Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia

The purpose of this paper is to highlight a data driven approach (from three year project which collected data from nine universities in five countries China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore) to discuss key issues related to conceptualizing and researching international higher education student mobilities to this region. These issues are the political and economic context in which universities operated, the motivations and aspirations of international students, the different organizations involved in driving and facilitating international student mobility, and considerations for an effective research design to study student mobility.

현대사회와 다문화 제10권 2호(1~23) http://dx.doi.org/10.35281/cms.2020.05.10.2.1 Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia Kong Chong Ho* Abstract_The purpose of this paper is to highlight a data driven approach (from three year project which collected data from nine universities in five countries [China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore]) to discuss key issues related to conceptualizing and researching international higher education student mobilities to this region These issues are the political and economic context in which universities operated, the motivations and aspirations of international students, the different organizations involved in driving and facilitating international student mobility, and considerations for an effective research design to study student mobility Keywords_International Student Mobility, Tertiary Education, Universities, Asia, Research Design Introduction The purpose of this paper is to take a data driven approach based on a three year project which collected data from nine universities in five countries [China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Singapore]) to discuss key issues related to conceptualizing and researching international higher education student mobilities in Asia The research project entitled “Globalizing Universities and International Student Mobilities in This essay is based on an earlier paper presented at the international conference on “Study Abroad and Transnational Mobility: Policy and Practice”, organized by the Center for Multiculturalism and Social Policy, Daegu University, 14 June 2019, Daegu, South Korea * National University of Singapore, Department of Sociology and the Asia Research Institute, Associate Professor, sochokc@nus.edu.sg 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 Asia” was conducted from September 2009 to November 2012 Mixed method approach was employed for collecting comprehensive data Over 4,000 international students hosted by nine universities in five Asian countries were surveyed About 198 international students, 86 university officials and 86 alumni were interviewed In terms of geographical coverage, the sample includes nine universities (National University of Singapore, Tokyo University, Osaka University, Asia Pacific University, Renmin University, Sun Yat-sen University, Seoul National University, Korea University and National Taiwan University) located in five countries (Singapore, Japan, South Korea, China and Taiwan respectively) I take a retrospective look by drawing from several key papers which is derived from data collected from this project The period 2009 to 2012 was a critical moment for all the universities we studied With the exception of Asia Pacific University, the other eight universities are flagship universities coming into terms with the need to respond to pressures staying relevant in an increasingly global education system Ishikawa (2009: 7), for example, talked about the need for Japanese universities to away from their orientations as national universities to respond to competition for reputation and for international students And so the project captured the response of Asia’s top universities from the viewpoints of their officials and the voices of international students who were among the first to experience the wave of internationalization The opportunity provided by the conference organized by the Center for Multiculturalism and Social Policy, Daegu University on “Study Abroad and Transnational Mobility: Policy and Practice”, allows for a chance to relook some of the key papers we published from this project in the light of new research in this field, and a look at the methods we used compared to some of the alternatives deployed by researchers studying this growing field Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia Understanding the Host Country Context to International Student Mobilities Student mobilities are shaped by national agendas in economic and political development of the hosting countries In terms of economic development, the countries of East Asia (Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Singapore) are in a late industrial phase The national economic development narrative has been to grow the economy through research and development In the book titled “Student Mobilities and International Education in Asia: Emotional Geographies of Knowledge Spaces” co-authored with Ravinder Sidhu and Brenda Yeoh, I compiled in