Introduction
Attaining a bachelor’s degree significantly enhances overall well-being by leading to higher income, better health behaviors, reduced reliance on public assistance, and greater political engagement (Baum, Ma, and Payea, 2013) It also facilitates a smoother transition into the workforce, as individuals with a degree tend to possess the skills and knowledge that employers value (Haaga, 2004) Additionally, education promotes economic and social mobility, particularly for disadvantaged students, allowing them to increase their earnings and improve their social standing In fact, data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in 2010 revealed that 67% of high school graduates were employed, compared to 85% of bachelor’s degree holders As Amarasinghe highlights, education is a crucial determinant of human capital, yielding economic returns while enhancing employment rates, earnings, health, well-being, and parenting (Amarasinghe).
West Virginia is part of a region that has not historically valued higher education
In the early 19th century, secondary private academies primarily served the privileged elite, leaving many rural Appalachian communities without access to higher education The high costs and limited availability of educational resources deterred residents, and higher education was often undervalued Until around World War II, achieving educational attainment beyond the eighth grade was seen as an exceptional accomplishment rather than a standard expectation.
Until the early twentieth century, families and churches were the main educational institutions, with rural school attendance only beginning to increase during this time (Shaw, DeYoung, & Rademacher, 2005) As a result, few individuals from West Virginia pursued higher education, and those who earned college degrees often sought employment in neighboring states like Pennsylvania or Ohio, which offered more robust and diversified economic opportunities.
The slow advancement of higher education in West Virginia has led to significant long-term economic challenges As the 20th century drew to a close, national and global markets shifted towards cleaner, high-tech industries predominantly found in post-industrial societies that rely on a well-educated workforce To remain competitive in the global market and improve its political and economic status, West Virginia must boost its graduation rates By 2018, it was projected that 50% of the state's workforce would need a postsecondary degree (WVHEPC, 2013).
President Obama’s 2020 College Completion Goal highlights the critical role of higher education in the United States The initiative aims to add 10 million graduates from community colleges and universities by 2020, exceeding the expected growth of 2 million Additionally, it focuses on creating and supporting opportunities for all Americans to complete at least one year of higher education or advanced training in their lifetime.
In his 2009 speech to the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce on Education, President Obama emphasized the critical importance of job creation, highlighting that by 2016, nearly 40% of new jobs would necessitate advanced education or training.
Beyond the realm of job creation, Obama focused upon the relationship between informed and educated Americans and their ability to help solve persistent problems this nation faces West
Virginia will inevitably improve its own economic condition by striving to adhere to Obama’s Completion Goal by placing more emphasis on influencing residents to pursue postsecondary education
Educational attainment, as defined by the NCES, indicates the highest level of education achieved, including categories such as less than high school, high school completion, some college, and bachelor’s degree or higher To earn a bachelor’s degree, students must first obtain a high school diploma or its equivalent The United States Census Bureau tracks the percentage of individuals aged 25 and older who are high school graduates or have higher education, both at the county and state levels There is a strong correlation between high school attainment and the percentage of individuals aged 25 and older with a bachelor’s degree or higher Notably, West Virginia has the lowest percentage of residents with four-year degrees in the nation, at just 17.9%.
This study examines bachelor’s degree attainment rates across the 50 states and 55 counties in West Virginia, focusing on how various independent variables—such as dropout rates, poverty levels, parental educational attainment, and the low socio-economic status (SES) of high schools—impact these rates.
West Virginia faces significant challenges with low educational attainment, reflected in its high dropout and low retention rates among young residents The dropout rate is defined by the percentage of 16 to 24-year-olds who are neither enrolled in school nor hold a high school diploma or equivalent This issue is critical, as the long-term economic consequences are stark; college graduates earn substantially more than those who drop out, with non-graduates making only 67 cents for every dollar earned by their degree-holding peers Additionally, the state suffers a loss in tax revenue due to these dropouts In 2010, approximately 7% of young individuals nationally were in a similar situation, highlighting a pervasive issue in education.
This thesis analyzes three key factors contributing to West Virginia's low percentage of residents with a four-year degree or higher, based on national trend data from the NCES One significant determinant is the poverty rate at local, county, and state levels, which impacts students' academic performance, educational persistence, and overall health By combining household income data with the Census Bureau's poverty threshold, the influence of poverty on education outcomes can be assessed Furthermore, research indicates an inverse relationship between obesity levels and the percentage of the population with a completed college degree, highlighting the broader implications of socioeconomic status on educational attainment.
