Developing livable public space and the role of public private partnership (PPP) an overview and japanese insigh

Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam Developing Livable Public Space and the Role of Public-Private Partnership (PPP): An Overview and Japanese Insight Kien To PhD, Senior Planner and Urban Expert Eight-Japan Engineering Consultants Inc (EJEC) Abstract: This paper aims to provide a brief overview on urban public space development in global context as well as in Japan with a focus on their livability aspect, and the role of public-private partnership (PPP) First, it introduces urban livability concept and trend, the role of public space as a key enabler and drive, and common types of public place The quest for urban livability has become a trend world-wide Today, instead of economic development, cities around the world increasingly compete on the basis of livability, among some other emergent factors A wide range of activities happening in many public spaces show that the city has much to offer in terms of public life, liveliness, equality, spontaneity, creativity, temporality and overall livability Traditionally, the image of urban public space comes in the form of squares, streets, plazas, parks, open spaces, playgrounds, beaches, riverbanks, waterfront promenades, and other public facilities Local authority is often perceived to be responsible to provide them to the citizens as part of the city’s social welfare However, as cities grow and expand, their local governments usually face with increasing financial constraints to fund for the planning, design, implementation, management and maintenance of public infrastructure, including public space So they either fund only prioritized projects, or seek for other complementary resources such as from private sector New York City has initiated and shown the world the concept of incentive zoning (aka bonus zoning) in late 1960s, whereby the local authority may grant additional development capacity in exchange for the developer's provision of a public benefit or amenity as specified in the local ordinances Incentive zoning is a form of and contributes to PPP It provides a flexible, performance-based tool that replaces harsh control with attractive incentives for a smarter urban and economic development This valuable tool helps develop privately owned public spaces (POPS), which remain located in the private property but must be publicly accessible and usable by all members of the public at any time POPS can come in the same form of the conventional (such as urban square, park or plaza) But oftentimes, they are expected to come in complementary forms such as atrium, courtyard, forecourt, sky garden, pedestrian mall, underground shopping corridors, etc However, some stakeholders have shown their concerns, that POP resulted from incentive zoning may be just ‘pseudo-public’ and may not be fully public They may cause unwanted social exclusion, “trap” of consumerism, or unexpected restrictive security measures In Japanese context, the Western concept of “public” and “private” interestingly did not exist in Japanese traditional society and culture People lived a rather “public” life, city planning or zoning regulations were vague, and urban spaces were mixed use and defined by the temporal events that take place therein rather than by specific physical boundaries However, the Western concept of public space has gained dominance in Japan today Japan also adopted incentive zoning tools and utilized PPP schemes widely As a result, POPS have thrived in many Japanese cities in distinctive ways Through the case studies of several new urban districts in different cities within Tokyo Greater Area (or Tokyo Capital Region), the paper demonstrates and concludes that a combination of conventional public space and complementary POPS benefits all parties (win-win) including residents, if jointly managed well The PPP instrument can substantially help solve local governments’ financing problem towards financial sustainability Ultimately, this kind of approach in the planning, design, implementation and management of livable urban public space of both types paves way towards more livable and sustainable cities in the future Keywords: Public space, liveability, incentive zoning, public-private partnership (PPP), place-making, Japan Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam Background Public space and its contribution to urban livability The quest for urban liveability is a key interest throughout the world, and it “continues to attract considerable attention internationally, in the media, among urban policy makers and from academics” (Bunnell & Kathiravelu, 2016) In the context of the built environment, particularly in an urban setting, urban liveability is the quality of life, where the accessibility to needs and services contributes to overall well-being2 Traditionally, cities around the world compete in the global arena on the basis of economic development However, nowadays they are increasingly emphasizing on the importance of competing on the basis of liveability, and they are re-examining their urban assets and remaking them to enhance liveability, which consequently strengthens competitiveness (Kaal, 2011) Public spaces - such as squares, streets, plazas, parks, playgrounds and waterfront promenades - play a key role and can become a key drive to enhance urban livability Judging various basic elements that make the city livable as mentioned earlier - from healthy environments to accessible and well-designed public places, from good public transport to recreational opportunities, and so on - many of these are closely related to key public spaces in the city Quality public spaces are “flexible spaces that can accommodate different activities, whether programmed or spontaneous, and have the capacity to transform over time to encourage new uses, energizing the site at all times” (Ryan 2006) A wide range of activities happening in many public spaces show that the city has much to offer in terms of public life, spontaneity, liveliness, creativity and livability People passing through those spaces play a dual role: “as opposed to being a passive observer of other people’s experiences on television or video or film, in public places the individual himself is present, participating in a modest way, but most definitely participating” (Gehl 2001) Public spaces work best when they not offer intended uses, but rather, provide opportunities for different people to make use of them in the way that