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STUDIES ON THE COMPOSITION AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF CHIN-CHIN FROM WHEAT, AFRICAN BREADFRUIT, SOYBEAN AND SORGHUM COMPOSITE FLOUR BLENDS

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Tiêu đề Studies On The Composition And Sensory Properties Of Chin-Chin From Wheat, African Breadfruit, Soybean And Sorghum Composite Flour Blends
Tác giả Ruth Ginika Ugwuanyi
Người hướng dẫn Prof. Eze J.I.
Trường học University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Chuyên ngành Food Science and Technology
Thể loại thesis
Năm xuất bản 2017
Thành phố Nsukka
Định dạng
Số trang 58
Dung lượng 1,51 MB

Cấu trúc

  • Polyphenolic compounds: The role of polyphenolic compound is to protect the plant from predatory attacks of herbivores, pathogenic fungi and parasitic weed. It offers protection against mould growth, premature germination and attack from insects (FAO, 1999). Low concentration in food does not have adverse effect to human beings (Axe, 2016).

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Background

Snack foods have been an integral part of human diets for centuries, significantly impacting the economies of nations (Lasekan and Akintola, 2002) The growing demand for snacks is driven by rapid population growth and urbanization in both developed and developing countries Traditional local processing methods, such as toasting, flaking, and frying, have been employed to create a variety of popular snacks, including popcorn, toasted African breadfruit (ukwa), akara buns, bole (roasted plantain), potato chips, plantain chips, owuna (fried bambara nut), African yam bean (ijiriji), and coconut flakes These snacks are enjoyed by diverse groups of people, appealing to both the young and the elderly.

In Nigeria, snack foods are predominantly fried or baked, with fried options being particularly popular among consumers for their appealing aroma, texture, and flavor These convenient snacks are affordable and widely accessible, found on the streets, in shops, along highways through vendors, and at schools, churches, and parties Their easy-to-eat nature and availability make them a staple convenience food in the country.

Modern snacks often involve frying and baking cereal-based products, leading to a variety of delicious treats One such popular snack in West Africa, particularly Nigeria, is Chin-chin, a sweet, donut-like fried delicacy Typically made from a dough of wheat flour, eggs, and other ingredients, the flour is mixed to create an elastic dough that is kneaded, rolled, and cut into desired shapes The shaped dough is then deep-fried in hot oil until it turns a golden brown, after which it is removed to drain excess oil Chin-chin is commonly served to guests during parties and ceremonies, making it a beloved treat in social gatherings.

Deep fat frying (DFF) is a popular cooking method that involves immersing food in hot oil, typically heated between 130-200°C, which exceeds the boiling point of water This process effectively cooks food by causing moisture to evaporate from its surface, leading to a drying effect Foods with high moisture content, like starch, tend to resist oil absorption The combination of high oil temperature and reduced moisture content results in various physical, nutritional, and chemical transformations, including browning from the Maillard reaction, starch gelatinization, and protein denaturation These changes are influenced by factors such as oil temperature, frying duration, oil type, and the specific characteristics of the food being fried.

Cereals, derived from cultivated grasses in the Graminae family, are rich in carbohydrates, low in fat, and contain some protein, though their protein quality is often deficient Key nutrients and vitamins are primarily found in their hulls, with certain cereals like millet and sorghum providing essential nutrients such as β-carotenoid, niacin, selenium, magnesium, and iron However, the presence of anti-nutrients like phytate and tannin can hinder nutrient absorption, but these can be reduced through processing methods like malting and fermentation In Nigeria, wheat flour is a staple in the bakery industry, yet local wheat production is insufficient to meet demand, prompting significant imports that strain foreign exchange Consequently, research has focused on incorporating non-wheat flours, such as soybean and plantain, to create composite flours for baking and snack products, showcasing innovative approaches to address the wheat supply challenge.

Sorghum, known as guinea corn or "dawa" in Nigeria, is a gluten-free grain that serves as a viable alternative to wheat flour Approximately 50% of agricultural land in Nigeria is dedicated to sorghum cultivation, making it a widely grown crop In Northern Nigeria, sorghum is processed into various food products, including snacks and beverages like burukutu and kunu, and is also utilized as animal feed This resilient crop thrives in harsh weather conditions where other crops may fail, highlighting its importance in the region's agriculture.

Legumes are the edible seeds of leguminous plants belonging to the family

Leguminosae They are known to contain doubled amount of protein compared to cereals and this is usually added to the cereal based snacks to improve their protein content (Enwere,

In Nigeria, several legumes are cultivated as essential sources of plant-based dietary protein for human consumption, including soybean, African yam bean, African locust bean, bambara groundnut, cowpea, and pigeon pea.

Soybean (Glycine max) is an excellent source of protein, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and water Often referred to as the "poor man's meat" in developing countries where animal products are expensive, it serves as an effective alternative to combat protein-energy malnutrition.

African breadfruit (Trecullia African), part of the Moraceae family, originates from Africa but is now cultivated in various tropical and subtropical regions Often referred to as a large jackfruit, this underutilized tropical tree is commonly found in Nigeria, where it serves as an affordable meat alternative for low-income families.

Seeds can be prepared in various ways, including baking, toasting, boiling, or frying, before being consumed Additionally, they can be ground into flour, serving as an alternative to wheat flour in baked goods.

Nigeria faces significant expenses due to wheat importation, as domestic production falls short of meeting the high demand Consequently, the baking and related industries heavily rely on imported premium wheat to operate efficiently.