chapter of the book, two tables which reflect this state of development Table 1, which shows the research and development expenditure as percentage of GDP presents one indicator of the commitment to innovative activities Based on Table Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) China Chinese Taipei (Taiwan) Japan Korea, Rep Singapore 1996 0.563 1.8 2.69 2.243 1.318 1997 0.639 1.88 2.77 2.286 1.412 1998 0.647 1.97 2.873 2.147 1.743 1999 0.749 2.05 2.891 2.063 1.819 2000 0.89566 2.05 2.90407 2.18087 1.82395 2008 1.44251 2.68 3.33536 3.13619 2.62062 2009 1.66249 2.84 3.22811 3.29813 2.15815 2010 1.71007 2.8 3.1393 3.45314 2.01523 2011 1.77648 2.9 3.24747 3.75116 2.15275 2012 1.90711 2.95 3.20881 4.01812 2.00685 2013 1.99102 3.0 3.31612 4.14692 2.01219 2014 2.02106 3.0 3.3994 4.27746 2.19754 2015 2.06558 3.04 3.28363 4.22816 Source: from database of World Development Indicators https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&start=1996&view=chart For Taiwan (Chinese Taipei): https://www.statista.com/statistics/324700/taiwan-randd-spending-asgdp-share/ (for years 2008 to 2015); Taiwan Statistical Yearbook 2004 (for years 1996-2000) 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 Table Researchers Total, per 000 employed, 1996- 2014 China (People’s republic of) Chinese Taipei (Taiwan) Japan Korea Singapore 1996 0.795 5.048 9.176 4.772 4.729 1997 0.843 5.185 9.23 4.842 4.743 1998 0.687 5.759 9.746 4.646 5.634 1999 0.744 5.844 9.97 4.943 6.108 2000 0.964 5.843 9.87 5.127 7.661 2001 1.02 6.358 9.99 6.324 7.711 2002 1.106 7.392 9.643 6.407 8.435 2003 1.169 7.846 10.092 6.839 9.378 2004 1.247 8.298 10.056 6.926 9.68 2005 1.499 8.938 10.386 7.867 10.254 2006 1.632 9.413 10.379 8.639 10.03 2007 1.89 10.082 10.289 9.471 9.998 2008 2.107 10.618 9.888 10.015 9.43 2009 1.52 11.634 9.988 10.384 10.211 2010 1.591 12.232 10.017 11.084 10.313 2011 1.725 12.584 10.032 11.916 10.444 2012 1.83 12.901 9.917 12.787 10.168 2013 1.928 12.871 10.076 12.84 10.311 2014 1.973 12.906 10.358 13.495 10.118 2015 2.090 12.983 9.998 13.743 missing 2016 2.181 13.110 9.956 13.771 missing Source: OECD Science, Technology and R&D Statistics: Main Science and Technology Indicators research and development share, it is clear that Korea and Japan are major spenders in Asia, with China, a more recent late developer catching up A related indicator is the researcher share in the labour market which is an indication of the priority, in terms of the labor engaged in innovative activities Again, it is clear that Korea is the leader, with Taiwan being a close second in the employment of researchers Through R and D alliances, applied innovation funding, key research universities are implicated in attempts to work with companies to develop new products International students, especially those in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia Mathematics) graduate programmes become part of the research labour cultivated to grow national economies (Ge and Ho 2018) I think this is a pattern peculiar to our universities being late developers in international education Our universities are unlikely to attract significant shares of international students worldwide However, given our expertise in applied sciences, the international students who enrol at our universities choose applied sciences They are more likely to choose our universities for applied sciences because of the strong knowledge transfers resulting from the collaborative partnerships between universities and industries and how these transfers take the form of company internships for students and in the form of industry partners teaching in the classrooms Additionally, the prospect of relevant and cutting edge industrial attachments, a key component of applied science learning, are readily available Knowledge transfers and industrial attachments are the result of a close working relationship between academia and industry This relationship is shaped by a number of elements: state funding to encourage collaborations, specific alliances between university researchers or university research institutes and companies aimed at product development, and company-built research facilities in university campuses Other possibilities also exist Shen’s (2018) study of overseas doctoral attachments show the value to these students in terms of help by host supervisors to advancing research knowledge and even life lessons Politically, the governments of East Asia, in different degrees, use education and training aid as a way of influencing and developing good relationships with neighbours in Pacific Asia and beyond From the host country perspective, the use of higher education in international relations has been viewed as a form of soft power (Altbach and Peterson 2008; Trilokekar 2010) Such a perspective highlight the ability of a host country’s universities to take global academic leadership by virtue of its reputation (Altbach and Petersen 2008: 52), see ISM as a result created by a pipeline of education and training aid (Wu 2019), and see the international student alumnus as ambassadors of the host country (Lomer 2017a; 2017b) Thus from a soft power perspective, the reputation of the hosting