suits them The mix of people that thereby results is one of the keys to understanding the importance and vitality of public spaces (Efroymson et al., 2009) Moreover, public space should be planned and designed more attractively and inclusively for all kinds of users from all walks of life, and fully accessible by all Types of public space with a larger impact and the importance of district level Some public spaces may have larger impact on urban livability than others, so which ones should be more focused? A previous research led by the author (To & Nakaseko, 2017) refers to the influential Kevin Lynch’s five key elements that substantially shape up “the Image of the City” (1960) - namely path, edge, district, node, and landmark – and suggests several types of key public space that might have larger impact to urban livability They are (1) Main Street (as path), (2) Promenade (as edge), (3) District, (4) Transportation Hub & Square (as node), (5) Central Market or Central Park (as landmark) (Fig.1) (Some of these types are reflected in Case Studies section) Figure Suggested types of public space which may have larger impact on urban livability, based on Lynch (1960)’s five key elements (Source: Author) Livability (American and Canadian English) is spelled as liveability in British and Australian English Source: Urban Dictionary (http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=livability) Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam Furthermore, To et al (2018) develop the research further and conclude several important key words for planning and designing public space (some of these keywords are also reflected in Case Studies part), such as: shared, mixed use, efficient, eco-design, inclusive, participatory, safe and comfortable The research also emphasizes on the importance of district or neighborhood level, instead of city level People, especially residents usually their various activities and enjoy their social life in public spaces more often in their neighborhood and possibly reach out further to the district where they live in, than they in other parts of the entire city District level is important, as it is the intermediate level that can well connect downwards to local communities as well as upwards to the city This scale is good for scaling up from successfully tested community-level initiatives In some cases, testing new initiatives directly at this scale might also be suitable, and might be better than testing at the city-scale The rise of privately owned public space and the role of public-private partnership Public-private partnership and the rise of privately owned public space A public–private partnership (PPP) is a cooperative arrangement between two or more public and private sectors, typically of a long-term nature (Hodge et al., 2007) Governments have adopted this approach in the history, yet more recently has it become a global trend For example, local governments around the world are increasingly in short of capital fund for developing, renewing or maintaining of public spaces to meet people’s rising needs in their emerging city So they tend to rely more on partnering with private developers through, for example a PPP scheme, to financially solve the problem The term privately owned public space (POPS) refers to urban spaces that are the result of a trade-off between local governments and private landowners or developers Landowners are granted the right to build a bulkier building than allowed by existing development control regulations, or receive a tax cut In return, the developer is then obliged to provide a publicly usable space, or other amenities The space remains located in the private property but must be publicly accessible and usable by all members of the public at any time Another form of POP is not newly created but preserved If a landowner agrees to maintain a piece of inner city open space instead of building the land up, and agrees to open it to the community, he is entitled to tax benefits (Dimmer, 2013) POPS may come in the same forms of the conventional (such as an urban square, park or plaza) But oftentimes, they are expected to come in complementary forms such as of atrium, courtyard, forecourt, sky garden, pedestrian mall, underground shopping corridors, etc This approach is part of incentive zoning concept originated from US urban planning There are various definitions of incentive zoning For example, in Levitt v Town of South Kingstown Planning Bd of Appeal, 2001 R.I Super LEXIS 12 (R.I Super Ct 2001), the court defined incentive zoning as: "The process whereby the local authority may grant additional development capacity in exchange for the developer's provision of a public benefit or amenity as specified in the local ordinances." (USLegal.com, 2016) According to Gwinnett County’s (USA) Unified Development Ordinance (UDO), “incentive zoning is a valuable tool that can be used to grant provisions that developers want in exchange for desired public improvements, needs, and goods Incentive zoning contributes to strong publicprivate partnerships and provides a flexible, Figure Zuccotti Park in Lower Manhattan (New York), performance-based tool that replaces “sticks” created in 1968, is one of the world’s oldest POPS (Source: MusikAnimal) with “carrots” for smart growth” It has been already half of a century since this form of public space was born (mostly likely “invented” in the case of Zuccotti Park in Lower Manhattan, New York City, Fig.2), and Jerold Kayden coined the term POPS in his seminal book of the same title in the year 2000 For the developer, the motivation is Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam simple: the value of the incentive equals or exceeds the cost of providing the POPS, making the trading profitable The trading mechanism has been endorsed as “being a marvelously creative solution for obtaining public benefits without expenditure of taxpayer money, at a time when public sector budgets are increasingly constrained" (Kayden 2000) Oftentimes, the allowed extra space comes in the form of more top floors, and they may be rented or sold at higher prices thanks to better views While some POPS offer very limited possibilities for facilitating public interaction, some other POPS generate or facilitate a variety of social activities, and become truly meaningful public spaces Although there are many commonalities in planning and design POPS, there are also distinct differences between countries due to their distinctive national planning and governance cultures, each