In an age of globalization, culture, and especially traditional culture, has received increased attention because it can produce authentic value for a nation and can be useful for corporations. The marketing literature is undergoing a period of major reassessment in terms of the projection of traditional culture to global consumers as a consumable good. Adopting an indepth interview method, this study investigates global consumers’ perceptions of traditional culture, focusing particularly on authenticity. This study also provides implications for positioning and globalizing traditional culture, including artifact culture (lifestyle culture) and mentifact culture (cultural values). In this paper, Korean traditional culture is examined by considering the recent diffusion of Korean culture worldwide. This article contributes to the marketing literature through its novel study of traditional culture and focus on authenticity; it may also enrich the tourism literature. The results of this study contribute to understanding consumers’ perceptions of traditional culture, including effective factors, and to identifying the marketing implications of positioning and globalizing traditional culture.
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 2013 Vol 4, No 2, 93–111, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2013.793513 Authenticity in traditional culture marketing: consumers’ perceptions of Korean traditional culture 传统文化营销的真实性：消费者对韩国传统文化的感知 Eunju Ko*, Seulgi Lee and Haesung Whang Department of Clothing & Textiles, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 (Received 21 February 2013; final version received March 2013) In an age of globalization, culture, and especially traditional culture, has received increased attention because it can produce authentic value for a nation and can be useful for corporations The marketing literature is undergoing a period of major reassessment in terms of the projection of traditional culture to global consumers as a consumable good Adopting an in-depth interview method, this study investigates global consumers’ perceptions of traditional culture, focusing particularly on authenticity This study also provides implications for positioning and globalizing traditional culture, including artifact culture (lifestyle culture) and mentifact culture (cultural values) In this paper, Korean traditional culture is examined by considering the recent diffusion of Korean culture worldwide This article contributes to the marketing literature through its novel study of traditional culture and focus on authenticity; it may also enrich the tourism literature The results of this study contribute to understanding consumers’ perceptions of traditional culture, including effective factors, and to identifying the marketing implications of positioning and globalizing traditional culture Keywords: traditional culture marketing; authenticity; consumer perceptions; artifact and mentifact; global marketing 全球范围内，传统文化不再是国家传承下来的简单的民间风俗，而是在增强国家竞争力和企业 竞争优势方面也起着重要作用。特别是最近韩国流行文化的传播—韩流，增加了韩国文化的全 球意识和兴趣，并创建了传统文化的额外需求内容。 因此，本研究主要目标是：1 调查全球消费者对韩国全通文化的真实感觉；2 为韩国传统 文化中的手工艺文化提供了市场定位和全球化的现实意义。第一项研究对有形传统文化进行 了分析，包括韩服、韩食、韩屋。第二项研究则针对无形的传统文化，综合多方面的文献总结 出了三个无形的韩国传统文化价值，包括和谐、象征主义哲学和乡情。 此研究中采用深入访谈的方法，使用图片刺激的方式，更好的理解参与者对韩国传统生活 方式和文化价值的感知。最初的数据来自10位时尚营销专业的研究生。韩国传统的生活方式 中，图像根据真实性、价格被分为四个维度，检查每个维度的元素构成，并且进一步掌握全球 化定位的洞察力。参与者主要在韩国居住，年龄在20至30岁之间，通过滚雪球技术选取。访谈 全程录音，然后分析。 本研究主要发现如下：首先，第一项研究引出了真实性的五个标准，“独特性和创意”、“文化 和历史完整性”、“手工艺”、“美学”、“使用功能”。然后，真实性的不同属性。 第二项研究根据 消费者感知的文献，确定了文化价值（例如：“和谐”、“象征主义哲学”和“乡情”）。此外，针对全 球传统文化的战略，我们需考虑真实性、实用性和亲密性。 本研究提供了传统文化市场的实证结果，有助于更好的了解全球消费者对韩国传统文化的 感知。此研究结果还为韩国传统文化营销战略的制定和全球消费者细分，提供了宝贵的信息。 *Corresponding author Email: ejko@yonsei.ac.kr q 2013 Korean Scholars of Marketing Science 94 E Ko et al 鉴于受访人群的局限性，希望今后的研究能够从年龄和国际等方面入手，对更广泛的人群进行 调查。此外，定量研究对跨文化进行了调查，为传统文化的全球定位提供市场洞察力。 关键词：传统文化营销; 真实性; 消费者感知; 生活方式和文化价值; 全球营销 Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Introduction The advent of a highly globalized world has led to active exchanges in the political, economic, and cultural sectors (Ko & Jo, 2002) The business environment has evolved into an intensified international competition with no boundaries between countries (Mower, Pederson, & Jai, 2013) This transformation has increased the importance of local culture, which can create a competitive edge based on distinctive cultural authenticity in the global market Local culture can add value to businesses through cultural content, which has a significant ripple effect on increasing national awareness and improving the national image (Ko & Lee, 2011; Rowan & Baram, 2004; Stewart-Allen, 2002; Urde, Greyser, & Balmer, 2007) South Korea has long been identified as a country that has witnessed stunning