Parental or guardian educational attainment significantly influences children's foundational learning abilities long before they graduate from postsecondary institutions Research indicates that college-educated mothers tend to spend more time with their children, fostering the development of cognitive skills (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013) Additionally, the involvement of highly educated mothers in early childhood education programs correlates positively with the frequency of daily reading to their children by family members Conversely, a lower percentage of children from families below the poverty line experience regular reading sessions.
West Virginia is home to a significant number of first-generation college students who often lack parents with advanced education This demographic faces greater challenges in persisting through college compared to their peers with more educationally experienced families.
Low socio-economic status (SES) in high schools is characterized by a concentration of low-income students in high poverty areas, significantly affecting educational outcomes, college enrollment, and postsecondary success These schools often lack opportunities for advanced coursework that can lead to college credit and have limited access to guidance counselors, which is crucial for improving graduation rates, college aspirations, and financial aid awareness The SES of a school is typically assessed by the percentage of students eligible for the National School Lunch Program’s free or reduced-price lunch.
West Virginia's low percentage of residents holding at least a four-year college degree is concerning, especially as the global market becomes more interconnected In an economy that increasingly demands skilled labor, individuals lacking formal education may face unemployment during economic downturns.
2005) There is a direct correlation between a state’s level of post-secondary education and the health of that state’s economy
West Virginia is struggling to compete with neighboring states in attracting corporate investments, largely due to the ongoing loss of its skilled workforce This exodus of talent not only hinders the state's ability to draw foreign direct investments (FDIs) but also negatively impacts its economic growth prospects States with a higher percentage of college graduates tend to enjoy stronger economies and greater appeal to FDIs, which contribute to financial stability and overall societal well-being Unfortunately, West Virginia's low rate of four-year college graduates limits its attractiveness as a destination for these crucial investments.
Review of the Literature
This thesis explores key factors influencing higher education attainment, focusing on four main categories: the Appalachia region, the Coal Mining Industry, Factors Influencing Bachelor’s Degree Attainment, and Postsecondary Education West Virginia, as the only state entirely within the Appalachian region, exemplifies the cultural pride of "mountain culture" alongside challenges like poverty traps The state's deep ties to the coal mining industry have resulted in economic struggles, contributing to higher poverty rates and lower educational attainment Additionally, school-level socioeconomic status and parental education significantly affect bachelor’s degree attainment While the economic advantages of postsecondary education have been widely studied, West Virginia faces the urgent challenge of reversing the rural "brain drain," where students leave for better job prospects.
Figure 2.1 Regional Map of Appalachia
Source: http://www.arc.gov/images/appregion/Appalachian_Region_Map.pdf_map1.jpg
The Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) reports that 42% of the region's population is rural, significantly higher than the national average of 20% The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) identifies most counties in West Virginia as rural, with 26 counties classified as such, alongside 8 micropolitan counties and 21 metropolitan counties In the 2005-06 school year, rural public schools in West Virginia comprised 49% of the total, compared to just 19% nationally, highlighting the state's unique demographic landscape.
In "Uneven Ground" (2008), Eller examines the Appalachian region's struggles from the 1940s to today, highlighting its lag in educational attainment, infrastructure, and economic development compared to the rest of the United States He points out that West Virginia's economic challenges stem from several factors, including a tradition of individualism coupled with weak law enforcement in early company towns, the dominance of outside industrial capital post-Civil War influencing local politics, the failure of subsistence farming alongside struggling coal and lumber industries leading to widespread poverty, and a pervasive sense of helplessness tied to these economic issues.
In West Virginia, 16 percent of adults aged 18 and older live in poverty, highlighting significant challenges in educational attainment within the Appalachian region Research indicates that the socioeconomic conditions in Central Appalachia contribute to persistent poverty traps, which are characterized by a lack of self-correction and are reinforced by local institutions and cultural factors.
Poverty in the region remains a significant issue due to unstable labor markets, insufficient economic diversification, and the concentration of wealth among major natural resource companies Additionally, low levels of public political engagement hinder efforts to address these challenges Research has also highlighted shifting family dynamics, particularly the increasing prevalence of female-headed households in Appalachia, as a contributing factor to the ongoing poverty crisis (Lichter and Cimbulak, 2010).
Myers (2011) explores two prevalent theories regarding the roots of poverty in Appalachia: the culture of poverty and internal colonialism The culture of poverty theory adopts a "blame the victim" stance, perpetuating negative stereotypes about Appalachian individuals Positive traits such as independence, self-reliance, and strong kinship ties are often misrepresented by national media as signs of backwardness and laziness These harmful stereotypes can be internalized by Appalachian youth, potentially hindering their educational success (Chenoweth and Galliher, 2004) A study focused on the self-identification of residents in the twenty-three westernmost counties of North Carolina further investigates these dynamics.