with their own institutional frameworks, perceptions of problems and available resources (Dimmer, 2013) Shortcomings and other emerging prospects Despite the explained merits, this approach also bears shortcomings Privatization processes have concerned some stakeholders, because it is generally believed that privately funded public space may be just ‘pseudo-public’ and may not be fully public in the real sense For example, Langstraat & Van Melik (2013) paint a picture of modern urban public life, which is characterized by social exclusion, pasteurized consumerism and restrictive security measures However, there is an emergent angle to look at this topic more positively The “private sector” in the PPP is not limited to only developers but includes local communities as well There have been good signs of bottom-up and participatory placemaking More and more practical urban design and planning take into account inputs or initiatives from local communities and the general public, or even involve them in the planning and design processes These public participation processes certainly improve design quality, management and maintenance of public spaces, and ultimately urban liveability in a sustainable way Because people who contribute to the place-making processes understand their own needs, represent their own groups, want to make a change, and have a sense of ownership and pride after making contributions, so they will protect the outcomes enthusiastically In Tokyo, a case study led by the author has observed place-making initiatives by the elderly and concluded that the low-rise, high-density and small-scale contexts intensify the negotiation between public and private realms, but also make community members work more collaboratively (Chong et al., 2016) This kind of participatory processes across planning, design, management and maintenance phases contribute to urban livability for all Japanese context Overview Traditionally, the Western concept of “public” and “private” did not exist in Japanese culture until late 20th century (Hidaka & Tanaka, 2001) The mixed use of spaces in Japan, particularly in densely built up Tokyo, seems to derive partly from space constraint due to density Consequently, people lived a very “public” life Because private space in the home was limited, residents of Tokyo spent much of their time outside, whether working, eating, shopping, reading, relaxing, walking down the street (Delisi, 2007), or even having a bath in Figure Hojoya Festival is anually celebrated on the public baths Remarkably, despite this public avenue in front of Hakozaki Shrine, Fukuoka City life, Japanese cities lack large public spaces as (Source: Author) perceived in the Western tradition, and foreigners often view them as lacking a center or focal point Consequently, “public space” has been a flexible notion in Japan Oftentimes, it is not a physical and permanent boundary but a public event that determines the extent of a public space at a given time (Hidaka & Tanaka, 2001) Slessor (2001) notes this distinction and identifies religious spaces as serving the traditional roles of Western public plazas: “Historically, there is no Japanese tradition of large urban spaces comparable to the civic squares and Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam piazzas of Europe Public activities were held in temples and shrines, and more importantly, on the streets These were the setting for the events, festivals and activities of daily life” (Fig.3) As a result, city planning or zoning laws were vague in Japan’s urban development history (Aguirre et al, 2012) Tokyo and some other Japanese cities have successfully connected the formal, static infrastructure and built environment of the city with the more informal uses of everyday life and special occasions, such as festivals This is achieved by flexibly allowing different usages of streets and public spaces in the city’s codes and regulations This strategy of recognizing temporality in spatial usage is particularly useful in dealing with changes in an ever-changing built environment during the course of globalization For example, the Scramble Crossing in Shibuya – well known as the world’s most crowded crossing is sometimes utilized for big events such as New Year count-down or Halloween celebration Nowadays, the Western concept of public space has gained dominance in Japan (Hidaka & Tanaka, 2001) Such forms as traditional shopping streets, urban pocket parks, streets and alleyways, and mega shopping malls gradually shape up the impression of public space in Japan The rise of POPS in Japanese big cities Japanese planning system was traditionally very uniform, standardised and top-down However, taking a closer look, it becomes clear that incentive zoning and the provision of POPS differ significantly in different cities such as Osaka, Kyoto, Yokohama, Tokyo, and Sapporo for example Thus, local history and culture, physical and socio-economic contexts and actor networks make a critical difference (ibid.) In an article titled “Standardised Diversity: Privately Produced Public Space in Japan”, Dimmer (2013) discusses about POPS on various spatial scales and in different cities in Japan in order to develop a more nuanced understanding of the differentiated implications of this planning tool He agrees on a collective opinion that the planning system in Japan is generally too rigid and centralised, so in practice leaving little institutional space for appropriating plans and projects to local conditions Take a look at some dominant cities In Yokohama City, already in the early 1970s, a more collaborative planning culture evolved, where the financially strained local government sought to mobilise private funding for highly demanded public infrastructure, including public space A progressive, long-term mayor politically backed visionary planners to formulate a unique institutional framework in Japan Today, together with Sapporo and Kanazawa, Yokohama showcases example of urban design in Japan During 2000s, however, incentive zoning seemed no longer to function well in most Japanese cities due to issues such as a shrinking population and a hollowing-out of the local economy In Sapporo, a planned city with ample public space such as parks, wide promenades and sidewalks, planners were more critical of incentive zoning With long and snowy winters, most noted POPS in the city center are found in form of a new and complementary underground mall with abundant amenity spaces They are utilized to link the underground level with