country works to draw international students and the training and education aid provided enables international 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 student mobility (ISM) flows, particularly from poorer countries The long term benefit of such flows work to the benefit of hosting countries as returning students and alumnus play the role of ambassadors and bridges between the host and home countries North America and Europe a history of colonialism which has created a strong neo-colonial imagination attracting students from these former colonies (Collins et al 2014) These regions of the first world also have an earlier history of industrialization and economic development, driving the world-wide appeal of its universities to aspiring students By contrast, Asian universities are late comers in the race to attract international students It is important here to understand that no matter how international a reputation universities in Asia have, at this point in time, the bulk of their international students will be from Asia (Ho 2014a) The regional character of foreign student movements into Asian universities can be deduced from columns (top three sending countries) and (% from top sender) of Table This is data from the UNESCO global flow of Tertiary students database, based on country data collected in 2018 And although there is no information from China, Singapore and Taiwan, the information provided by Japan and South Korea shows that the top three sending countries are from within East and Southeast Asia Japan’s top three sending countries are China, Vietnam and South Korea, while the Korea’s top three are China, Vietnam and Mongolia Furthermore, China emerges as the top sender in both Japan and South Korea, accounting for 48% of the international students in Japan and 42% of the students in Korea respectively Shifting the scale of analysis from country to university, columns 1, and of Table shows eight of the universities sampled in the Globalizing Universities and International Student Mobilities (GUISM) which are from China (Renmin University and Sun Yat Sen University), Japan (University of Tokyo and Osaka University), Singapore (NUS/National University of Singapore), South Korea (Korean University and Seoul National University) and Taiwan (National Taiwan University) These eight universities as flagship universities of their respective countries Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia Table International student characteristics University Name Country Total student enrolment (THE)1 2020 % International Students (THE)1 Remin China 25,590 Sun Yat Sun China 53,603 Osaka Japan 22,892 11 Toyko Japan 25,913 NUS Singapore Korea top three sending % from countries to the host top sender country (UNESCO)2 (UNESCO)2 missing data missing data 12 China (79,375); Vietnam (27,768); S Korea (13,121) 48 30,869 28 missing data   South Korea 22,965 22 Seoul National South Korea 42 26,182 12 China (44,163); Vietnam (4,656); Mongolia (2,717) National Taiwan Taiwan 27,254 11 missing data   Sources of information Times Higher Education World University rankings 2020: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/ world-university-rankings/2020/worldranking#!/page/0/length/25/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/ stats UNESCO Global Flow of Tertiary students: http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow appear in the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking 2020 In terms of total student enrolments, these universities all boast of very large student bodies, exceeding 20,000 students What is more interesting is how these eight universities show very different international student proportions Highest international student proportion is NUS in Singapore, where its use of English (Foong et al 2014) and Singapore’s reputation as an international city attracts many international students And while the proportions vary between the national universities in the five countries in East and Southeast Asia, the potential is there for universities to create a stronger regional consciousness among young people to travel to study, and also move to work within Asia Thus, it is important to understand how universities in Asia, through their practices and student formed networks play a role in shaping Asia 8 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 Understanding the Determinants of International Student Choices Such forms of aid offered to young people provides them with an opportunity to travel and learn at an age where learning is can be life changing In a recent paper, we argued from a life course perspective why learning can be a transformative experience (Ge and Ho 2018) The ability of study abroad to become life-changing is premised on the fact that mobility causes a disruption in everyday routines, relationships and responsibilities associated with the home country and the international student in the host country acquires a new set The disruption and acquisition happens within a stage in the life course where young people are expected by their families to acquire a time perspective of preparing for the future (Brannen and Nilsen 2002) Their socio-cultural