Post-harvest losses in developing countries, including Nigeria, pose a significant challenge for farmers, who often witness their harvested crops, like breadfruit, deteriorate due to insufficient processing methods This waste is particularly troubling, as breadfruit can be processed into flour and used in various applications, highlighting the need for improved techniques to maximize the utilization of this valuable resource.

The convenience and appealing sweetness of snack foods often lead individuals to compromise their intake of a balanced diet, opting instead for quick fixes like soft drinks to satisfy hunger Many people, including children, frequently choose snacks such as biscuits, chin-chin, bread, buns, and donuts—primarily made from cereal flour and other bakery ingredients—over nutritious meals, often disregarding the importance of a well-rounded diet.

Protein energy malnutrition and obesity are significant issues leading to increased mortality rates in many developing and underdeveloped countries To address these challenges, it is essential to enhance the nutritional quality of snack foods.

Production of composite flour from nutrient rich sorghum, soybean and breadfruit will help improve the nutrient content of snack foods

Utilizing indigenous food crops like soybeans, sorghum, and breadfruit in Nigeria can enhance versatility, reduce reliance on imported wheat flour, and minimize post-harvest losses This approach will foster new business ventures, boost job creation, improve food security, decrease environmental pollution, and combat unemployment.

The broad objective of this research was to prepare chin chin from wheat, breadfruit, soybean and sorghum flour blends

The specific objectives of this research were to:

1 Prepare composite flour from wheat, sorghum, soybean and breadfruit.

2 Prepare chin chin from the composite flour blends.

3 Determine the proximate composition and sensory properties of the chin chin.

Objectives of the study

The broad objective of this research was to prepare chin chin from wheat, breadfruit, soybean and sorghum flour blends

The specific objectives of this research were to:

1 Prepare composite flour from wheat, sorghum, soybean and breadfruit.

2 Prepare chin chin from the composite flour blends.

3 Determine the proximate composition and sensory properties of the chin chin.

The term 'snack' encompasses a wide range of foods beyond traditional items like popcorn and potato chips, including various foods typically consumed alongside main meals A snack is generally a smaller portion of food eaten between meals, and it can come in many forms, from packaged and processed snacks to fresh items prepared at home Common snack ingredients include cold cuts, fruits, leftovers, and sandwiches, which are designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying Processed snack foods, as a type of convenience food, are made to be less perishable and more durable, often containing sweeteners, preservatives, and appealing flavors Snacks have become a significant part of eating habits for many people around the world.

Deep frying has ancient origins, with the Egyptians practicing it as early as the 5th millennium B.C The Greeks later adopted this technique in the 5th century B.C., utilizing olive oil for frying By the 1st century, the Roman cookbook Apicius documented the use of deep frying in preparing a chicken dish called Pullum Frontonianum Over the centuries, this culinary method spread throughout Europe and Arabia, gaining popularity in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.

Modern deep frying emerged in the 19th century, particularly in the American South, with the rise of cast iron cookware, leading to the creation of various deep-fried dishes (Robert, 2015) French fries gained popularity in early 19th century Western Europe after their invention in the late 18th century, while doughnuts were introduced in the mid-19th century The early 20th century saw the invention of iconic deep-fried foods like onion rings, deep-fried turkey, and corn dogs Recently, the fast food industry's growth has significantly increased the popularity of deep-fried items, especially French fries.

Deep frying is a cooking method where food is fully immersed in hot oil, typically between 177 and 191 °C This high temperature causes the food's surface to dehydrate and triggers Maillard reactions, which break down sugars and proteins, resulting in a crispy golden-brown crust that minimizes oil absorption As heat penetrates the food, proteins denature, starches gelatinize, and dietary fiber softens While some foods are coated to prevent shrinkage, starchy foods often resist this due to their high moisture content.

2.2.1 Food and Oil Interaction under Heat

When moist food is added to hot oil, it creates a boiling effect due to steam released from the food as the oil's temperature exceeds water's boiling point This steam forms a barrier that prevents the oil from penetrating the food, while also cooling the surrounding oil, which prolongs cooking time and allows flavors to develop without hardening the exterior As steam continues to escape, the food surface dehydrates, forming a crispy crust Cooking is considered complete when the food turns golden brown and steam bubbles diminish To maintain optimal oil temperature and prevent excessive absorption, it's crucial to avoid overcrowding the frying pan.

Deep fat frying food results in high absorption of unhealthy saturated and trans-fats, which can significantly increase the risk of various cancers, including prostate cancer, as well as elevate cholesterol levels, leading to obesity, heart attacks, and diabetes Additionally, the nutritional value of food diminishes during the frying process While using healthier oils like sunflower and olive oil can be beneficial, excessive reuse of these oils can introduce harmful compounds into the body, potentially releasing carcinogens, affecting liver function, and inhibiting vitamin absorption.

Chin-chin is a popular snack in West African countries, particularly Nigeria, made from a mixture of wheat flour, water, butter, and traditional baking ingredients This delicious treat is deep-fried after being rolled and cut into thick, elastic dough, often enhanced with pineapple juice for added vitamins and nutmeg for flavor Its appealing color and taste make it a favorite among both adults and children, with softer varieties being especially popular among kids during school lunch The widespread availability of snacks like chin-chin in various locations such as street vendors, shopping malls, and school canteens reflects the growing trend of snack consumption, often replacing traditional meals As a cereal-based product, chin-chin is rich in carbohydrates, making it a convenient and tasty option for on-the-go eating.