the street level, and their design and location were strictly controlled by district plans Furthermore, planners were aware of the shortcomings of incentive zoning and used their authoritative powers and negotiation tools to assure better design quality In Osaka, from the 1930s onwards, based on a PPP scheme, city and private landowners began to collaboratively produce POPS in the densely built-up Semba central business district, creating a local planning culture and a collaborative ecosystem between public and private sector Unlike all other cities, Tokyo is characterized by the absence of a clear city center Whilst many smaller Japanese cities have developed proper detailed spatial plans for key areas, it is tougher for Tokyo due to its size and the overlap between various, sometimes competing public actors Under these circumstances, longFigure A traditional dance performance at “Hibiya Step term visions and far reaching, strict design control Plaza” at the new Tokyo Midtown Hibiya Shopping regulations seem to be unfeasible (ibid.) Complex (Source: Tokyo Art & Live City) Case studies in Japan Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam This section introduces several case studies in some new urban districts in which the author has conducted some field observations in recent years They are all located in Tokyo Greater Area - the most populous metropolitan area in the world - which comprises of Tokyo Metropolis itself and some neighbouring urban regions and areas In these urban districts, lively and livable public spaces (both conventional public space and POPS) are found Case 1: Kashiwa-no-ha New Town (Kashiwa City, Chiba Prefecture, Tokyo Greater Area) Confronted with various urban issues relating to the shrinking population, aging society, environment, health, crime and disaster prevention, Japan has seen a need to renew itself by developing a new town model that represents a new image of the Japanese city to the world and reflects changes in residents’ needs as resulted by their changing and diversifying lifestyles As one of the largest urban development projects in Tokyo Greater Area, Kashiwa-no-ha is a 273hectare new urban area under construction in Kashiwa City, Chiba Prefecture It is located in a strategic location on the Tsukuba Express train line linking Tokyo and Tsukuba Science City It takes just 35 minutes by train to cover the 20 km distance from Tokyo In December 2011, the Japanese government chose Kashiwa-no-ha to develop a "Comprehensive Special Zone for Regional Revitalization" to revitalize the Tokyo Greater Area and build a new town of the future The ambitious goal is to develop Kashiwa-no-ha to become an urban development model of the world, which integrates many of today's most trendy urban models such as intelligent, innovative, creative, livable, resilient and finally sustainable city To achieve this goal, one of the project's most strategic concepts is to build this completely new town based on a strategic partnership between three major sectors: public, private, and academia – a new form of PPP The public sector is represented by Chiba Prefecture and Kashiwa City governments, the private sector is led by Mitsui Fudosan - a leading real estate developer in Japan – together with local communities and NPOs The academia comprises of two major and prestigious universities: the University of Tokyo and Chiba University Three key phrases as development concepts are adopted to help Japan fulfil its commitment to tackle challenges for its future as well as the urban future of the world: 1) an environment-friendly city, 2) a city of new industry creation, 3) a city of health and longevity (Mitsui Fudosan, 2014) The first milestone was the establishment of Kashiwa-no-ha Urban Design Center (UDCK), the first of its kind of urban design center for town-making in Japan This is the “headquarter" for all stakeholders, where local administrator, university expert, private developer, local community and other stakeholders such as Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) come together to share, exchange and collaborate on planning, design, implement and management for this town It serves as a "one-stop center" and a “think-tank” for discussion and exchange, publicity and capacity building Based on this strong foundation, numerous initiatives, projects, activities and events have been being implemented, including the creation of various public spaces in this new town For example, in 2014, the Gate Square located outside the station was built together with Central Plaza, which houses the UDCK and serves as the gateway and a focal point of the new town Table summarizes some public space initiatives Table Livable public space initiatives in Kashiwa-no-ha Note: PS: Conventional public space; POPS: Privately owned public space Public space Urban Design Center Kashiwa -no-ha (UDCK) Type Location POPS Central Plaza within Gate Square, in stationarea zone Brief description     Multi-purposed facility for lectures, town planning meetings and civic activities, participated by multiple stakeholders Independent “Think tank” for town planning, design and development One-stop center for various types of info Hosting activities and events of various types and topics (in or outside the UDCK) Photographical record Source: Author Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam State-ofthe- art Central Plaza PS + POPS Gate Square, in stationarea zone   Realtime energy monitori ng boards PS Popular public spaces (e.g near train station, bus stop, mall, etc.) Planter boxes Stationarea zone Pop-up market Stationarea zone      Serving as a gateway to the town and providing various lifestyle services that facilitate healthy and active living It integrates environmental, healthcare, and industry creation components Serving as a focal point where people gather or pass by Wi-Fi is available here Power points are available at many public resting seats, and seats in restaurants/cafes around People can read news and various information regarding traffic conditions, town planning, community events, real-time power consumption, etc., provided by various relevant agencies or organizations During disaster events, the boards broadcast emergency warning, evacuation information and relevant real-time data for town people Flowers, vegetables, and herbs as landscape elements are planted in station-area zone and taken care by residents, with technical guidance from instructors and experts from the nearby Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University “Marche Couleur”: Fresh vegetables from local farms and snacks are sold in colorful pop-up shops held monthly with a theme Morning market called “Tanakanaka directly delivered from farms”: Held monthly on 4th Saturday, local farmers gather together and sell their fresh home-grown vegetables Source: Author Source: Author Source: Author Source: Kashiwa City Case 2: Minato Mirai 21 District (Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture, Tokyo Greater Area) Yokohama is the second largest city by population after Tokyo, and the most populous municipality of Japan It is the capital city of Kanagawa Prefecture and located about 27 km South of Tokyo, by the Tokyo Bay Yokohama City was developed rapidly as Japan's prominent port city after its opening up to the West in the mid-19th Century and is one of Japan’s major ports today Until the middle of the 20th Century, the city was relatively fragmented, and polluted by heavy industry factories (such as Mitsubishi) which occupied some bay-front areas In early 1980s, Yokohama City planned to create a new central urban area which connects existing fragmented urban areas together, called Minato Mirai 21 District (MM21) A grid street system was proposed, as opposed to the common labyrinth-like street networks of many Japanese towns The plans focused on supporting vibrant urban activities and making streets safer and more comfortable for pedestrians while creating more attractive views In 2010, the city was selected by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry as one of the four "Next-Generation Energy and Social System Demonstration Areas" The city aims to become an energy-recycling city that is environmentally robust, economically strong, vibrant and lively, livable and resilient to disasters The planning approach for Minato Mirai 21 was very different from Japan’s traditional town making since the Edo era The Western concept of axis and boulevard replaced organic, un-centered street pattern The district has three urban axes linking existing urban centers and railway stations, and lead people through the MM21 to the seashore: The King Axis (starting from Yokohama Central Railway Station), the Queen Axis (starting from Sakuragicho Railway Station), and the Grand Mall Axis or Jack axis (intersecting the other axes in the middle of the city) Not only these axes support development phasing, but they also serve as linear open/public spaces and vistas with distinct qualities (Doo & Feliciano, 2010) The city also launched guidelines for urban landscape design in central areas The guidelines touch on numerous topics, such as pedestrian space, car park, bicycle parking, color, nighttime lighting, architectural design, skyline, roadside landscape, outdoor advertisement and so on Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam This case study focuses on the Grand Mall Axis only The most prominent public space along this axis is the Grand Mall Park, a renewal project which won a “Good Design Award 2018” After a quarter of century, new buildings and new functions had emerged around the aging park To accommodate the changes, the renewal plan added terraces between public and private zones By inviting people for a relaxing walk, the project helps people rediscover the values of public spaces as a key to driving changes in the city Another attractive feature is green infrastructure A combination of permeable paving and crushed stone substrates creates a cycle in which rain water is collected and stored in the substrates until it evaporates via the paving and plantings (Good Design Award, 2018) Table summarizes a few livable public spaces and their supporting urban furniture along the axis as observed in a recent survey Table Some livable public spaces and supporting urban furniture along Grand Mall Axis Note: PS: Conventional public space; POPS: Privately owned public space Public space Type Location E-bike sharing system (called Bay Bike) PS + POPS Popular public spaces Urban park POPS Grand Mall Park3 “Smart” pavement and various artistic seating blocks POPS Sakuradori and, and Grand Mall Park Urban cooling elements PS Brief description   Photographical record E-bike sharing was first piloted in Yokohama Smart City Project in 2011-2013 and then implemented as a full bike sharing system since 2014 People can rent a bike at a docking station and return in at any other station within the designated area Source: Author Pedestria n network  Source: Author   PS + POPS Along central pedestrian boulevard and around Grand Mall Park In and outside MM21   In Sakura-dori Street and Keyaki-dori Street, heat shielding pavement was applied Some facilities adopt water-retentive paving and permeable paving Moreover, “Yokosuka pavement” was adopted, which emits light like Noctiluca Artistic seating blocks under trees attract people to come, rest and linger together Source: Author Stone fountain installations provide landscape and micro-climate effects A water cycle is created by crushed stone covers which can store rainwater and cycle water stream vertically for ca.700 m depth underground Water retentive pavement and street furniture jointly make those places cooler and livelier Source: Author   Shade from Zelkova trees, evaporating water from the moisture retaining brick pavement, and wind circulation, all make the surrounding environment naturally cooler (Summarized from information boards placed at the park) MM 21 contains diverse pedestrian spaces built around three main axes: Queen axis, King axis and their linking Grand Mall axis Pedestrian overpasses and underpasses have been developed These routes form a large pedestrian network which offers good connectivity, accessibility and comfort Source: Author The Grand Mall Park is a very long park running through the Minato Mirai Central Area from north to south from between Landmark Plaza and Queen’s Square to Shin-takashima station, and thus, being a popular walking course Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam Case 3: Yamashita Park’s parking facility (Yokohama City, Tokyo Greater Area) Yamashita Park was opened in Yokohama City in 1930 During the 1980's and 1990's, Japanese largest cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama and Osaka in Japan were faced with a severe problem of extremely high land price During that time, it was very difficult for local governments to find suitable lands at suitable locations to develop much needed infrastructure such as public parking facilities Therefore, a variety of underground