roles as students in the host country also enables them to be treated as learners not just in the campus but also in the host city and society In our study, forms of life changing narratives gleaned from the interviews we did in the after study phase of research include the shaping of occupational pathways, the development of a bicultural identity, often acquired through the mastery of the host language which results in bridging practices and activities (Liu-Farrer 2009) between the home and host countries, and the nurturing of a set of regional relationships between fellow international students which create a sustained exchange and stronger regional consciousness Moving abroad for education adds to the responsibilities In addition to studying, new responsibilities such as managing finances, and possibly holding down part time employment come with study abroad Such experiences become more meaningful when analysed from a lifecourse perspective As young people, international education migrants may find such new experiences, defining critical moments (Thompson et al 2002; Patiniotis and Holdsworth 2006) in their lives This is all the more so when moving abroad results in a receding everyday dependence on a set of home-based relations, practices and encounters and the cultivation of Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia new set of host-based relations, knowledges and routines On the nature of social support networks among international students, an early work by Furnham (1997: 19) highlight the three types: close co-national networks, a secondary bi-cultural network with hosts functioning to support instrumental aspirations of students and integration into host city and society, and a third multicultural network about international students that often involve the recreational life of students The student role that young people have abroad not only allows for navigation in campus, but more significantly in host cities and host societies Thinking about the self formation process among international students, Marginson (2014) highlights the compressed time frame in which this process occurs, note that it is not necessary a bi-cultural process of home and host, but a multicultural, hydrid process given the nature of the campus and of the city, and points to the importance of the agency of the student in bridging this process Study abroad is an opportunity to accumulate experiences away from home Brooks, Waters and Pimlott-Wilson (2012: 27, 32) highlighted the need to pay attention to the experiences of students studying overseas and how this is an embodied experience that is tied to the contexts which the students are embedded in For youths, going to the university involves the assumption of a set of new responsibilities but also the expectation of social life (Hopkins 2006) Cities play a role in the shaping of international student experience in two ways In terms of student choices, studies have noted that students not just play attention to the reputation of the programmes they are interest in, they also consider the attractions of university locations These attractions include the city’s night life (Veloutsou et al 2004: 164), whether the city offers amenities which students will find exciting (Mazzarol and Soutar 2002: 87; Meer 1992: 151-152) Within this youth training and experience seeking context, study choice are shaped by both academic (reputations of universities and programmes) and also social interests (the social and cultural life of host cities) In the age of globalization and mobility, academic reputations has emerged as the key resource as this signal of quality, defined by ranking agencies, and reinforced by a variety of university “best 10 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 practices”, key alliances, guides the aspirations and shapes the decisions of youths around the world as they prepare to further studies What is less well understood in the higher education literature is that in addition to educational aspirations and a set of social aspirations of youths to broaden their experiential lives Our study includes universities in different Asian cities in five countries What is revealing from the international student surveys in these eight cities is how foreign students studying in these cities value different attributes of the culture of cities For example, international students in Taipei and Beppu find the locals to be friendly Taipei and Beijing stand out in terms of the ease for students as young people to find a social group to share their interest Singapore is noted by international students as having good tolerance or ethnic and religious differences Figure provides three indicators of the social environment in the city While international students spend much time within the campus in class or in their dormitories, the city is an important place for international students in their attempts to learn more about the culture of the host society and in their quest to collect experiences Thus, in this regard, being in a wider urban culture which is tolerant of diversities is important, as is a friendly urban society Young people must also be able to find peers who