Cereals, which belong to various tribes of the grass family, are essential food crops that serve as major staples and industrial raw materials worldwide Defined as any grain-producing plant yielding edible farinaceous grains, cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum, and rice are cultivated globally, with specific types thriving in temperate and tropical regions Rich in carbohydrates, cereals have low fat content and a notable protein level, although they may lack sufficient essential amino acids like lysine and tryptophan, depending on the variety.

Wheat is a vital global cereal crop that originated in the nitrogen-poor soils of the Near East and has adapted to various environments, from northern latitudes to tropical regions It is extensively cultivated in temperate countries, including Russia, France, India, the USA, Australia, Pakistan, Turkey, and China Wheat grains range in color from yellow to red-brown, with most cultivars classified as white The flour produced from wheat is categorized as strong or weak based on its protein content, with hard wheat being ideal for bread and soft wheat used for cakes and pastries The gluten protein in wheat flour enables the formation of elastic dough, which retains carbon dioxide during fermentation, contributing to high food yields Due to its significant agricultural output, wheat is often transported to countries with less favorable growing conditions.

Wheat is a nutritious food rich in protein, minerals, B-group vitamins, and dietary fiber, making it an excellent choice for health (Kumar et al., 2011) It comprises approximately 78.10% carbohydrates, 14.70% protein, 2.10% fat, and 2.10% minerals, along with a significant amount of vitamins While wheat has a higher protein content compared to other cereals, it is low in certain essential amino acids; therefore, pairing it with legumes can enhance its overall protein quality.

Sorghum, an ancient grain from the grass family Graminae, specifically the subfamily Panicoideae and tribe Andropongonea, has a rich history Its name derives from the Italian term "sorgo," which traces back to the Latin word "syricum," meaning the grain of Syria.

Sorghum is believed to have originated in East Central Africa, particularly in Ethiopia or Sudan, due to the region's biodiversity This versatile grain is known by various names across the globe, including great millet and guinea corn in West Africa, kafir corn in South Africa, dura in Sudan, mtama in East Africa, jowar in India, kaoliang in China, and milo or milo-maize in the United States (FAO, 1995).

Sorghum is a versatile crop cultivated for various purposes, including food in Africa, animal feed in the United States, and industrial applications worldwide It serves as a key raw material for producing alcoholic beverages, transport-grade ethanol, malt, beer, starch adhesives, and packaging materials Grown in 98 countries across Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, major producers include Nigeria, India, Mexico, Sudan, China, and Argentina Valued for its resilience, sorghum thrives in regions with low rainfall (400-600 mm) and high temperatures, featuring a short growing season and the ability to flourish in poor soil conditions.

Sorghum grain offers comparable nutritional value to maize, with a higher mineral content and notable antioxidant properties Its protein content ranges from 11.5% to 16.5%, surpassing that of many other grains, while providing approximately 326 calories primarily from carbohydrates, with starch making up 69.5% of its composition Although sorghum contains a variety of sugars, including glucose and sucrose, they constitute only about 1.2% of the grain Rich in iron, sorghum consists mainly of amylopectin (70-80%) and amylase (20-30%), with protein present in the endosperm, germ, and bran However, its protein quality is limited by a deficiency in essential amino acids like lysine, methionine, and threonine With a crude fat content of 3%, sorghum's lipid profile includes various fatty acids, predominantly sourced from the germ and aleurone layers, which together contribute about 80% of the total fat content.

Sorghum is an excellent source of B-complex vitamins and certain yellow-endosperm varieties contain β-carotene, which the body can convert into vitamin A Additionally, sorghum grain has detectable levels of fat-soluble vitamins D, E, and K, although it does not provide vitamin C Notably, sorghum is rich in niacin, contributing up to 35% of the daily niacin requirement.

Deep Frying

Food and Oil Interaction under Heat

When moist food is added to hot oil, it creates bubbles that are actually steam escaping from the food due to the oil's higher temperature than the boiling point of water This steam prevents the oil from penetrating the food, allowing for a longer cooking time that enhances flavor and ensures even heat transfer without hardening the exterior As steam continues to escape, the surface of the food dehydrates, forming a crispy crust The food is considered cooked when it turns golden brown and steam bubbles diminish To maintain optimal frying conditions, it's crucial not to overcrowd the oil, as this can lower the oil's temperature and lead to excessive oil absorption.

Deep fat frying food leads to the absorption of oils high in saturated and trans-fats, which can significantly increase the risk of various cancers, including prostate cancer, as well as raise cholesterol levels, contribute to obesity, and elevate the chances of heart attacks and diabetes Additionally, the nutritional value of food diminishes during the frying process While using healthier oils like sunflower and olive oil can be beneficial, excessive reuse of any oil can introduce harmful compounds that may release carcinogens, adversely affect liver function, and inhibit vitamin absorption.

Chin-chin

Chin-chin is a popular snack in West African countries, particularly Nigeria, made from a mixture of wheat flour, water, butter, and other baking ingredients This delicious treat is typically deep-fried after rolling and cutting the dough, with variations that may include pineapple juice for added vitamins and nutmeg for flavor The appealing color and taste of chin-chin make it a favorite among both adults and children, with softer versions often enjoyed by kids during school lunches The growing love for snacks has made chin-chin widely available in various settings, including streets, shopping malls, schools, and churches, thanks to advancements in packaging As a cereal-based product, chin-chin is rich in carbohydrates, making it a popular choice for quick snacking.