infrastructure was proposed, and some were constructed Especially, underground parking facilities became popular thanks to their cost efficiency as compared to conventional parking facilities with costly land acquisition As a result, many underground parking facilities were constructed under roads or parks (although constructing underground facilities is generally costly and technically complicated) In the case of a new parking facility in this park, there were four key planning and design ideas for efficient land utilization First, the idea of building a park on top of a parking facility was not new But the idea to integrate a third function into the park-parking complex - a water reservoir and pumping station - was certainly novel and innovative at that time and even today These three functions were constructed together concurrently to reduce the construction cost in total, and a collective funding by different agencies could be possible Second, the large parking facility helped Figure-5 Panoramic view from Yamashita Park’s solve the parking scarcity problem in the central areas, highest level cum car park’s roof (top), car park’s thereby attract more tourists to come and visit entrance (middle) and cross section (bottom) Yamashita Park as well as the adjacent beautiful bay (Source: Eight-Japan Engineering Consultants Inc.) Third, the parking facility was constructed on the ground level to reduce the construction cost as compared to the underground case and provides a great convenience and ease for car and tourist bus drivers who not need to drive up and down Fourth, green spaces in the park serve as a green roof to for the entire complex to keep it cooler in the summer, and offer beautiful sitting and dating spots with great bay views Lastly, most parts of the parking facility were nicely covered by the park (and thus hidden), so that it does not make much unsightful impact on the historical urbanscape of the central areas near the Yokohama Port (Fig 5) Since its completion, the parking facility’s roof-top park has become a significant part of the park itself and a famous bay-viewing spot in Yokohama In short, this project demonstrates a good practice in the development of an integrated, vibrant and livable public space with a novel co-funding mechanism Case 4: Sumida River Area (Tokyo Metropolis, Tokyo Greater Area) Sumida River flows along the Western side of Tokyo and ends up at the Tokyo Bay Its tributaries include the Kanda and Shakujii rivers This important river can be considered as a symbolic river of Tokyo landscape Therefore, any waterfront projects in this area can potentially be of great significance Sumida River used to be very important for Tokyo people not only as a spine of spatial distribution in the the Western side but also offered riverside public spaces for various socio-cultural and leisure activities, such as cherry blossom viewing or seasonal firework watching After World War II, due to Japan’s rapid economic growth, more factories built along the river and the increased container ship traffic polluted the river Other issues also emerged, including low water bus traffic, incompletion of river bank terraces, insufficient number of super levees for disaster prevention, and insufficient number Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam of sign boards directing ways from the closest stations to the river Therefore, there were a pressing demand to solve the pollution problem, revitalize factory sites and improve riverside landscape design in order to re-introduce the faded traditional cultural activities In 2006, there was a redevelopment competition for a waterfront part of Sumida River within Sumida Ward The objective of the plan was to solve the above-mentioned problems and show a new concept and policy in response to recent significant developments around the area, such as the Tokyo Sky Tree Tower project - the world’s tallest tower After the completion of the tower in 2011, the number of tourists has been significantly increasing around the Sumida River As a result, water-transport related infrastructure such as a wharf and a promenade to the Sky Tree Figure 6: Bird-eye view of Site and part of the proposal Tower became necessary in Asakusa and (Source: Eight-Japan Engineering Consultants Inc.) Azumabashi areas The winning proposal addressed the issues and emergent needs, and pursued an interesting key planning concept: “People - Town - Memory and the River” In other words, these three elements will become well connected through the Sumida River Specifically, some planning and design strategies included 1) making Sumida River close-by, friendly and beautiful, 2) promoting an atractive, enjoyable and active lifestyle for people, 3) creating linkages between the waterfront and nearby residential areas and the waterfront with the town, 4) revitalizing traditional cultural Figure Implementation of some key sub-projects activities, and 5) connecting people from all (Source: Eight-Japan Engineering Consultants Inc.) walks of life Many of these goals relate to a network of livable public spaces along the river As such, the team significantly proposed a riverside promenade with steps, which serve as an “amphitheatre” for people to sit down and enjoy viewing spring cherry blossom as well as firework festival in the summer (Fig 6) Fig shows some implemented parts of the project Case 5: Kawasaki Station Area (Kawasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture, Tokyo Greater Area) Kawasaki station is located just about 20 minutes away from Tokyo Station and about 30 minutes from Haneda Airport by train It is served by two train lines, namely JR (Japanese Railways) and Keikyu In 1872, the station was opened as the first intermediate station of the first railway in Japan As the World War I broke out, steel demand rose up and many public steel companies were established Since then, more and more factories were built here including Tokyo electricity (Toshiba), sugar and weapon factories During World War II, Kawasaki was a target for air raids mostly because of the weapon factories as well as railways which transported their materials and products Kawasaki Station area was completely destroyed However, it was gradually reconstructed after the war, and further developed to become a commercial area with shopping malls, department stores, shops and theaters around the station as seen today During 1980s, various issues emerged around Kawasaki station For example, DaiNippon Meiji Sugar Company closed down their confectionary factory