share similar interests The eight sites provide some interest10 2.67 2.78 2.56 2.59 2.42 2.61 3.05 2.53 2.82 2.85 2.83 3.1 3.02 2.93 2.86 2.81 3.19 3.19 2.95 3.15 2.77 2.47 2.74 2.54 Easy to find a social group to share my interest Tolerance towards ethnic/religious differences Local people are friendly Figure City Evaluations: Social Environment Source: GUISM survey data 10 3.06 2.45 2.41 2.91 2.9 2.63 3.04 2.98 2.7 2.23 2.91 3.17 2.95 2.73 2.65 Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia 11 ing lessons about hosting international students Beppu, the small town where Asia Pacific University is very friendly as the town welcome young people as a supplement to its aging population However, being a small town, youths have difficulties finding friends who share similar interests Taipei, where National Taiwan University is located, fares the best in all three social indicators Figure shows three amenities which are important to international students, public transport to get around, things to when they are not studying or work2.56 2.78 ing,10and a generally exciting urban 2.59 culture There lessons to learn 2.67 2.42 are important 2.77 2.61 2.47 derives from Japan and China Three of our samples come from Japan, aside which 2.93 3.02 2.86 3.1 3.05 2.53 2.82 2.85 2.83 2.74 from Asia Pacific University in Beppu, we surveyed students from Osaka University 3.19 2.81 3.19 2.95 3.15 2.54 and University of Tokyo In the Chinese case, we surveyed Renmin international students in Beijing and Sun Yat Sen University students in Guangzhou In both countries, the best infrastructure is in the capital cities (Tokyo and Beijing) The second large city (Osaka and Guangzhou) does not fare as well in the eyes of the international students studying there Thegroup difference is my especially Easy to find a social to share interest clear in the case of Beijing versus Guangzhou Figure alsoethnic/religious show that other capital cities of Taipei and Tolerance towards differences are friendly Seoul also very wellLocal withpeople international students Singapore reveals an interesting contrast International students studying at the National University of Singapore 10 3.06 2.45 2.41 3.3 2.91 3.21 2.9 2.63 3.11 3.04 2.98 2.7 3.24 2.23 2.02 2.91 3.13 2.05 Transportation in (City) 3.17 2.95 2.65 2.78 2.6 Exciting lifestyle in (City) Things to see and in (City) Figure City Evaluations: Amenities Source: GUISM survey data 2.73 12 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 rate the transportation very highly, but they also complain about the boring recreational environment in Singapore Beppu is unfortunately not well endowed in terms of amenities, being a small town One of the students we interviewed recalled his shock of travelling to APU for the first time: “our guide explained to us that our university [was located at the] top of the mountain, so all the people [other students in the bus who are travelling to APU] were amazed… our bus climbed up the mountain for a long distance, for a long time… everyone amazed… wow, we can’t get out of here, it’s like a prison” (Korean, male undergraduate, reported in Ho 2014b: 162) Thus, the lessons to learn from Figures and are that different cities offer different advantages and disadvantages when it comes to hosting young people for extended periods of time Capital cities in East Asia fare the best As the primary and gateway city for the country, capital cities have strong endowments in leisure and recreation amenities (the exception being Singapore) Moreover, capital cities as the seat of national governments also have stronger physical infrastructures such as an efficient public transportation network However, even small towns like Beppu, despite their disadvantages, appeal to young people because of their friendly environment (see Figure 1) Understanding the Full Diversity of Education Mobilities Research student mobilities require an understanding of the diversity of international students moving into Asian universities This implies a careful consideration of higher education research sites (flagship universities, commercial universities, branch campuses, seminaries, etc) So far, the first two points in this paper are made in relationship to flagship universities which appear in league tables like the Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia 13 one produced by the Times Higher Education What is also important is the need to recognise that globalization and mobility has impacted a variety of higher education institutes Understanding the viewpoint of these broad range of institutes, the international students who populate these places, and their after study pathways allow us as researchers to comprehend the scale of such endeavours Collins and Ho (2018) for example, highlight the need to understand especially the other end of the spectrum By introducing the concept of discrepant knowledge, they point to the production of different forms of knowledge and experiences, the different migration processes and after study pathways, and the unintended effects of international student mobilities A sampling of diverse higher education institutions may provide a deeper understanding of