Cereals

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Wheat is a vital global cereal crop that originated in the Near East and adapted to various environments, thriving in temperate regions such as Russia, France, India, the USA, Australia, Pakistan, Turkey, and China The grain's color ranges from yellow to red-brown, with cultivars typically referred to as white Wheat flour can be classified as strong or weak based on its protein content, with hard wheat used for bread and soft wheat for cakes and pastries The gluten protein in wheat flour enables the formation of elastic dough that retains carbon dioxide during fermentation, contributing to its high food yield compared to other cereal crops Due to its widespread use, wheat is often transported to countries with less favorable climatic conditions for its growth.

Wheat is a highly nutritious food, offering a rich source of protein, minerals, B-group vitamins, and dietary fiber, making it an excellent choice for health building (Kumar et al., 2011) Comprising approximately 78.10% carbohydrates, 14.70% protein, 2.10% fat, and 2.10% minerals, wheat also contains significant vitamins Its protein content surpasses that of other cereals; however, it is low in certain essential amino acids, so combining it with legumes can enhance its overall protein quality.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

World use of Sorghum

Sorghum is a versatile crop cultivated for various purposes, including food in Africa, animal feed in the United States, and industrial uses such as the production of alcoholic beverages and biofuels Grown in 98 countries across Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, major producers include Nigeria, India, Mexico, Sudan, China, and Argentina Its resilience allows sorghum to thrive in regions with low rainfall (400-600 mm) and high temperatures, making it a valuable crop in areas with poor soil fertility and a short growing season.

Nutritional composition of sorghum

Sorghum grain is nutritionally comparable to maize but boasts a higher mineral content and antioxidant properties Its protein content ranges from 11.5% to 16.5%, making it richer than many other grains, and it contains approximately 326 calories, primarily from carbohydrates, with a starch content of 69.5% Sorghum's total sugars, including glucose and sucrose, account for about 1.2% While it offers a fair amount of iron, its protein quality is limited by a deficiency in essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, and threonine Additionally, sorghum has a crude fat content of 3%, which is higher than wheat and rice but lower than maize, with the germ contributing around 80% of the total fat The fatty acid profile of dewaxed sorghum oil includes significant amounts of stearic and oleic acids.

Sorghum is a valuable source of B-complex vitamins and certain yellow-endosperm varieties contain β-carotene, which the body can convert into vitamin A Additionally, sorghum grain has detectable levels of fat-soluble vitamins D, E, and K, although it does not provide vitamin C Notably, sorghum is rich in niacin, contributing up to 35% of the daily niacin requirement.

Sorghum has variable mineral composition, with higher concentrations found in the germ of the kernel Dehulling enhances iron availability by removing the phytate-rich hull, which binds iron and other minerals, rendering them biologically unavailable Research by Mbofung and Ndjouenkeu (1990) indicates that mechanically dehulled sorghum gruels contain more soluble and ionizable iron compared to traditionally milled versions This increase in iron availability is due to both the effective removal of phytate during mechanical milling and the greater breakdown of phytate through soaking before dehulling Additionally, sorghum is rich in selenium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and contains trace amounts of sodium.

2.5.4 Anti-nutritional factors in sorghum

Phytate: Phytate is a compound that makes iron and other minerals biologically unavailable.

Mature seeds primarily store phosphorus in the form of dihydrogen phosphate, a complex phosphorous compound Phytic acid, a key component, exhibits a strong binding capacity, allowing it to form complexes with multivalent cations and proteins.

Dhurrin: The action of enzyme on dhurin releases chemicals known as hydrogen cyanide

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) poses a serious risk to the central nervous system when ingested in excessive amounts, leading to the inactivation of cytochrome oxidase This critical disruption can result in death within seconds (Etuk et al., 2012).

Polyphenolic compounds play a crucial role in safeguarding plants from herbivores, pathogenic fungi, and parasitic weeds, providing protection against mold growth, premature germination, and insect attacks (FAO, 1999) Additionally, low concentrations of these compounds in food are not harmful to human health (Axe, 2016).

Phenolic compounds, including flavonoids and tannins, are found in the outer layers of grains These compounds play a crucial role in inhibiting microbial activity and may enhance resistance against mold, as noted by the FAO in 1995.

Flavonoids: Flavonoids in sorghum, derivatives of the monomeric polyphenol flavan-4-ol, are called anthocyanidins The two flavonoids identified to be abundant in sorghum grains are luteoforol (FAO,1995)

Tannins are primarily found in high concentrations in brown-colored sorghum, while unpigmented sorghum contains low levels These compounds negatively impact feed intake in livestock by hindering digestion, reducing nutrient utilization, and causing metabolic issues and toxicity The nutritional value of sorghum is significantly affected by its tannin content, which consists of polymers formed from the condensation of flavan-3-ols As sorghum matures, the development of its brown color leads to increased astringency, further contributing to its resistance against consumption.

Legumes

Soybeans (Glycine max)

Soybean, a leguminous vegetable from the pea family, thrives in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates Domesticated in northeast China around the 11th century BC, it is believed to have been introduced to Africa by Chinese traders in the 19th century As one of China's five staple foods, alongside rice, wheat, barley, and millet, soybean is crucial for providing affordable, high-quality protein, especially in regions where animal protein is too costly Additionally, soybean cake, a by-product of oil production, serves as a nutritious animal feed Its unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic Rhizobia bacteria enhances soil fertility, converting nitrogen into ammonia, which is then transformed into ammonium, benefiting plant growth.