Research indicates that less educated individuals may be more likely to distance themselves from the Appalachian region compared to their more educated counterparts, who are often more aware of the significant contributions of Appalachians to American history (Cooper, Knotts, & Livingston, 2010) This perspective highlights a cultural framework in Appalachia characterized by traditionalism and fatalism, suggesting that true enhancement of the region's economy and quality of life can only be achieved through cultural transformation Labeling Appalachians as submissive and unchanging misrepresents the reality of the region and its inhabitants (Myers, 2011).
The internal colony theory claims Appalachia is disconnected from the national economy West Virginia is located within a sparsely populated peripheral region in comparison to
The peripheral regions, such as Appalachia, are often exploited for their natural resources at minimal cost, functioning similarly to a colony by providing cheap raw materials that benefit core markets (Burns, 2007) This dynamic allows national and corporate interests to prioritize profit over the well-being of the local population, leading to the marginalization of both resources and communities (Scott, 2010).
Marginalization involves the dynamics of space, power, and identity, where dominant entities, such as businesses and corporations, exploit economically disadvantaged groups, like Appalachian residents, for their land and labor The persistent issue of absentee ownership has led to significant capital outflow from the region, hindering economic diversification Furthermore, corporate land ownership restricts the entry of other industries, perpetuating economic challenges (Bell and York, 2010) This perspective, however, overlooks the complexities of a capitalist market by concentrating solely on absentee ownership (Myers).
West Virginia's economy remains heavily reliant on the coal mining industry, which plays a crucial role by providing jobs and contributing approximately 11% (or $7.2 billion) to the state's gross product Each ton of coal mined generates a 5% severance tax based on its gross value, with most of this revenue directed to the State Revenue Fund This funding supports public education, infrastructure, and local government revenue-sharing, highlighting the state's ongoing dependence on this mono-industry despite the need for economic diversification.
Many coal extraction jobs do not necessitate a four-year degree, with most higher-skilled positions typically occupied by out-of-state employees The decline of mining and manufacturing jobs in Appalachia has resulted in increased reliance on government assistance and reduced college enrollment rates compared to national figures.
The decline in mining employment in West Virginia is closely linked to a decrease in the state's labor force participation rate and population, particularly in the southern coalfields Between 1950 and 2000, only seven counties experienced population growth, primarily in service-based, commuter areas near Washington D.C Most of the population loss, especially during the coal bust of the 1950s, was concentrated in southern counties like McDowell and Logan, as well as northern counties such as Ohio and Hancock.
In 1940, the mining industry peaked with 130,457 workers, but by 2012, employment had significantly declined to 22,096, including 16,641 underground and 5,455 surface miners (MHS&T, 2014) From 1971 to 2003, surface mining jobs rose sharply while underground positions fell by approximately 24% (Dorsey, 2011) Additionally, O’Leary and Boettner (2011) reported that only 4% of public service sector jobs in the natural resources and mining industry were available in 2011 This study aims to spatially analyze coal production and employment across counties to identify clusters with high coal industry employment and its negative impacts on poverty, dropout rates, high school graduation, and bachelor's degree attainment.
The decline in coal mining jobs is attributed to several factors, including mechanization, dwindling accessible coal seams, competition from Wyoming mines, the growth of the natural gas sector, and government regulations The industry experiences significant fluctuations in employment due to boom and bust cycles, notably in the 1970s when OPEC's influence led to a temporary boom, followed by a downturn in the 1980s as gas prices stabilized However, the most significant contributor to the reduction of coal mining jobs is mountaintop removal (MTR) mining practices.
Mountain Top Removal (MTR) mining replaces traditional underground coal mining by removing the tops of mountains to access coal seams more efficiently This method gained popularity during the 1970s energy crisis and saw a rise in usage in the 1980s due to lower operating costs, leading to a significant reduction in regional employment The "treadmill of production" model highlights the prioritization of profit over ecological concerns and local job opportunities (Bell and York, 2010) Additionally, organizations like Friends of Coal actively promote pro-coal sentiments among youth through various outreach methods, including flyers, billboards, community events, and commercials.
Methodology
Explanatory Variables
Between 2008 and 2012, West Virginia had the lowest percentage of its population aged 25 or older holding a bachelor's degree or higher at 17.9% Other states with similarly low educational attainment levels include Arkansas (19.8%), Louisiana, Indiana (23%), Alabama (22.3%), Nevada (22.2%), Oklahoma (23.2%), and Tennessee (23.5%).
Mississippi (20%) and Arkansas, along with West Virginia, Oklahoma, and Tennessee, are among the states with the highest poverty rates, with Arkansas entering the group of states with significant educational attainment challenges The second highest poverty percentage range, which spans from 15.7% to 18.1%, includes Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia.