economic growth but has insufficient cultural power (CIA, 2011) However, with the recent boom in Korean pop culture, or “Hallyu” (韓流) – exemplified by Psy’s Gangnam Style – Korean culture in general is now receiving worldwide attention This recent diffusion of Korean culture has led to the creation of additional opportunities, as well as a greater demand for traditional culture According to Korea’s National Statistical Office, Korea now receives 10 million tourists a year, a number that is substantially influenced by Hallyu (Korea National Tourist Organization, 2012, p 11) Governmental bodies have also attempted to promote the national Korean culture The “Han brand” (Han style) is a representative project seeking to promote and globalize Korean traditional culture In light of this trend, academic studies on traditional culture have received increasing attention Previous studies of traditional culture have focused on examining values from a folkloristic perspective, developing designs with traditional motifs, or identifying the general implications of globalizing traditional culture However, few studies have examined traditional culture in relation to the marketing literature Moreover, few studies have attempted to understand consumers’ perceptions, which can provide basic guidelines for establishing marketing and positioning strategies This study has the following aims: first, to investigate global consumers’ perceptions of traditional Korean culture, focusing especially on authenticity; second, to provide implications stemming from the positioning and globalizing of traditional Korean culture, including artifact culture (lifestyle culture) and mentifact culture (cultural values) Conceptual background 2.1 Global culture marketing 2.1.1 Culture marketing Cultural theorists have generally considered the word “culture” to have a “poly-vocal sense” (Edgar & Sedgwick, 1999, – 2) In general, culture can be defined as a total way of life – a total entity including knowledge, belief, technology, morality, law, custom, tools, and other elements related to ability and customs learned from society (Ahn, Shim, & Lee, 2006; Raymond, 1958; Tylor, 1871) UNESCO-UIS (2005) suggests a definition of Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 95 “culture” as a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of a society or a social group From a marketing perspective, the term “culture” is often regarded as a cultural product itself (Ahn et al., 2008; Han, 2008; Lee et al., 2008) The concept of culture marketing can be divided into two categories: “culture for marketing” (marketing through culture) and “culture of marketing” (marketing for culture) “Culture for marketing” (marketing through culture) is mostly used by corporations that utilize culture as a means of marketing to improve the image of a brand, corporation, or product ‘Culture of marketing” (marketing for culture) focuses on applying marketing practices to cultural content and considers culture a commodity (Han, 2008; Kim, 2010; Lee, 2006; Park, 2010; Sung, 2006) Diverse cultural content exists, and the “culture of marketing” involves museums (Kotler, Kotler, & Kotler, 2008; Mottner & Ford, 2005; Rentschler, 1998), place marketing (Kotler & Gertner, 2002; Page & Hardyman, 1996), the food service industry (Lee & Kim, 2008, 2009), and the tourism industry (Appiah-Adu, Fyall, & Singh, 2000; Pritchard & Morgan, 2001) 2.1.2 Traditional culture marketing This paper focuses on the latter concept of culture marketing, particularly marketing for traditional culture In marketing discourse, the term “traditional culture” has not been standardized, and its use in various academic fields has become increasingly complex The word “tradition” is defined as a ritual, belief, or object that is passed down within a society and is maintained in the present, with origins in the past (Green, 1997) In this paper, the term “traditional culture” is defined as distinctive cultural characteristics, such as spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features passed down within a society to the present day, including the historical origins of the past Further, traditional culture focuses especially on traditional lifestyle culture, including such aspects as clothing, food, and housing These elements are the fundamental basis of human life, which builds upon matters such as the natural environment, national policy, social institutions, historical experience, philosophy, and individual taste In other words, lifestyle culture can indicate the distinctiveness of specific ethnic groups or countries The production of clothing, food, and housing is influenced by various social customs of the natural environment (Bae, 2007) Traditional