Table 1: Nutrient Composition of Some Selected Legumes

Composition Cowpea Groundnut Bean Soybean

N2 + 8H + + 8ē → 2NH3+ H2 then converted to ammonium

Legumes, through their root nodules, serve as vital sources of nitrogen, contributing to their high protein content, which is particularly advantageous for African farming systems facing soil depletion due to rising food demands and limited access to affordable fertilizers In 2007, global soybean production reached over 216 million tons, with Africa contributing 1.5 million tons.

Nutritional Composition of soybean

Soybeans are the most widely cultivated legume primarily due to their high protein content, which constitutes about 40% of their dry weight, alongside 20% oil The remaining composition includes 35% carbohydrates and 5% ash The heat stability of soy proteins allows for the production of various soy food products, such as soy milk and textured vegetable protein, which require high-temperature cooking Mature soybeans contain soluble carbohydrates, including the disaccharide sucrose and the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose, which, while protecting seed viability, can lead to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans due to their indigestibility Additionally, insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans, such as cellulose and hemicelluloses, contribute to dietary fiber The lipid portion of soybeans contains phytosterols, including stigmasterol, sitosterol, and campesterol, which make up 2.5% of the lipid fraction.

Anti-nutritional factors in soybean

Anti-nutritional factors are compounds that hinder the intake, availability, or metabolism of nutrients in animals, potentially leading to effects ranging from reduced performance to death, even at low levels of consumption The impact of these factors varies significantly among different species and age groups, complicating the issue further Legumes, particularly soybeans, contain a variety of anti-nutrients, including protease inhibitors, trypsin inhibitors, saponins, and various anti-vitamins, which pose significant challenges to their consumption and utilization in animal diets.

Protease inhibitors, particularly the Kunitz and Bowman-Birk factors found in raw soybeans, can significantly impair digestive efficiency by inhibiting proteolytic enzymes, leading to reduced utilization of dietary sulfur amino acids This inhibition prompts animals, such as poultry and swine, to secrete more digestive enzymes, resulting in pancreatic hypertrophy The presence of trypsin inhibitors in raw soybeans decreases nitrogen retention, negatively impacting growth performance and increasing metabolic nitrogen excretion However, the detrimental effects of these inhibitors can be mitigated through appropriate heat treatment, which effectively eliminates their activity, thus enhancing protein digestion and overall animal growth.

Lectins, also known as hemaglutinins, are proteins that bind to carbohydrates and are found in raw soybeans These proteins can negatively impact growth and increase mortality rates in animals The most effective method for eliminating lectins from soybeans is autoclaving (Fasina et al., 2003).

Phytoestrogens found in soybeans, particularly isoflavones such as daidzein, genistein, and glycitein, exhibit various biochemical activities, including estrogenic, anti-estrogenic, and hypocholesterolemic effects These compounds have been linked to reproductive health in animals that consume diets containing soy meal (Pugalenthi et al., 2005).

Stachyose and raffinose are low molecular weight carbohydrates found in both toasted soybean meal and raw soybean seeds, as noted by Padgette et al (1996).

Phytates, or phytic acid, bind essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, and zinc, making them less accessible to non-ruminant animals High levels of phytates significantly reduce the availability of crucial minerals, particularly calcium, phosphorus, and zinc, while also inhibiting the activity of digestive enzymes like pepsin, trypsin, and amylase This interference leads to decreased protein availability, amino acids, starch, and energy, ultimately resulting in poor growth and reduced feed consumption in animals (Sebastain et al., 1998; Ravindran et al., 2008).

Soybean proteins contain allergenic effects primarily due to their globulin fraction, which constitutes approximately 85% of the total protein content in soybean seeds (Shinbasaki et al, 1980) The key allergens identified in soybeans are glicynine and beta conglicynine (Swiderska – Kielbik et al 2005) These antigenic proteins can trigger immune responses in sensitive individuals, including calves, pigs, and humans (Pedersen, 1988).

Pectins are significant anti-nutritional factors that are sensitive to high temperatures and can cause agglutination in the digestive tract and affect cell division Despite thermal processing, the impact on soy antigens remains minimal.

Micotoxins : Most micotoxins in soybeans products are ochre-toxins (mushrums products of

Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum, along with the mycotoxin zearalenone produced by Fusarium graminearum, can contaminate seeds stored under poor conditions, such as high moisture and low temperatures (typically above 20°C) These contaminants exhibit estrogenic activity, potentially disrupting reproductive health.

Oligosaccharides can lead to flatulence, reduced nutrient digestibility, and intestinal hypertrophy (Salgado et al., 2002) Additionally, they may affect the abundance of microorganisms in the intestines (Rubio et al., 1998).

The impact of anti-nutritional substances in raw soybeans on animal growth varies with age, but studies show that pigs, rats, and chickens experience reduced growth when consuming uncooked soybeans To mitigate these adverse effects on both humans and livestock, soybeans are typically subjected to heat treatment, such as toasting, which effectively reduces the harmful substances.

Food uses of soybeans

Soy protein is a valuable ingredient in the production of baked goods such as breads, cookies, and crackers, as it enhances texture, retains moisture, and adds richness to cakes Additionally, it whitens bread, extends shelf life, minimizes breakage and crumbling, and boosts nutritional value Furthermore, soy protein improves manufacturing processes, handling, and machine efficiency, while also enhancing mouthfeel and overall quality, making it more appealing to consumers.

