeracy under “simple stress calculations” where their perceptions of graduate skills are closer to their understanding of what employers expect Information technology skills appear as a characteristic in both templates Within this, students ranked CAD systems most highly, separating it from general IT presentation skills In contrast, the lecturers combined them under one heading “cyber skills (ICT)” which they did not rate as highly important The Employee – Perspectives from an Organisation Data were collected from the training managers of a large manufacturing organisation in respect to the knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) that a generic production worker needs to her/his job well The trainers highlighted three key characteristics, materials properties, plant maintenance and use of IT Materials properties was felt by trainers to be the top ranked characteristic for a production worker In particular trainers expected production workers to be reasonably clear in their “understand[ing of] the basic differences between metal/glass/plastics” and the impact that this has on the use of fixings and torque However, they perceived a gap between this and production workers knowledge, skills and understanding for this characteristic Plant Maintenance –Total Productive Maintenance was ranked second most important characteristic by the trainers They expected that the production workers should be close to what their company termed “level four” with regard to this However, they perceived, at present, a gap between this and their production workers understanding Use of IT was the final characteristic given a high ranking by trainers as being important for production workers For this characteristic, although there was a gap between expectations and perceptions of production workers current knowledge, skills and understanding, it was smaller than for the higher ranked characteristics Trainers expected that production workers to be reasonably proficient at inputting data and understanding the output In addition, there was some variation in their perceptions of production workers actual abilities, all of which were lower that their expectations Although all remaining characteristics were given the same ranking, it is worth considering some of those where there were gaps between the trainers’ expectations and what they perceived to be the case In particular, there was a gap for the characteristic safety Here trainers expected production workers to “follow agreed procedures” whereas their perception was that they were not always doing this, resulting in harm to themselves and to others Similarly the perceived drawing abilities of production workers were less than those expected as was their ability for logical thinking Trainers also commented upon the generic knowledge, skills and understanding required for team leaders These were, in general slightly higher than those required for production workers equating to role model behaviour In addition they were also expected to have budgeting and problem solving skills 11 Further data were collected in a medium sized organisation supplying parts to the industry In this organisation information in respect of the knowledge, skills and understanding (characteristics) that a generic production worker needs to her/his job well was gathered from different levels within the organisation, from Production Manager, Team Leader to Production Workers Health and Safety was identified as the key characteristic as people were working in a dangerous and fast environment which required that individuals be aware of their own health and safety Respondents believed that the high degree of awareness "that everything is potentially dangerous" expected by the company was equally matched by the knowledge, skills and understanding demonstrated by the employees Linked to the need for safety was a need for dexterity, as it was essential to ‘work fast and smart’ Other characteristics identified were all seen to have equal ranking and respondents were unwilling to differentiate The technical characteristics which were identified related to welding and the use of CNC machines In the former, the range of existing skills levels, as perceived by respondents, was very wide while the skill level which could be reasonably expected was deemed to be narrow At the high end of the scale this was defined as meaning that production workers could reasonably be expected to show competence in being able to weld neatly to drawing specifications and to understand metal fusion Overall, however, the characteristics identified primarily related to the ‘softer’ skills, "other than welding skills, if they come to work on time and progress to meeting production targets and are reliable this is what matters, we can train other skills they need for manufacturing." Communication skills were important as individuals needed to be able to “make the best use of all their senses” and to make the best use of simple but effective means of communication such as ‘post it’ notes English and Maths skills were important but "we need people from real world rather than just having academic skills" The level of literacy needed to be sufficient to read and reply to standardised reports, interpret charts and graphs, people had to be able to write at least two sentences in reasonable English People also needed to be able to read and follow standard documents (instructions) exactly which were in pictures and words and to things in a standard way so that they “got it right first time, every time” The levels of numeracy required were basic multiplication, percentages and the ability to know that a number ‘feels right’ A number of desirable personal attributed were also identified Listening skills and verbal communication were important as the organisation needed people who were “honest and don’t blag” Respondents also believed that the organisation needed people who were punctual, interested and wanted to the job and who were looking to their own long term future “These are people who want to come to work and are willing to work at understanding why they things the way they do” People should be “interested enough” and have sufficient confidence to ask questions As well as being able to follow current best practice, they needed to be able to “think out of circle” and ask the question “could it be better?” They must also be able to “pick things up quickly” Employees also needed to be able to think practically and on paper and have an “attitude of mucking in” They needed to be able to think for themselves and “turn a crisis into a goal” Employees must be versatile and willing to lend a hand, be able to ‘hop jobs’ All team members needed therefore to learn every job on the cell and a willingness to take off the job training was considered important The term team player was used to represent a number of characteristics including attitude, being reasonable with team mates and, looking out for others which were perceived to involve caring for both the people and the job The positive descriptor of the team player attitude was of someone committed to the team, targets and the job and the group felt that this 12 was a reasonable expectation The perception of the current level