culture marketing involves a series of activities to commodify traditional cultural resources, create value, communicate, and promote products effectively to consumers (Lin et al., 2007; Shin, Cassidy, & Moore, 2011) Cultural products include both tangible and intangible products that are produced in combination with the cultural and economic utility values of a nation or a society (Ahmad, 2006) People who seek authenticity attempt to experience artifacts (i.e., clothing, food, or housing) and mentifacts (i.e., art, beliefs, and values) Therefore, it is crucial to include both artifacts and mentifacts when researching traditional culture marketing Successful marketing of traditional culture rehabilitates cultural roots (Rowan & Baram, 2004) whose authenticity cannot be imitated (Urde et al., 2007) Accordingly, the marketing of traditional culture involves the traits of non-exclusivity and non-rivalry (Hutter, 1996) Accordingly, marketing practice of traditional culture can render incredible possibilities for cultural industry agencies who are interested in carving market niches (Gupta & Miller, 2010) In addition, traditional culture marketing has high network externality; despite increased use of a product, the product’s value and life cycle increase (D’Auria, 2001) Furthermore, due to a high window effect, an original form of a cultural 96 E Ko et al Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 product can produce a variety of high-value products to create economic effects such as activation of the tourism industry (Ko, Chun, & Lee, 2011) Previous work in this field has focused on the study of souvenir purchase behaviors in cultural tourism (Anderson & Littrell, 1995; Gordon, 1986; Kim & Littrell, 2001; Turner & Reisinger, 2001), the development of cultural design, products, and content by reinterpreting traditional culture (Caffyn & Lutz, 1999; Park & Park, 2012; Shin et al., 2011; Thompson, 2004), analysis of the characteristics of cultural products (Littrell et al., 1993; Shin et al., 2011), and the definition of concepts and value based on traditional culture (Kim, 2011; Ko et al., 2011) Few studies, however, have examined consumer behavior in relation to traditional cultural products Therefore, this study aims to explore consumers’ perceptions of traditional culture, focusing particularly on authenticity 2.2 Consumers’ perceptions of authenticity The initial debate over the concept of authenticity has evolved to include the tourism literature One of the generally accepted definitions considers authenticity a grounded concept in which modern tourists seek to escape from their daily lives, which may have little meaning, to a simpler life that involves rich meaning (MacCannell, 1976) Authenticity, which can be defined as feelings of specialness and self-conceptual distinctiveness, can be obtained through the acquisition of authentic products (Spooner, 1986) Any object created for a traditional purpose and by a traditional art that conforms to traditional forms can generally be considered an authentic product (Cornet, 1975) Such a product is expected to provide elements of uniqueness in consumers’ lives Littrell et al (1993) identified five major characteristics of an authentic product: uniqueness and originality, workmanship, cultural and historic integrity, aesthetics, and function and use Authenticity is closely related to the concept of cultural commodification (Cole, 2007) Cultural heritage, as an interpretation of traditional culture passed down over time, is open to appropriation (Waitt, 2000) The process of commodification may reduce authenticity but may not necessarily destroy the meaning of the cultural product (Cohen, 1988) From this perspective, authenticity is socially negotiated and is constructed according to different clienteles and their perspectives (Cohen, 1988) Hence, the concept of authenticity can be used to provide criteria for the evaluation of cultural products, defined by modern consumers as observers (Cohen, 1988) According to Burgess (1989), people differ in respect of the elements that they consider necessary to authenticate a cultural product, and their ability to discriminate between elements varies according to their tourist-related motivations and experience, exposure to mediating information forms, and socio-demographic traits (e.g., age, gender, education, and locality) Hence, to effectively globalize traditional culture, modern consumers’ standards for authenticity should be explored from the perspective of consumers, including local residents as well as tourists Commoditization is the process of evaluating goods and services primarily in terms of their exchange value in the context of trade, in which the exchange