Breakfast cereals: Soy protein is used extensively as an ingredient in hot cereal mixes and breakfast bars to boost protein value and quantity

Pasta: Pasta products can be fortified with soy protein to increase nutritional value For instance, the U.S National School Lunch Program uses soy-fortified pastas with 15 to 17 percent protein content

Soy isolates play a crucial role in various food products, including coffee whiteners and whipped toppings, where they enhance texture and stability Additionally, they are utilized in sour cream dressings to emulsify fats and manage viscosity Furthermore, instant meal replacement beverages frequently incorporate soy concentrates and isolates, providing a valuable source of protein.

Incorporating soy protein into processed and whole meat, poultry, and fish products enhances their flexibility and cost stability, meeting consumer demands This addition improves moisture retention, texture, binding, cohesion, product yield, juiciness, and overall protein quality Furthermore, it contributes to an appealing color and appearance, extends shelf-life, and boosts palatability and nutritional value.

Dairy analog products made from soy protein, such as imitation milk, cheese, non-dairy frozen desserts, coffee whiteners, and yogurt, have been developed to offer cost-effective and nutritious alternatives Soy protein not only enhances the nutritional profile of these products but also minimizes allergenic reactions, making them a suitable choice for a wider audience.

Many companies are now creating soy and milk protein blends for food manufacturing, providing a non-fat, dry milk alternative that maintains a protein content comparable to traditional milk These versatile blends serve as either a complete or partial substitute for non-fat dry milk in various applications, including baked goods, sauces, and meat products.

African Breadfruit (Treculia africana)

Nutritional composition of african breadfruit

The seeds are a rich source of protein, containing 25-35% protein, with defatted seeds still offering 20% protein and a high concentration of aromatic amino acids, making them one of the best sources of quality protein Additionally, raw seeds have a carbohydrate content of 40-45% and are rich in vegetable oil, yielding 15-20%, comparable to other plant oils such as cottonseed, palm kernel, and sunflower The fat and oil are abundant in essential fatty acids like Omega 3 and Omega 6, which are crucial for mental and physical development, hair growth, metabolic regulation, reproductive health, skin color enhancement, and bone health.

The seeds of T africana possess significant medicinal properties, making them valuable for the production of pharmaceutical drugs, vegetable oils, soaps, and perfumed paints When properly processed, these seeds contribute to a healthy diet, particularly through dishes like breadfruit porridge, which is beneficial for managing blood sugar levels in diabetics This tropical fruit is a rich source of essential vitamins and minerals, especially notable for its high content of B-complex vitamins such as thiamin, pyridoxine, and niacin Additionally, fresh breadfruit is an excellent source of potassium, crucial for regulating heart rate and blood pressure, and it also provides important minerals like copper, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus.

Uses of African breadfruit

Breadfruit can be cooked into porridge, serving as an alternative to yam Research indicates that combining breadfruit seed flour with wheat flour can enhance bread production, making it suitable for pastries, weaning foods, breakfast cereals, and non-alcoholic beverages (Dhingia and Jood, 2002).

Anti-nutritional factors of African breadfruit

Breadfruit, similar to other legumes, contains various anti-nutrients such as hydrogen cyanide, tannins, and phytates, which can restrict its utilization in dietary applications These compounds, including trypsin inhibitors and saponins, pose challenges in the consumption of leguminous crops (Nwige and Adejumo, 2015).

Materials

Source of raw materials

The sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), soybean (Glycine max), African breadfruit (Treculia africana) and wheat (Tristicum aestivum) and chin chin ingredients were obtained from

Ogige market in Nsukka, Enugu state.

Sample preparation

Sorghum flour was produced following the method outlined by Ndife et al (2011) The process began with sorting and cleaning the sorghum grains to eliminate impurities, followed by weighing The grains were then washed and soaked in water for six hours to reduce anti-nutritional factors After soaking, the grains were dried in an oven at a temperature of 60-70°C.

12 h and thereafter milled and allowed to pass through 60 μm mesh size to obtain a fine flour.

According to the method outlined by Okoye et al (2008), the production of soybean flour involves several key steps Initially, soybean seeds are cleaned and sorted to eliminate pests and contaminants The seeds are then soaked for six hours to reduce antinutrients, followed by dehulling and drying in an air oven After these processes, the seeds are milled and passed through a 6 µm mesh to produce fine flour, which is subsequently used to create wheat-soybean composite flour blends for chin-chin production.

Preparation of breadfruit fruit flour

Breadfruit flour was prepared according to the method described by Ojoko et al.

In 2014, fresh mature breadfruit was manually sorted, peeled, and diced into smaller pieces before being blanched at 80°C for 10 minutes The blanched breadfruit was dried in an air oven at 65°C for 24 hours, then milled and sieved to produce fine flour This flour was used to create wheat-breadfruit composite flour blends for chin-chin production The process of flour production from breadfruit is illustrated in Figure 3, while Table 2 provides the formulation ratios of the composite flours.

Sorghum Weighing Sorting and cleaning Washing Soaking (6 h) Drying (60-70 o C) Milling Sieving

Sorghum flourFigure 1: Flow chart for sorghum flour production

Weighing Peeling Cutting into small sizes

Milling and sievingBreadfruit flourFigure 3: Flow chart for soybean flour production

Table 2: Proportion of composite flour with sorghum, soybean, breadfruit and wheat flour.

Table 3 : ingredients and their quantities for the production of chin chin

To make chin-chin, start by sieving flour, salt, and nutmeg into a bowl, then mix in margarine until evenly combined Next, add egg, sugar, and other ingredients to form a fairly stiff dough Roll the dough to a thickness of 1cm and cut it into cubes Deep fry the cubes in hot vegetable oil at 180°C for 8 minutes until they turn golden brown Finally, drain, cool, and package the chin-chin in an airtight container.