The states with the highest percentage of population with a bachelor’s degree were
Colorado (36.7%), Connecticut (36.2%), Maryland (36.3%), Massachusetts (39%), New
Hampshire (33.4%), New Jersey (35.4%), New York (32.8%), Rhode Island (30.8%), Vermont (34.2%), and Virginia (34.7%) are states with varying poverty rates, primarily within the lowest range of 8.4-11.2% Colorado, Rhode Island, and Vermont fall into the second lowest range of 11.3-13.8%, while New York occupies the middle range of 13.9-15.6% A correlation analysis reveals a significant negative relationship between the percentage of the population with a bachelor's degree and poverty rates, with a correlation coefficient of r = -0.72, indicating that as the percentage of bachelor's degree holders increases, poverty rates tend to decrease.
The GeoDa analysis using the univariate Moran’s I approach of bachelor’s degree attainment resulted in the most significant (0.01) states being Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Analysis
Between 2008 and 2012, West Virginia had the lowest percentage of residents aged 25 or older with a bachelor’s degree or higher at 17.9% Other states with similarly low percentages include Arkansas (19.8%), Louisiana, Alabama (22.3%), Nevada (22.2%), Indiana (23%), Oklahoma (23.2%), and Tennessee (23.5%).
Mississippi (20%) and Louisiana (21.4%) continue to rank among the states with the lowest educational attainment and highest poverty levels Arkansas has also entered this concerning group, showing a significant percentage of its population living below the poverty line Additionally, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia fall into the second highest poverty range, with rates between 15.7% and 18.1%.
The states with the highest percentage of population with a bachelor’s degree were
Colorado (36.7%), Connecticut (36.2%), Maryland (36.3%), Massachusetts (39%), New
Hampshire (33.4%), New Jersey (35.4%), New York (32.8%), Rhode Island (30.8%), Vermont (34.2%), and Virginia (34.7%) exhibit varying poverty rates, with most states falling in the lowest range of 8.4-11.2% Colorado, Rhode Island, and Vermont are in the second lowest range of 11.3-13.8%, while New York is categorized in the middle range of 13.9-15.6% A correlation analysis reveals a significant negative relationship between the percentage of the population with bachelor's degrees and poverty rates, indicated by an r value of -0.72 This suggests that as the percentage of individuals holding bachelor's degrees increases, poverty rates tend to decrease, highlighting a strong correlation between education and economic well-being.
The GeoDa analysis using the univariate Moran’s I approach of bachelor’s degree attainment resulted in the most significant (0.01) states being Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Ohio, and Texas States with less than a 5 percent error (0.05) are Alabama, Illinois,
A univariate cluster analysis of bachelor’s degree attainment reveals significant regional disparities in the United States High-high value states, characterized by elevated rates of bachelor’s degree holders, include Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont in the Northeast In contrast, low-low value states, which have low rates of degree attainment, are found in the South, specifically Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, and Texas Additionally, Illinois stands out as a single high-low value state, indicating a unique educational attainment profile.
Figure 4.1 Bachelor’s Degree Attainment Results in the United States
Figure 4.2 Univariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment
Figure 4.3 Univariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment
Poverty significantly affects educational outcomes in this region, with a strong negative correlation between poverty and high school attainment (-0.78) and a notable correlation with bachelor’s degree attainment (-0.72) Although dropout rates show no clear pattern, exhibiting a weak correlation with bachelor’s attainment (-0.11), they are generally lower in states where a higher percentage of the population has completed high school.
A univariate analysis of individuals living below the poverty line revealed significant statistical findings, particularly in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Texas, with a significance level of 0.01 States exhibiting a less than five percent error (0.05) include Delaware, Georgia, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and South Dakota The analysis identified a high-high cluster of poverty in the southern states, while a low-low cluster was predominantly located in the northeastern states of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, with Delaware and South Dakota also included Additionally, Virginia was categorized as low-high, whereas New York fell into the high-low classification.
The GeoDa bivariate analysis identified a notable cluster in the Northeast, comprising Connecticut, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Vermont, where high bachelor's degree attainment coincides with low poverty rates, with Connecticut showing the strongest significance at 0.01 Conversely, the South, including Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and North Carolina, exhibited a contrasting pattern of low bachelor's degree attainment and high poverty rates.
Louisiana shows notable significance with a 0.01 rating, while Virginia stands out for having high rates of both bachelor’s degree attainment and poverty In contrast, Ohio exhibits lower rates of both bachelor’s degree attainment and poverty, which are also significant.