in 1989, leaving the Northern side of the station a huge abandoned and polluted factory site Tokyo electricity (Toshiba) was also closed down later in the year 2000 Another issue was that many facilities needed to get renewed and cleaned up Although there were couple of public housing estates in the Eastern and Western sides of the station, there were very few market places, and the housing estates were downgraded as well Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam Besides, the pedestrian network and the walking paths themselves were bad, leading to the fact that people did not walk frequently around the station As such, there emerged an urgent need for brownfield regeneration - namely to utilize and revitalize the abandoned factory site Furthermore, it was necessary to improve urban and traffic planning and the environment around the station, and create more business opportunities and a new lifestyle To solve these issues, many Figure Pedestrian Decks linking buildings built to redevelopment projects have been being improve pedestrian network (Source: Author) implemented since 1985, including Kawasaki Technopia (UR Housing) project during 19851995, Muza Kawasaki project (Landmark Tower, built on an abandoned factory site as well as aged housing estates) opened in 2004, Lazona Kawasaki Plaza project completed in 2006, East Entrance’s Square completed in 2017, and Pedestrian Deck project during 2017-2018 With regards to public spaces, the new East Entrance’s Square and new Pedestrian Deck connecting buildings offer great connectivity, accessibility and comfort, and attract a good number of people, Figure A new and huge shopping center built on an visitors and passers-by (Fig.8) Meanwhile, abandoned and polluted factory site (Source: Author) Lazona Kawasaki Plaza - a shopping mall built on the site of Tokyo electricity’s closed down factory - offers a huge and lively plaza (POPS) with stages for concerts and full of amenities around, so it is frequently crowded (Fig.9) In short, the areas around Kawasaki Station have been drastically transformed from a huge, abandoned, polluted factory site into highly accessible, well-connected, mixed-use, modern and stylish urban areas with lively public spaces (both conventional and POPS) and a comfortable pedestrian network Discussions and conclusion The case studies have introduced several new urban districts in Tokyo Greater Area, in which various public spaces of both conventional and POPS types can be found So what these places have in common? First, most of them target one or more key types of public space that relatively has large impact to urban livability, as introduced in Section Second, planning and design concepts in many of these places took into account various purposes, strategies and programs, and incorporated them as much as possible for inclusivity, efficiency, cost effectiveness, and ultimately for a more holistic liveability Third (and as a result), these public spaces are not only lively and sociable, but also offer eco-friendly environments and facilitate active lifestyle and healthy living Local social and cultural contexts may provide useful clues for urban planning and design ideation Moreover, as Japan frequently suffers from diverse types of natural disasters, many spaces also provide evacuation maps or even technically advanced facilities such as real-time information boards and alternative power points for good disaster contingency towards urban resilience And lastly, the cases have shown that extensive participation of stakeholders including local communities across project phases is a key to success In conclusion, this paper provided a brief overview on urban public space development in global context, with a focus on their livability aspect It explored how public space could contribute to urban liveability, and the types of public space which potentially have larger impact on livability It also reviews the rise of POPS and discusses the role of PPP in developing them, with both advantages and short-comings From a global perspective, it has narrowed down to Japanese context and introduced the concept of public space in traditional Japanese society, whereby public space was more defined by temporal activities that take place therein, rather than any fixed physical spatial boundaries As such, local history Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam and culture, physical and socio-economic contexts and actor networks make a significant difference Discussing on the rise of POPS in many Japanese cities and in distinctive ways, it became clear that incentive zoning and the provision of POPS did vary significantly in different big cities Through the case studies conducted in several new urban districts in some cities within Tokyo Greater Area, the paper has shown and concluded that a combination of conventional public space and POPS benefits all parties including residents, in-city workers and visitors The PPP instrument can substantially help solve local governments’ financial constraints towards economic sustainability Ultimately, this kind of approach in the planning, design, implementation and management of livable urban public space paves ways towards more livable cities in the future References Aguirre, I., Alfred, I., Clermont, J., Hamby, C., Kozar, J.K., Zhu, J.R (2012) Public Space in Japan: A Catalog of Typologies and Brief Discussion of the Role of Public Space Technical report, Pratt Institue’s Graduate Centrer for Planning and Environment Bunnell, T and Kathiravelu, L (2016) Extending urban liveability: friendship and sociality in the lives of low-wage migrants International Development Planning Review, 38 (2) 2016, pp 201-220 Chong K.H., To K and Fischer M.J.M (2017) Dense and ageing: Social sustainability of public places amidst high-density development In J.H Bay & S Lehmann (ed.) (2017) Growing Compact: Urban Form, Density & Sustainability London/New York: Routledge Delisi, Anthony (2007) "Temporal Meanings and Flexible Spaces in Tokyo," Agora Journal of Urban Planning and Design, 37-41 Dimmer, C (Ed.) (2013) Privately Owned Public Space: The International Perspective SUR: Sustainable Urban Regeneration, Center for Sustainable Urban Regeneration, The University of Tokyo, Vol.25, January 2013 Doo, M and Feliciano, K (2010) Minato Mirai 21, Yokohama, Japan Studio report (online version available) Efroymson D.,Tran T.K.T.H, Pham T H (2009) Public places: How they humanize cities HealthBridge – WBB Trust, Dhaka Gehl, J (2001) Life Between Buildings, Using