Methods of Analyses

Proximate analysis

The moisture content of products and flour samples was measured following the AOAC standard method (2010) Crucibles were thoroughly washed, dried in an oven at 100°C for one hour, and then cooled in a desiccator The initial weight (W1) of the cooled crucibles was recorded, and two grams of the sample were added to each crucible, with the total weight (W2) noted Drying continued at 100°C until a constant weight (W3) was achieved.

Where W1= Initial weight of empty crucible.

W2= Weight of crucible + weight of sample before drying.

W3= Weight of dish + weight of sample after drying.

The ash content of flour samples was analyzed following AOAC standard methods (2010) Initially, crucibles were cleaned and dried at 100°C for one hour, then cooled in a desiccator before recording their weight (W1) A two-gram sample was placed into the crucible, and the total weight (W2) was recorded The sample was charred using a Bunsen flame in a fume cupboard, then transferred to a preheated muffle furnace at 550°C for two hours until a white or light grey ash was produced After cooling in a desiccator, the final weight (W3) was noted.

The ash content will be calculated mathematically as follows:

Raw materials/ingredientsMixing of ingredientsKneading of doughCutting into shape with knife

Chin chin Figure 4: Production of chin chin

Where W1= Initial weight of empty crucible.

W2= Weight of crucible + weight of sample before ashing.

W3= Weight of dish + weight of sample after ashing.

The protein content of the samples was determined according to the standard method ofAOAC (2012) using kjeldahl method.

To digest the sample, 2 grams were weighed into a Kjeldahl flask, and 5 grams of anhydrous sodium sulfate or 4 Kjeldahl catalyst tablets were added Following this, 25 milliliters of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were introduced along with a few boiling chips The mixture was then heated in a fume hood until the solution became clear After cooling to room temperature, the solution was transferred to a 250 ml volumetric flask and diluted to the mark with distilled water.

The distillation process began with the cleaning of the distillation unit and the setup of the apparatus A 100 ml conical flask, containing 5 liters of 2% boric acid and drops of methyl red indicator, was positioned under the condenser A 5 ml sample of the digest was introduced into the apparatus using a small funnel, followed by distilled water and 5 ml of 60% sodium hydroxide solution The digestion flask was then heated until 100 ml of distillate, specifically ammonium sulfate, was collected in the receiving flask Finally, the solution in the receiving flask was titrated with 0.049 M sulfuric acid until a pink color was achieved, and the same procedure was repeated for the second flask.

Where Vs = volume (ml) of Acid required to titrate the sample

Vb= volume (ml) of acid required to titrate the blank

W= Weight of sample in gram

The fat content of the sample was analyzed using the AOAC standard method (2012) with a soxhlet extractor A 2 g sample was placed in a labeled thimble, and 300 ml of petroleum ether was added to a 500 ml round bottom flask The thimble was sealed with cotton wool, and the apparatus was refluxed for approximately 6 hours After careful removal of the thimble, the collected petroleum ether was drained for reuse The flask was then dried at 105°C for 1 hour, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed to determine the fat content.

The crude fibre content of the sample was determined using the standard method of AOAC

In a 2010 study, 2 g of the sample was defatted using petroleum ether before being boiled in 200 ml of 1.25% H2SO4 for 30 minutes The mixture was then filtered through linen or muslin cloth using a fluted funnel and washed with boiling water until all acid was removed The residue was subsequently boiled in 200 ml of NaOH for another 30 minutes, followed by washing with 1% HCl and boiling water to eliminate any remaining acid Finally, the residue was transferred to a porcelain crucible, dried in an oven at 100°C to achieve a constant weight, cooled, and then incinerated in a muffle furnace.

600 0 C for 5 hours, cooled in a desiccator and weighed

Carbohydrate determination

The carbohydrate content of the sample was determined by difference according to Oyenuga

% Carbohydrate= 100 - (% moisture + % ash + % protein + % fat + %crude fibre).

Sensory Evaluation

A sensory evaluation of chin-chin was conducted using a 9-point Hedonic scale, as outlined by Ihekoronye and Ngoddy (1985), with 20 semi-trained panelists from the Food Science and Technology department at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka This scale ranges from 9, indicating extreme liking, to 1, indicating extreme disliking Each sample was presented on identical coded plates and assessed for various attributes including flavor, color, taste, aftertaste, texture, and overall acceptability, with ratings compared to a control sample made from 100% wheat flour.

Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis

The study employed a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) for its experimental setup Data analysis was conducted using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with means compared through Duncan’s New Multiple Range Test A significance level of p < 0.05 was established, utilizing the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) software, version 20.0.

Proximate Composition of Chin-chin

Protein

The protein content of chin-chin made from blends of wheat, African breadfruit, soybean, and sorghum flours varied between 9.11% and 24.62% The lowest protein content was found in SGWF1 (20:80 wheat:sorghum chin-chin) at 9.11%, consistent with Sheorain et al (2000), who reported 9.17% in a comparison of maize and sorghum This value is higher than Adegbola's (2003) finding of 6.9% for bread made from wheat and sorghum flour blends The 100% wheat chin-chin showed a protein content of 13.08%, aligning with Oluwamukomi et al (2011), who reported 13.04% for 100% wheat bread supplemented with soybean, but differing from other studies that indicated a mean protein content of 19.5%.