Figure 4.4 Univariate LISA Results for United States Persons Below Poverty Level
Figure 4.5 Univariate LISA Results for United States Persons Below Poverty Level
Figure 4.6 Bivariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment and
Figure 4.7 Bivariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment and Poverty
Between 2008 and 2012, states with the lowest percentages of high school graduates aged 25 and older included Alabama (82.6%), California (81%), Kentucky (82.4%), Louisiana (82.2%), Mississippi (81%), and Texas (80.8%), all of which also had high poverty rates Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana had poverty levels ranging from 18.2% to 22.3%, while Alabama's rate fell between 15.7% and 18.1% In contrast, states like Alaska (91.6%), Minnesota (91.9%), Montana (91.9%), New Hampshire (91.4%), Vermont (91.3%), and Wyoming (92.1%) boasted the highest high school graduation rates and the lowest poverty rates, with Alaska, Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Wyoming having poverty levels between 8.4% and 11.2% A correlation analysis revealed a strong negative relationship (r = -0.78) between high school graduation rates and poverty levels, indicating that higher education rates correspond to lower poverty rates.
High school graduation rates show a strong negative correlation with eligibility for the Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) program, with a correlation coefficient of r = -0.82 While West Virginia has the lowest rate of bachelor's degree attainment, some states have even lower high school graduation rates This indicates that there is no consistent national trend linking high school graduation rates to college degree attainment.
The states with the highest average dropout rates between the years 2006-2010 were Alaska (7.1%), Arizona (7.6%), Colorado (6.2%), Illinois (5.9%), and Louisiana (6.6%)
Louisiana has a high percentage of Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility, ranging from 58% to 68.4%, while many other states hover around the average Notably, the states with the lowest dropout rates include Alabama at 2%, Idaho at 1.9%, Indiana at 1.9%, and New Hampshire at 2.3%.
New Jersey and New Hampshire have low percentages of Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility, ranging from 20% to 31.7%, while Alabama shows a significantly higher eligibility rate between 46.4% and 57.9% West Virginia exhibits a variable dropout rate with no strong correlation to the other analyzed factors A correlation analysis revealed a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.36) between dropout rates and FRPL eligibility, indicating that as dropout rates increase, FRPL eligibility tends to rise as well, although the relationship is not particularly strong.
This study aims to analyze the factors influencing bachelor's degree attainment, revealing key correlations with high school attainment (r = 0.47), high school dropout rates (r = 0.11), and Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility (r = -0.63) The strongest correlation identified is between bachelor's attainment and FRPL eligibility, indicating that states with higher bachelor's degree populations tend to have lower FRPL eligibility rates Additionally, there is minimal correlation between bachelor's attainment and high school dropout rates, while a medium positive effect is observed between bachelor's and high school attainment.
Figure 4.8 High School Degree Attainment Results in the United States
Figure 4.9 High School Dropout Rate Results in the United States
Figure 4.9 High School Dropout Rate Results in the United States
The analysis of retention rates among first-time college freshmen revealed significant disparities across states States with the lowest retention rates, ranging from 63.3% to 70.5%, included Alaska (63.3%), Idaho (68.5%), Montana (68.4%), South Dakota (68.2%), and West Virginia (68.3%), with West Virginia recording the lowest retention rates in the eastern United States Conversely, states with the highest retention rates, between 80.4% and 84%, comprised California (84%), Connecticut (81.9%), Massachusetts (83.9%), New Jersey (82.1%), and Rhode Island (81.6%) A correlation analysis indicated a medium effect size (r = 0.59) between retention rates and bachelor’s degree attainment, suggesting that as retention rates rise, so does the percentage of individuals earning bachelor’s degrees It is important to note that the retention rates analyzed were averaged from data collected between 2006 and 2010.
In the United States, regions with high populations of high school and bachelor degree recipients are notably clustered in the Northeast, particularly in New England, although this correlation weakens nationwide with a coefficient of 0.47 The Northeast also exhibits high college retention rates Conversely, the South and Southwestern regions experience lower educational attainment levels, higher eligibility for Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL), and increased poverty rates A significant negative correlation of -0.63 exists between bachelor's degree attainment and FRPL eligibility, highlighting the disparities in educational outcomes across different regions.
Figure 4.10 First-Time College Retention Rates Results in the United States
Table 4.1 Definition of Endogenous and Exogenous Variables
HS High school graduate or higher, percent of persons age 25+ from 2008 to 2012 US
Census COL Bachelor's degree or higher, percent of persons age 25+ from 2008 to 2012 US
POV Persons below poverty level, percent, from 2008 to 2012 US
Discussion
This study examines the impact of poverty, parental education, and socio-economic status on bachelor's degree attainment in West Virginia, revealing two key divides: north-south and urban-rural The findings indicate that West Virginia is classified as southern-rural, characterized by a significant number of low-population counties compared to metropolitan areas.