of attainment covered quite a wide range but met expectations at its upper end reflecting quite a variation in attitudes as perceived by the respondents Reasonable expectations were perceived to be towards the positive end of the scale in both areas The belief was that, in terms of being “reasonable with team mates”, good production workers were meeting the expectation but those who would be placed at the mid range of the scale while in relation to “looking out for others” both the expectation and the perception were plotted on a narrow range with the perceived level of the characteristic being just below what could reasonably be expected Within this group of characteristics there were gaps in expectation and perception for “quality skills” where a lack of care was exhibited by some and “time keeping” with punctuality and reliability being problematic for some These were perceived to be linked to poor attitude and indifference on the part of the individuals concerned Expectation was at the highest level for communication, defined as “reasonable English and literacy”, in contrast to the current levels which were perceived to be more towards the negative end of the scale defined as “ignorant and illiterate” As with the managers and team leaders Similarly for the characteristic “forming metal” perceived ability fell short of what was deemed to be reasonable expectation Conclusions In the research reported here important differences in the perceptions of various stakeholders in the training process did emerge The most noticeable gap appeared to be between those who had experience the reality of working in the automotive industry and those who had not In 1998 the UK Employment, Lifelong Learning and International Directorate noted that the most serious problem facing business was the lack of social skills or employability skills such as motivation, commitment, reliability, willingness to learn and work with others (DfEE 1998) Certainly the views of employers and those who had experienced the world of work concurred with the importance of these skills placing a high degree of importance on characteristics such as punctuality and interpersonal skills In contrast the perspective of those who had yet to experience the world of work was primarily focused on the characteristics that related to their technical specialism This mismatch increased the likelihood of disappointment for both parties when an employment relationship was entered into The training being given to these prospective employees needed to be job relevant but the nature of colleges and universities inevitably limits their ability to provide either this or the experiences necessary to counter the absence of the personal skills deemed desirable by the employers Lecturers were aware of a number of characteristics where they perceived that employers had high, perhaps unrealistic, expectations in relation to the standards the majority of students would or could have attained in the context of education based courses Conversely it was clear that the generation of employees currently within the education system are IT literate and indeed may even be ‘over-skilled’ in the eyes of employers However, previous reports have noted that despite the growing importance of e-commerce many employers in the automotive sector lack an e-commerce strategy Those being recruited from colleges and universities may well have skills which are currently being under-utilised but could make significant contributions in this area if their value was to be recognised by employers Organisations need to recognise these limitations but also to recognise that colleges and universities are, in effect, businesses required to meet targets and to be economically viable in terms of the courses they chose to offer Inevitably there is a drive to promote career courses which are attractive to students for example Motor Sports, raising expectations which may prove unrealistic in relation to the work actually available in the automotive industry 13 The template process highlighted a number of gaps between expectation and the perceived reality of skills levels within organisations when set against characteristics rated as important to that organisation Although there was significant agreement amongst those employed in the automotive industry about the key characteristics required it was clear that the degree to which these were actually met varied considerably There was general acknowledgement that skills gaps exist and it would therefore seem both short sighted and unrealistic to assume that these gaps are entirely someone else’s problem Within organisations there needs to be an increased recognition of the centrality of learning, in all its forms, and the need for employers to take some degree of ownership, facilitating processes through which skills gaps can be addressed and ‘life long learning’ used to benefit all the parties concerned An important aspect of that is dialogue between all the interested parties to clarify training needs and priorities This would support employers, employees and those aspiring to employment in the industry to identify the development and training opportunities which will be mutually beneficial as they meet the needs of the industry and contribute to individual employability and security In the context of customer provider relationship it could increase the understanding of the requirements and limitations on both sides of the relationship thereby leading to more realistic expectations based on knowledge rather than assumption In short recognition and sharing of the different perspectives would almost certainly improve the chances of bringing the demand and supply of skills into greater harmony (Coffield, 2002) and achieving the win-win scenario References Altman Y & Iles, P (1998)Learning, Leadership, Teams: Corporate learning and organisational change Journal of Management Development 17, 1: 44 – 55 Bryans, P & Smith, R (2000) Beyond Training: Reconceptualising learning at work Journal of Workplace Learning 12, 6: 228 - 235 Coffield, F (2002) Britain’s Continuing Failure To Train: the birth pangs of a new policy Journal of Education Policy 17, 4: 483 – 497 DfEE (1998) Defining and Preventing Skill Shortages – Basic social skills in short supply, CEDEFOP Info 3/1998 London: DfEE Gummesson, E (1991), ‘Service quality, a holistic view’, in Brown, S.W., Gummesson, E., Edvardsson, B and Gustavsson, B.O (Eds), Service Quality ± Multidisciplinary and Multinational Perspectives, New York, NY: Lexington Books: 3-22 Heyes J (1998) Training and Development at an Agrochemical Plant in Mabey C, Skinner, D & Clark T (Eds) Experiencing HRM London: Sage Performance and Innovation Unit (2001) Adult Skills in the 21st Century Road Haulage and Distribution Training Council Report (2001) Rainbird, H (2000) Skilling the Unskilled: access to work-based learning and the lifelong learning agenda Journal of Education and Work 13, 2: 183 – 197 14 Saunders MNK & Williams C (2000) Towards a new approach to understanding service encounters: establishing, learning from and reconciling different views Journal of European Industrial Training 24, 2/3/4: 220 – 227 Stevens J (2002) Balancing Act People Management December 26: 44