Research indicates that chin-chin samples made from soybean and wheat flour blends exhibit significantly higher protein content compared to those made solely from wheat Specifically, SWF3 (40:60 soybean:wheat) achieved a protein level of 24.62%, surpassing the 8-12% range found in whole wheat and soybean flour blends In contrast, chin-chin samples with breadfruit and wheat composites showed protein levels between 15.73% and 19.34%, with the lowest value recorded in sample BWF1 (20:80) Notably, soybean:wheat chin-chin samples consistently demonstrated higher protein content, attributed to soybeans' rich protein profile, which can reach up to 40% This suggests that incorporating breadfruit and soybean flours into food formulations can enhance protein levels, making them suitable alternatives for high-protein dietary needs.

Table 4: Proximate composition of chin-chin produced from wheat, sorghum, soybean and breadfruit flours.

Sample Protein Ash Fibre Fat Moisture Carbohydrate

WF 13.08 c ± 0.03 1.96 c ± 0.02 0.80 b ±0.01 22.27 cd ±0.25 3.85 b ±0.03 58.04 e ±0.28 BWF1 15.73 d ±0.15 0.68 a ±0.5 0.42 ab ±0.02 22.15 c ±0.03 4.7 c ±0.02 56.32 e ±0.60 BWF2 17.64 e ±0.02 0.95 ab ±0.01 0.72 bc ±0.02 25.13 e ±0.02 4.65 c ±0.03 50.91 c ±0.03 BWF3 19.34 f ±0.02 1.27 b ±0.25 0.91 c ±0.02 28.14 h ±0.02 3.96 b ±0.02 46.38 b ±0.21 SWF1 19.28 f ±0.02 0.95 ab ±0.03 0.68 bc ±0.50 22.66 d ±0.22 3.02 a ±0.07 53.41 d ±0.25 SWF2 20.31 g ±0.03 1.95 c ±0.03 0.25 a ±0.05 25.63 f ±0.39 3.95 b ±0.19 51.08 c ±2.34 SWF3 24.62 h ±0.37 2.16 c ±0.29 0.83 bc ±0.21 26.86 g ±0.17 4.05 b ±0.13 42.14 a ±1.68 SGWF1 9.11 a ±0.2 1.06 ab ±0.12 3.73 d ±0.32 22.56 cd ±0.51 6.12 d ±0.63 57.41 e ±1.55 SGWF2 10.95 b ±0.77 1.23 b ±0.25 0.43 ab ±0.25 18.63 b ±0.28 4.11 b ±0.23 64.64 f ±1.67 SGWF3 10.73 b ±0.28 1.26 b ±0.29 0.92 c ±0.12 17.56 a ±0.37 4.65 c ±0.34 64.88 f ±0.31 Mean ± SD of triplicate determinations Mean values along the same column with different super scripts are significantly (p˃0.05) different

BWF1 :20 wheat:breadfruit composite flour;

BWF2 = 70:30 wheat:breadfruit composite flour;

BWF3 = 60:40 wheat:breadfruit composite flour;

SWF1 = 80:20 wheat:soybean composite flour;

SWF2 = 70:30 wheat:soybean composite flour;

SWF3 = 60:40 wheat:soybean composite flour;

SGWF1 = 80:20 wheat:sorghum composite flour;

SGWF2 = 70:30 wheat:sorghum composite flour;

SGWF3 = 60:40 wheat:sorghum composite flour

Ash

Ash content of the chin-chin samples ranged from 0.68-2.16 % with BWF1 (20:80 breadfruit: wheat chin-chin) having the least ash content This is lower than 3.4 % Appaih

In a study conducted in 2011, it was found that a 30% substitution of African breadfruit and soybean flour blends resulted in varying ash content levels in chin-chin products Notably, the SWF3 blend (40% soybean and 60% wheat) exhibited the highest ash content, aligning with the 2.55% ash content reported by Ndife et al (2011) The ash content for breadfruit and wheat chin-chin ranged from 0.68% to 1.27%, with the lowest value of 0.68% observed in the BWF1 blend (20% breadfruit and 80% wheat), while the highest value of 1.27% was recorded in the BWF3 blend (30% breadfruit and 70% wheat), which remained below the 5.5% reported by Apiah et al.

A study conducted in 2011 revealed that chin-chin samples made from a 30% substitution of breadfruit with soybean flour exhibited varying ash content, with soybean: wheat and sorghum: wheat combinations showing ash levels between 0.95-2.16% and 1.06-1.26%, respectively These values were notably higher than the ash content found in 100% wheat chin-chin This increased ash content suggests that soybean and sorghum possess greater mineral content than wheat flour, thereby contributing to the higher mineral levels in the chin-chin made from these composites Conversely, breadfruit-wheat chin-chin samples displayed lower ash content (0.68-1.27%) compared to the 100% wheat variant (1.96%), indicating that wheat has a superior mineral content compared to breadfruit.

Fibre

The fibre content of various chin-chin samples was analyzed, revealing that breadfruit:wheat, soybean:wheat, and sorghum:wheat chin-chin had fibre levels ranging from 0.43% to 3.73%, while the 100% wheat chin-chin contained 0.80% fibre Notably, the fibre content in the blends BWF3 (40:60 breadfruit:wheat), SWF3 (40:60 soybean:wheat), and SGWF3 (40:60 sorghum:wheat) was higher than that of the 100% wheat chin-chin However, all other samples displayed lower fibre content compared to the 100% wheat chin-chin, with no significant differences observed (p

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