The data reveals a significant north-south divide in education and economic factors at the state and county level States north of the Mason-Dixon Line, particularly in the Upper Midwest, exhibit higher rates of secondary education and bachelor's degrees, lower poverty rates, and increased retention for first-time college freshmen Notably, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Vermont showcase a cluster of high bachelor's degree attainment alongside low poverty levels, likely influenced by a culture that prioritizes higher education This correlation suggests that better-funded schools in these areas provide advanced placement opportunities and effective college counseling In contrast, counties in the northern and eastern panhandles of West Virginia, despite being economically linked to populous regions in Pennsylvania and Ohio, reflect similar educational and poverty statistics to their northern counterparts.
Southern and southwestern states exhibit lower levels of secondary and bachelor's degree attainment, alongside higher poverty rates and increased eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL) Additionally, these regions struggle with lower college retention rates GeoDa's bivariate analysis reveals a notable cluster of low bachelor's degree attainment and high poverty levels specifically in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana.
Mississippi The same can be said for counties in the southern and central regions of West
Virginia that border the less populated regions of Kentucky and southwest Virginia These regions do not have diversified economies but instead are focused on natural resource extraction
The second trend highlights the urban-rural divide, where states with higher populations generally outperform their rural southern counterparts in key socioeconomic factors This trend is evident in densely populated counties in West Virginia, which are within commuting distance to major cities like Pittsburgh and Washington D.C These counties offer greater job opportunities and boast a higher median income, creating a supportive environment for postsecondary institutions.
Counties with close proximity to higher education institutions typically experience higher college enrollment rates among high school seniors and first-generation students Conversely, rural counties often face challenges such as limited population, inadequate infrastructure, lower median incomes, and fewer job opportunities that necessitate postsecondary education, leading to reduced college-going rates In West Virginia, the Census Bureau identifies significantly more rural counties compared to metropolitan ones, highlighting the state's educational disparities.
Counties with a high percentage of residents holding high school diplomas often also have a significant number of individuals with bachelor’s degrees, as indicated by a correlation coefficient of -0.71, reflecting a positive relationship between secondary and postsecondary education This trend is particularly evident in metropolitan areas such as the northern panhandles, Morgantown, Parkersburg, and the Charleston-Huntington corridor in the south Conversely, rural southern and central counties demonstrate low levels of high school and bachelor’s degree attainment, especially in regions reliant on resource extraction industries, where employment may overshadow the value of education This pattern highlights the influence of parental education levels on the educational achievements of their children.
The correlation between secondary and postsecondary educational attainment varies significantly at the state level, with a correlation coefficient of 0.47 indicating a relatively weak relationship This suggests that some states may exhibit low secondary attainment while achieving higher postsecondary levels, and vice versa For instance, North Dakota showcases a large population with secondary education but a comparatively lower number of individuals with postsecondary degrees Furthermore, the link between bachelor’s degree attainment and college retention is stronger, with a medium correlation of r = 0.59 States that experience lower retention rates often correspond with fewer residents holding bachelor’s degrees, as illustrated by West Virginia.
Poverty is more widespread in southern and central counties compared to the wealthier northern and eastern regions, including the Charleston-Huntington metro area There is a significant link between low educational attainment and higher poverty rates, with correlation coefficients of -0.78 at the state level and -0.74 at the county level for secondary education However, the relationship between postsecondary education and poverty is less clear at the county level, showing a state correlation of -0.72 but a weaker county coefficient of -0.38 This indicates that county-level poverty has a lesser impact on bachelor's degree attainment than it does at the state level.
Cabell and Monongalia counties in West Virginia stand out as exceptions to the typical correlation between education attainment and poverty levels The presence of West Virginia University in Monongalia County and Marshall University in Cabell County contributes to their high educational attainment rates compared to other counties in the state However, despite these high percentages of bachelor's degree holders, both counties also exhibit a significant portion of their populations living below the poverty line.
County dropout rates exhibit significant variability and show a weak correlation with students' eligibility for Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL), suggesting that school-level socio-economic status may not directly impact secondary graduation rates Between 2007 and 2011, the correlation coefficients for dropout rates and FRPL eligibility were 0.36 at the state level and 0.40 at the county level, indicating a modest relationship Conversely, the correlation between dropout rates and the population with bachelor's degrees was nearly negligible, with coefficients of -0.11 at the state level and -0.09 at the county level This implies that dropout rates may be influenced more by district and school-level policies rather than broader socio-economic factors Additionally, a noticeable north-south divide exists within the state, where northern regions generally report lower dropout rates compared to southern areas, potentially due to the rural nature of southern counties and a diminished perceived value of secondary education However, exceptions to this trend are found in the metropolitan areas of the Charleston-Huntington metro corridor.