the privilege as well as the precarity faced by students (Collins and Ho 2018: 685-687) Understanding the Spectrum of Actors (and Research Subjects) in ISM Research also require a careful consideration of the actors and research subjects: (a) university officials who shape university policies We interviewed university senior officials, the international student office, deans and directors of research institutes These interviews are also important for the ways in which general country level higher education policies are used as mobilization strategies, how policies mutate (McCann and Ward 2012) as they are translated within the specific institutional context (b) education brokers which form a vital part of the infrastructure for mobility While we did not include education brokers in our sample of interviews, largely because we were interested in flagship universities Researchers who studied commercial higher education institutes studied how brokers played 14 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 an important role in the identification and channelling of students to their respective universities (Ortiga 2018; Yang 2018) (c) professors: particularly those who are in charge of recruitment for their departments and faculties Professors become more important when graduate students are the focus of study, in terms of their supervisory roles and also in terms of their attempts to get additional training for their supervisees Shen’s (2018) work on overseas supervision highlights the value of professors in the training and experiences of international doctoral students (d) students themselves who speak of the motivations, adaptations and future plans The range of institutes and international students is very broad In a way, the understanding of flagship universities in our project is actually fairly straightforward in that the combination of reputation, financial resources (in terms of scholarships and fellowships) are the key mechanisms which drive mobilities It is the lesser known and more specialized institutes like seminaries and private universities and colleges which are embedded in different parts of the international higher education eco-system which are more interesting Such institutes which are more specialized and less renowned will require brokers, who are knowledgeable about policies and opportunities and who work to connect students and universities The special issue Francis Collins and Ho (2018) edited in Discourse capture some of the issues involved for higher education institutes located at the other end of the spectrum (e) a lumni who reflect on their experiences and of their school to work transitions We actually studied this group last Our plan to see if universities will allow us to use their database to contact their alumni did not work because many universities only kept records of their local alumni, not the foreign alumni Privacy issues also prevented them from sharing the list We ended up with a snowball sample and traced them to their home cities It would have Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia 15 been great to find alumni who worked in third locations (i.e not home or host cities), but these individuals are difficult to locate and require more resources to study given their dispersion Interviewing alumni provided an important time dimension to our study Mayumi Ishikawa’s Osaka sample of alumni had respondents who graduated some 20-30 years ago (Collins et al 2017) With this group of more senior graduates, the retrospective interview revealed insights about paths taken and the consequences of such choices Thinking about the Research Design for the Study Sampling Universities and Students: Sections (b) and (d) highlighted the variety of universities which can be studied Selection is clearly dependent on the goal of the study We chose flagship universities because these research universities were are the forefront of international education As organizations, they were motivated by different logics: the logic of being competitive internationally and of gaining a stronger reputation Research universities are also motivated by ensuring a steady supply of graduate students as research labourers and trainee teachers Research focus changes with the university, Ortiga (2017) was interested in commercial universities because it enabled her to understand flexible production in response to changing demand for different skills Mixed Methods: A research design which mixes a quantitative survey method can work well with interviews (with different respondents in the university system) to deliver insights into the process and outcomes of student mobilities The idea of “mixing” is the key term here for mixing requires a stronger methodological basis to connect the key points of the project The GUISM project mixed method strategy specifically work by showing how survey data can highlight key themes which can guide the analysis of student transcripts In the Ge and Ho (2014) paper, we show how the survey followed by interviews work in tandem to fulfil the goals of the project, and how an after study component where we travel to the home countries 16 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 