value is stated in terms of prices formed in a market (Cohen, 1988) This study adopts two criteria for analyzing consumers’ perceptions of authenticity (high/low) and price (high/low) The four dimensions involved in these criteria are modern high-end (MH), modern low-end (ML), traditional high-end (TH), and traditional low-end (TL; see Figure 1) By using the consumer perception matrix, this study aims to understand the characteristics involved in consumers’ perceptions of traditional cultural products and to determine whether Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 97 High TH (Traditional High-end) ML TL (Modern Low-end) (Traditional Low-end) PRICE MH (Modern High-end) Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Low Low (modern) High (traditional) AUTHENTICITY Figure Consumer perception matrix (authenticity x price positioning) consumers’ evaluations differ in accordance with the level of authenticity and the exchange value 2.3 Korean traditional culture 2.3.1 Artifact culture: lifestyle culture (clothing, food, and housing) This study examines Korean traditional culture, including both artifact (material) and mentifact (symbolic) culture The terms artifact and mentifact were coined by Huxley (1955) to describe how cultural traits take on a life of their own; they span generations and can be understood as objects in themselves In terms of artifact culture, this study considers traditional lifestyle cultures, including clothing, food, and housing Lifestyle cultures correspond to the traditional Korean concepts of “Hanbok,” “Hansik,” and “Hanok” (see Figure 2) Conceptualizing traditional culture is troublesome because it Traditional clothing (Hanbok) Traditional food (Hansik) Traditional housing (Hanok) Figure Sample images of Korean traditional artifact culture (lifestyle cultures) Sources: Damyeon q All rights reserved (Permission granted by Damyeon, 2011); Korean Food Association q All rights reserved (Permission granted by KFA, 2013); Photographed by first author Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 98 E Ko et al changes over time; therefore, the definition and the scope of traditional culture differ in different historical periods With this in mind, in this research, the definition of each category was constructed from multilateral literature reviews Hanbok is defined as traditional Korean clothing in which is embedded social customs, philosophy, technology, and activities The basic form of men’s wear consists of an upper garment (Jeo-go-ri) and pants Only people of higher classes wear a vest (Ma-go-ja) on top The basic form of women’s clothing is a combination of an upper garment (Jeo-go-ri) and a skirt Rich people wear a vest or outer coat called a Durumagi In addition to everyday wear, there is also ceremonial clothing, which differs by occasion and social status Other than wedding garments, most ceremonial clothing belongs to the aristocratic class The color and detailed decorations differ by status (www.han-style.com) Unlike men’s style, the design of women’s upper garments has tended to be oriented toward trends For instance, the length of the clothing has differed during different periods Korean traditional food, Hansik, generally refers to food that uses traditional ingredients and is made with traditional methods (Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2008) Because Korea is surrounded by oceans and mountains, various recipes have been developed using the abundant seafood, meat, and vegetables available Moreover, because Korea has four distinct seasons, fermented food has often been used Hansik consists of both main and side dishes, and Hansik seasonings and spices are used delicately and applied similarly overall (www.han-style.com) Finally, Hanok involves a structure or an attached building in the traditional Korean style, with pillars and beams made from timber and a Korean form of roof truss that is finished with natural materials, such as rice straw, soil, and wood (Building Act Enforcement Decree Article 2– 16, http://www.law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=136099# 0000) Hanok is characterized by the three attributes of “Ondol” (the traditional Korean floor heating system), “Ma-ru” (flooring), and kitchen (Jeon, 2006) Further, the structure of Hanok differs according to social class, geographical position, and environmental attributes Because natural substances obtained locally are utilized, the design differs regionally Tile-roofed houses have traditionally only been available to the upper classes (www.han-style.com) 2.3.2 Mentifactculture: value of traditional culture Mentifact, also referred to as “psychofact,” involves the symbolic traits of a culture, such as beliefs, values, and