The study revealed a strong correlation between Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility and the percentage of individuals living below the poverty level, with a correlation coefficient of 0.89 at the state level Southern states like West Virginia exhibited higher poverty rates and a greater number of students eligible for FRPL, while regions such as New England had fewer individuals below the poverty line and fewer schools serving low-income students Consequently, FRPL eligibility serves as a significant indicator of school-level poverty and reflects family median income levels, highlighting the overall poverty situation within the population.
Research indicates a strong negative correlation between Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility and high school graduation rates, with correlation coefficients of -0.82 at the state level and -0.87 at the county level This suggests that counties with higher secondary graduation rates tend to have lower FRPL eligibility, while those with higher FRPL eligibility often experience lower graduation rates The findings highlight the significant impact of school-level poverty on student achievement and graduation outcomes.
Eligibility for Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) significantly influences bachelor's degree attainment, with a strong negative correlation of -0.63 at the state level and -0.72 at the county level in West Virginia Counties with higher percentages of FRPL-eligible students tend to have lower rates of bachelor's degree completion In contrast, the relationship between the overall population living below the poverty line and bachelor's attainment is considerably weaker, with a correlation of -0.38.
Counties with high college-going rates show a strong correlation with increased bachelor’s attainment, with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.68 Metropolitan areas, in particular, exhibit higher percentages of college-going populations, which positively impacts the local economy when students remain in the area after graduation This trend is especially pronounced in counties that host large postsecondary institutions, benefiting not only local students but also providing employment opportunities for out-of-state students.
Rural counties with high college enrollment rates often struggle to retain college graduates, as many students seek employment opportunities in larger job markets This trend is evident in West Virginia, which has notably low retention rates for first-time college freshmen compared to the Southern Appalachian region and neighboring states like Pennsylvania and Virginia Consequently, these counties experience lower levels of bachelor's degree attainment, as their graduates migrate to areas with better job prospects.
Conclusion
“How can West Virginia’s leaders create this new type of mining, one that extracts the talents and resources of its people?”
This study indicates that a multitude of factors within West Virginia and across the
Various factors influence an individual's ability to achieve higher education in the United States, including poverty rates, parental education levels, and high school socio-economic status (SES), as highlighted by research (NCES, 2012) While this study provides valuable insights, it acknowledges that personal bias may affect the selection of factors for analysis, and the results are not exhaustive.
Analyzing correlation and spatial autocorrelation trends at both state and county levels reveals the interconnectedness of poverty rates, bachelor’s degree attainment, and free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL) eligibility Among these factors, poverty rates serve as the most reliable indicator of bachelor’s degree attainment at the state level, while FRPL eligibility effectively reflects poverty levels at the county level.
In West Virginia, poverty rates alone do not determine the percentage of the population with bachelor's degrees, as poverty is linked to various factors at the school, county, and state levels There exists a strong negative correlation between eligibility for free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL) and high school attainment, while a stronger positive correlation exists between high school attainment and college enrollment rates Counties that exhibit low FRPL eligibility, high high school attainment, and elevated college-going rates tend to have a higher percentage of individuals with bachelor's degrees However, only a minority of West Virginia's 55 counties, specifically Berkeley and Jefferson in the eastern panhandle, meet these favorable criteria.
Rural counties face significant challenges compared to wealthier metropolitan areas, primarily due to their rugged terrain, which restricts housing, commercial development, and transportation infrastructure Approximately half of rural students reside in counties without access to higher education institutions, limiting educational opportunities and contributing to stagnant population growth This low population density results in decreased tax revenue, exacerbating financial issues In West Virginia, for instance, state taxes per capita ranked 15th highest nationally in 2005, with lower-income families paying a disproportionately high percentage of their income in taxes compared to wealthier households This tax burden stems from a lack of economic diversification, as the state's historical reliance on a mono-industry economy restricts alternative employment opportunities in rural areas.
Rural counties face significant challenges due to the decline of natural resource extraction jobs, driven by mechanization, mountaintop removal (MTR) mining, and the volatile boom and bust cycles of coal production Dr James Ziliak highlights that these cycles lead to unstable incomes, creating uncertainty for families trying to make long-term plans, often forcing them into a hand-to-mouth existence This raises concerns about how families in these regions can prioritize higher education when daily survival takes precedence Analysis of LISA bivariate autocorrelation reveals two notable clusters of counties in rural coal-producing areas with low bachelor’s degree attainment and high poverty rates In contrast, fewer counties with low poverty rates are clustered in the eastern panhandle, benefiting from their proximity to the Washington D.C metro area.