Public Space The Danish Architectural Press, 2001 Good Design Award, 2018) Available at: https://www.g-mark.org/award/describe/48011?locale=en Gwinnett County’s Unified Development Ordinance (UDO) Incentive Zoning Available at: https://www.gwinnettcounty.com/static/departments/planning/unified_development_ordinance/pdf/ipa_ incentive_zoning.pdf Hodge, G A and Greve, C (2007), Public–Private Partnerships: An International Performance Review, Public Administration Review, 2007, Vol 67(3), pp 545–558 Hidaka T., Tanaka M (2001) Japanese Public Space as Defined by Event In: Miao P (eds) Public Places in Asia Pacific Cities The GeoJournal Library, vol 60 Springer, Dordrecht Kaal, H (2011) A conceptual history of liveability, City, 15:5, 532-54 Kayden, Jerold S (2000) The Municipal Art Society of New York, and The City of New York City Planning Department 2000 Privately owned public space: the New York City experience New York: J Wiley Langstraat F., Van Melik R (2013) Challenging the ‘End of Public Space’: A Comparative Analysis of Publicness in British and Dutch Urban Spaces Journal of Urban Design, Vol.18, No.3, 429-448 Lynch, K (1960) The image of the city Cambridge MA, MIT Press Mitsui Fudosan (2014) Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City Available at: http://www.kashiwanoha-smartcity.com Ryan, Z (2006) The good life, new public spaces for recreation Van Alen Institute, New York, 2006 To, K and Nakaseko, A (2017) Public Space as a Key Drive towards Livable Cities for All Proceedings of APPS 2017 International Conference, Nagoya, Japan To, K., Miyoshi, K., and Nakaseko, A (2018) Smart plus Livable: How Public Space should be designed towards Smart and Livable Districts Proceedings of APPS 2018, HCMC, Vietnam USLegal.com (2016) Incentive zoning Available at: https://definitions.uslegal.com/i/incentive-zoning/ Proceedings of International Conference on “Public Space Development towards Green Growth and Sustainable Development” - 23 Nov 2018, Hanoi, Vietnam Tóm tắt (tiếng Việt): Bài tham luận đem tới nhìn bao quát phát triển không gian công cộng (KGCC) đô thị giới nói chung Nhật Bản nói riêng, tập trung vào góc độ đáng sống KGCC vai trò chế Hợp tác Công-Tư (PPP) Đầu tiên, tham luận giới thiệu khái qt tính đáng sống xu hướng tồn cầu mới, vai trò KGCC xúc tác động lực để tăng mức độ đáng sống cho thị, loại hình KGCC phổ biến Ngày nay, thay cạnh tranh dựa tiêu chí phát triển kinh tế, đô thị giới cạnh tranh ngày liệt dựa mức độ đáng sống Các hoạt động đa dạng người dân du khách nhiều KGCC đô thị cho thấy thị thực nơi sống tốt nhiều phương diện, có đời sống công cộng phong phú sôi động, bình đẳng, tính ngẫu hứng sáng tạo KGCC Nói đến KGCC thị, ta thường hình dung tới quảng trường, không gian mở, phố xá, công viên, sân chơi, bãi biển, bờ sông, đường dạo bên mặt nước, tiện ích cơng cộng khác Chính quyền thành phố thường phải chịu trách nhiệm lo đầu tư phát triển KGCC để phục vụ cho người dân phần phúc lợi xã hội Tuy nhiên, theo đà tăng trưởng mở rộng không gian đô thị, thành phố ngày phải đối mặt với gánh nặng thiếu thốn tài khâu từ quy hoạch thiết thực thi, từ quản lý đến bảo trì KGCC Vì thế, thành phố thường đủ sức đầu tư trọng điểm, phải huy động nguồn vốn khác có vốn tư nhân Từ cuối năm 1960, thành phố New York có sáng kiến cho giới thấy công cụ phát triển đô thị gọi incentive zoning (cơ chế phát triển thưởng) Về nguyên tắc, chế công khai cho phép nhà đầu tư xây dựng vượt quy mô thông thường cho phép (theo chiều rộng chiều cao hay kết hợp hai) Đổi lại, họ phải xây dựng không gian cơng trình tiện ích cơng cộng mà tất người tiếp cận 24/7 Cơng cụ incentive zoning tạo từ chế PPP đóng góp cho chế Nó đem lại cơng cụ kiểm sốt phát triển linh hoạt với chế thưởng hấp dẫn để thay cho kiếm sốt cứng nhắc thơng thường vốn dễ tạo điều kiện cho tham nhũng từ xây dựng trái phép, hướng tới việc phát triển đô thị cách khôn ngoan Cơ chế giúp tạo KGCC sở hữu tư nhân (privately owned public spaces, POPS) tư nhân quản lý, song lại KGCC cho tất người Về nguyên tắc, POPS phát triển dạng tương tự vài KGCC thơng thường, thí dụ quảng trường, cơng viên hay không gian mở Tuy nhiên, tốt POPS xây dựng dạng thức khác có tính bổ sung cho dạng thơng thường, thí dụ sảnh siêu thị, sân trong, sân trước, hiên cao vườn mái, lối dạo lòng khu mua sắm, hành lang mua sắm lòng đất, vv Tuy nhiên, vài giới có học giả quan ngại, POPS tạo từ chế phát triển thưởng KGCC “giả tạo” mà công cộng thực chất, tức để nhắm đến thành phần dân chúng có người nghèo khó tiếp cận 24/7 Các KGCC sở hữu tư nhân thường xuất xung quanh khu mua sắm hay giải trí thường tạo phân hóa xã hội, “bẫy” mua sắm tiêu dùng, rào cản bảo vệ khơng đáng có Trong bối cảnh nước Nhật, xã hội truyền thống xưa không tồn rõ khái niệm “công cộng” “riêng tư” Người dân Nhật sinh hoạt nhiều nơi cơng cộng gần khơng có không gian riêng tư cho thân Quy hoạch đô thị quản lý khu vực mờ nhạt, không gian đô thị thường sử dụng hỗn hợp Vì thế, khơng gian thị thường xác định dựa công hay hoạt động diễn thời điểm định, thay phân định ranh giới địa lý rạch ròi bất biến Thí dụ, phố bình thường đường giao thơng, vào dịp lễ hội chặn lại để người dân dạo đoàn diễu hành hay tế lễ qua Ngày khái niệm KGCC theo cách hiểu quốc tế du nhập phổ biến Nhật Nước áp dụng incentive zoning chế PPP rộng rãi, KGCC sở hữu tư nhân kiểu POPS phát triển đa dạng nhiều thành phố lớn vừa Thông qua nghiên cứu trường hợp số khu đô thị vài thành phố Vùng Thủ Đô Tokyo, tham luận minh họa đúc rút rằng, kết hợp KGCC kiểu truyền thống quyền xây dựng KGCC tư nhân đầu tư quản lý thực đem lại lợi ích cho tất bên có người dân, phối hợp quản lý tốt Cơ chế Hợp tác Công-Tư giúp tháo gỡ khó khăn tài thường trực cho quyền thị Cuối cùng, cách tiếp cận phối hợp việc quy hoạch, thiết kế, quản lý bảo trì KGCC (cả sở hữu nhà nước lẫn sở hữu tư nhân) giúp thị nâng cao tính đáng sống bền vững tương lai Từ khóa: Khơng gian cơng cộng, tính đáng sống, incentive zoning, Hợp tác Cơng-Tư (PPP), Nhật Bản ... suitable, and might be better than testing at the city-scale The rise of privately owned public space and the role of public- private partnership Public- private partnership and the rise of privately... results is one of the keys to understanding the importance and vitality of public spaces (Efroymson et al., 2009) Moreover, public space should be planned and designed more attractively and inclusively... utilize and revitalize the abandoned factory site Furthermore, it was necessary to improve urban and traffic planning and the environment around the station, and create more business opportunities and