of our alumnus can powerfully illustrate the longer consequences of study abroad Global ethnography: Yang’s (2018) work show an interesting method in that he not only studied the students on site, but he actually tracked his subjects back to the home country to see how students interacted with education brokers In this way, the global education “chain” can be better understood Comparative studies: One of the challenges of our study was how to develop a survey instrument that can be used in five countries Although the education process is already standardised, issues emerged even in terms of defining what type of student should the research team be considering For example, some universities have large numbers of foreign language students and exchange students Should both types be considered? A survey instrument configured for different countries require a design which captures both commonalities and distinctiveness of the different institutional systems (Ge and Ho 2014: 205) Longitudinal Panel Designs: The length of university study, typically three to five years, make it suitable to think about a short panel design where students are interviewed as they move through the system This was exactly what Guo, Kang and Shi (2018) did in their study of doctoral students in Tsinghua University Such a design enabled this team to understand the transformation experienced by students immersed in the programme Conclusion In this essay, I have taken a more personal retrospective look at the field of ISM focussing at research work in East Asia and its universities This geographical scope is important from a university based perspective as these are the new players in the global higher education industry From the perspective of sociology, I have taken both a structure and agency approach From a structure perspective, it is important to see that ISM is enabled by a certain migration infrastructure (Xiang and Lindquist 2014) Embedded in this Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia 17 infrastructure are governments and their political and economic objectives which have implications for higher education Inter-governmental relationships and cooperative ventures often appear in the form of education and training aid University and company partnerships also result in scholarships and research internships which are significant in STEM professions In more remote and less renowned universities, education brokers identify and funnel students to universities An agency perspective look at student choices and behaviors In this regard, students as young people make decisions based on training and also a strong desire to experience life abroad Consequently, they make decisions based on universities and programmes, but also university locations And while the data presented in this paper not have location choices, there is a clear sense of how international students view their host city This perceptual data shows different city types and their varying attractiveness to students ISM based large research project in Asia can tailor its methodology based on a mixed method design, a comparative design, and a panel design A primary interest in transformative experiences should favor a panel design which enables change to be recorded as students move through the system If time permits, such a design should incorporate an after study phase (Collins et al 2018) The use of a panel design reveals the understanding of time and life course in the lives of students This along with after study retrospective interview method for alumni reveals interesting features of the transformative role of higher education in the lives of students These key findings were derived from data collected during the 2009 to 2012 period It is appropriate in the conclusion to see how these results stand in 2020 When we started the research, major East Asian universities were starting to be keenly aware of the need to develop their international education strategies to stay relevant in the global education system where movement of students abroad, especially from East Asia was becoming the new norm This tendency will continue not just because of a supply side argument that universities are expanding their places for international students On the demand side, increasingly more youths want to experience an international education also because of the perceived benefits of liv- 18 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 ing abroad and experiencing a different culture Significant numbers also want to experience work abroad after their studies, either in their host countries or other cities in the region (Ho 2014b) And 2020 will be known as the year of the COVID-19 pandemic The preliminary literature on COVID-19 found that this pandemic was increased incidences of racism towards Asians (Devakumar et al 2020; Coates 2020) and the spread of racist sentiments is enhanced by social media (Depaux et al 2020; Velásquez et al 2020) Furthermore, the spread of the virus is highest in the largest cities (Depaux et al 2020; Velásquez et al 2020) These three characteristics point to several changes COVID-19 will have on international education in the years to come