This study challenges the belief that the highest coal production and employment are concentrated in the rural southern regions of West Virginia Instead, it reveals a significant shift in coal production towards northern counties Between 2008 and 2012, northern West Virginia experienced an increase of 1,083 direct coal mining jobs, rising from 5,337 to 6,460, while the southern coalfields saw only a modest increase of 86 jobs, from 15,550 to 15,626 (Boettner).
As coal seams in southern West Virginia face depletion, extraction costs have risen significantly Consequently, Southern Company, a leading electric producer, has announced plans to cease the use of Central Appalachian coal by 2016 due to these escalating production expenses.
2013) A faster rate of productivity loss has resulted in an uncompetitive market for Central Appalachian coal compared to coal produced in northern West Virginia
Not all metropolitan counties exhibit low poverty rates; for instance, Monongalia County and Cabell County have poverty percentages ranging from 19.5% to 22.9%, despite being home to West Virginia University's two largest four-year postsecondary colleges This highlights a paradox where areas with higher educational attainment still face significant poverty challenges.
Monongalia; Marshall University in Cabell, respectively) The reality is students either are unemployed or work low-wage, part-time jobs that result in lower per capita income levels In
2010, about 71% of college-going 16-24 year-olds were employed, about 19% of which worked over 35 hours per week and 31% worked 20-34 hours per week (NCES, 2012) After analyzing
According to Gumprecht (2008), in 305 predetermined college towns across the United States, nearly 25% of residents lived below the federal poverty line in 2000, a rate that is double the national average and exceeds that of chronically depressed areas like Appalachia This indicates that the large student populations in these towns significantly influence poverty statistics However, it's important to recognize that student poverty data can be misleading, as many students receive economic support from their families.
Dropout rates at the state and county levels show inconclusive correlations and exhibit more spatial variability than other analyzed variables Unlike Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility, which is directly linked to high school and bachelor’s degree attainment, dropout rates do not demonstrate a strong correlation with these educational outcomes Furthermore, dropout rates also lack a significant relationship with poverty levels or FRPL eligibility This finding contrasts with national data from the Department of Education, which indicates that individuals aged 18 to 24 who drop out of school face a poverty rate of 30.8%, significantly higher than the 13.5% poverty rate for those who have earned at least a bachelor’s degree (NCES, 2011).
Despite the expectation that high graduation rates correlate with low dropout rates, discrepancies in dropout statistics may stem from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) methods of collecting data through the Common Core of Data (CCD) Variations at the state level can occur due to factors such as policy changes or shifts in population, leading to potential overreporting or underreporting of dropout figures.
Dropout rates at the county level are influenced by the reporting practices of school districts, with six key factors contributing to data variation: (a) the accounting period used for calculating dropout rates; (b) the duration before an unexplained absence is classified as a dropout; (c) inaccuracies in data reporting that may lead to duplicate counts; (d) the grade levels factored into dropout calculations; (e) the age range of students classified as dropouts; and (f) whether students in alternative educational settings are counted as enrolled Additionally, there is ongoing debate about the impact of students with disabilities on dropout statistics The criteria for defining dropouts and the reporting methods vary significantly across districts, counties, and states.
This study explores various dimensions and offers numerous opportunities for expansion across multiple disciplines However, it does not address the relationship between teen pregnancy and factors such as educational outcomes, poverty rates, parental education, and school socioeconomic status Notably, single mothers face significant challenges, with poverty rates reaching 44% in 2010 (NCES, 2012), highlighting the need for further research in this area, as indicated by the Institute for Women’s Policy Research.
Status of Women and Girl’s in West Virginia, West Virginia’s teen pregnancy rate has a profound impact on “educational and economic prospects” (Hess, Hegewisch, & Williams, p
60) Whether high rates of teen pregnancy are unique to West Virginia or the entire Appalachian region would be subject to further inquiry
West Virginia's demographic landscape significantly impacts bachelor's degree attainment, as the state has the second oldest population in the U.S., with a rapidly increasing median age (Paulhus and Pore, 2012; Christiadi, 2010) The aging baby boomer population contributes to this trend, while the state's minority population remains relatively small and primarily concentrated in urban areas like Charleston and southern coal mining counties Many black residents in these regions are descendants of coalminers who migrated during the late 19th and early 20th centuries for employment Therefore, further research on the educational attainment of elderly and minority demographics in West Virginia is essential.
The relationship between coal mining employment and educational attainment in West Virginia highlights a broader issue across the Appalachian region, offering a valuable comparison to national trends As mechanization progresses, mountaintop removal (MTR) has emerged as the primary extraction method, leading to a demand for postsecondary education among workers due to the complexities of surface extraction However, the MTR job market faces two significant challenges: a scarcity of available positions and a tendency for these roles to be filled by non-local workers.