First, will the racism experienced by Asians in general and students in particular in North America, Europe and Australia deter students from going to these regions? It might, especially when these incidences are not only experienced but spread via social media to the home countries of these victims, along with inflammatory remarks The anger, fear and resentments felt in the sending countries may deter the next few cohorts of university students going to these major markets and in turn seek culturally more similar destinations where there is a friendlier environment (see Figure 1) Second, perceptions of the new cohorts of university students will also look to the successful containment measures of potential host countries In East Asia, the major universities are found in East Asia’s largest cities (Ho 2014b), and it is in these cities where the spread of the virus is most apparent Thus, it is likely that the cities which inspire confidence in their COVID-19 response and post COVID management measures that will see international student numbers restored to pre COVID-19 levels sooner rather than later Thus, the COVID-19 situation highlights the other factors which indirectly affect international education: the response of residents to foreign srudents and the presence of a good healthcare infrastructure in ensuring well being of students and residents alike In my mind, a key promise of international student movements as a subject of research is in its ability to connect several key issues and different scales: the political economy of higher education policies, structure and agency issues, and the idea of a Conceptualizing and Researching Student Mobilities in East Asia 19 migration infrastructure around higher education which has a strong inter Asia dimension This idea of movement, the development of interpersonal networks which continue after study, the possibility of an increased understanding of the immediate region through contacts and during the study process, create the possibility of a more connected region made possible by Asia’s universities and the enabling of inter Asian student flows 교신: 호콩총(싱가포르 국립대 사회학과/아시아연구소 부교수)(sochokc@nus.edu.sg) Correspondence: Ho, Kong Chong (Associate Professor, Department of Sociology and the Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore)(sochokc@nus.edu.sg) 2020.05.02 접수 2020.05.06 심사 2020.05.18 게재확정 References Altbach, Philip G and Patti Mcgill Peterson, 2008, Higher education as a projection of America’s soft power, In Soft power superpowers: Cultural and national assets of Japan and the United States Armonk, N.Y : M.E Sharpe, 37-53 Brannen, Julia and Ann Nilsen, 2002, ‘Young People’s Time Perspectives: From Youth to Adulthood’ Sociology, 36(3), 513-537 Coates, Melanie, 2020, Covid-19 and the rise of racism Bmj (British Medical Journal), 369, m1384 Collins, Francis L, Ravinder Sidhu, Nick Lewis and Brenda S A Yeoh, 2014, Mobility and desire: International students and Asian regionalism in aspirational Singapore Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of education, 35(5), 661-676 Collins, Francis L, Kong Chong Ho, Mayumi Ishikawa and Ai‐Hsuan Sandra Ma, 2017, International student mobility and after‐study lives: the portability and prospects of overseas education in Asia Population, Space and Place, 23(4), e2029 Collins, Francis L and Kong Chong Ho, 2018, Discrepant knowledge and interAsian mobilities: unlikely movements, uncertain futures Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 39(5), 679-693 20 현대사회와 다문화 2020 제10권 2호 Depoux, Anneliese, Sam Martin, Emilie Karafillakis, Raman Preet, Annelies Wilder-Smith and Heidi Larson, 2020, The pandemic of social media panic travels faster than the COVID-19 outbreak Journal of Travel Medicine, 27(3), taaa031 Devakumar, Delan, Geordan Shannon, Sunil S Bhopal and Ibrahim Abubakar, 2020, Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses The Lancet, 395(10231), 1194 Foong, Michelle, Brenda S A Yeoh and Kong Chong Ho, 2014, International students and the politics of language among ‘globalising universities’ in Asia Knowledge Cultures, 2(4), 64-89 Furnham, Adrian, 1997, The experience of being an overseas student Overseas students in higher education, London: Routledge, 25-41 Ge, Yun and Kong Chong Ho, 2014, Researching international student migration in Asia: research design and project management issues Journal of Population Research, 31(3), 197217 Ge, Yun and Kong Chong Ho, 2018, The cultivation of research labor in Pacific Asia with special reference to Singapore Asia Pacific Education Review, 19, 199-210 Guo, Fei, Ni Kang and Jinghuan Shi, 2018, Preparation for the scholar’s role: first-year doctoral students in Tsinghua University Asia Pacific Education Review, 19(2), 169-185 Ho, Kong Chong, 2014a, International higher education ambitions and regional migration supports TRaNS: Trans-Regional and-National Studies of Southeast Asia, 2(2), 163182 Ho, Kong Chong, 2014b, The university’s place in Asian cities Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 55(2), 156-168 Hopkins, Michael, 2006, What is corporate social responsibility all about? 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