ideas Multilateral literature reviews have been conducted on ideological theories such as yin-yang and the five elements, shamanism, and Feng Shui theory (Kalton, 1979; Robinson, 1986); religious backgrounds such as Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Han-ism (Hyun, 2001; Kim, 2000); and the aesthetic perspectives of Korean traditional culture (Kim, 1990; 1994; Ko, 1941; Muneyoshi, 1996) Three values of Korean traditional culture have been identified: “harmony,” “intrinsic semantics” (symbolism), and “Heung” (Ko et al., 2011) The value “harmony” reflects the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature as well as the harmonious coexistence of different entities In terms of naturalism, the ecofriendly features of Korean traditional culture have developed from an emphasis on harmony with nature, which was particularly influenced by ancient shamanism and Feng Shui theory (Shim, 2006) Historically, the creation myths of the nation involve harmony between the sky, the earth, living creatures, and parents and children These myths represent co-existence rather than fusion, as two very different entities become one, but continue to exist as two distinctive originals (Hwang, 2002) Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 99 Second, symbolism refers to the abundant symbolism in Korean traditional culture that provides inherent meaning to physical objects or phenomena Symbolism involves the spiritual values of Korean shamanism as well as yin-yang and the five elements theory (Choi & Kim, 1993) For example, specific colors are considered to have meaning and have been believed to be helpful for specific organs Spiritual values primarily signify an emphasis on current life, longevity, wealth, or health rather than life after death, which emerges from the guidance of Confucianism (Pyo, 2004) This characteristic considers the vitality and energy with which an object is infused Finally, “Heung” is a Korean word referring to the indigenous sentiment of Korea, which is depicted as having dynamic, versatile, and entertaining features Similar to the origin of the ancient Greek word “Choreia,” which is a circle dance accompanied by singing (Shin, 2010), the concept of Heung represents the optimistic and dynamic side of Korean traditional culture Heung is closely linked with the concept of “Pungryu,” which is the lifestyle or attitudinal behavior of Koreans who attempt to sublimate a situation by taking pleasure in nature and the arts (Hong, 2006) It also relates to “Haehak,” which is difficult to define but refers to a healthy way of expressing the resentment that emerges from suppressing unhappiness with a situation through humor (Hwang, 2001) Methods In-depth interviews were adopted as the main methodology in this study The in-depth interview method has the advantage of collecting direct responses from participants and freely transformable data (Lee, 2004) The interviews were presented in a semistructured form with an interview guide method As naăve subjective personal introspection can be vulnerable to weak validity of explanations for one’s attitudes and behaviors (Do & Lee, 2013), the interviews included reflexive interviewing techniques, such as restating the interviewees’ comments and summarizing to ensure comprehensiveness (Athos & Gabarro, 1978; Roger & Farson, 1984) A snowball technique was used to identify 24 interviewees between the ages of 20 and 30 (see Table 1) Interviews were conducted between 10 October 2012 and 18 January 2013 Each interview lasted between one hour and 90 minutes The orders of the sub-sectors of artifact culture (i.e., clothing, food, and housing) and mentifact culture (i.e., harmony, symbolism, and Heung) were counterbalanced to eliminate the influence of extraneous variables due to the order of the interview With the participants’ permission, the interviews were audio-taped, transcribed, and used for analysis The data were first transcribed by recording the exact expressions of the respondent, and then coded with keywords using line-by-line analysis Finally, the analyzed content was categorized by specific concepts to construct prominent themes This study employed image stimuli to better understand the links between consumers’ mental structures (thoughts, feelings, knowledge) in relation to the object of inquiry The image stimuli were collected by the researchers prior to the interview, first to limit the scope and ambiguity of the subject and second to ensure that the images matched the four dimensions based on authenticity and price positioning (i.e., modern high-end, modern low-end, traditional high-end, and traditional low-end) The procedure and standards for collecting the image stimuli are shown in Figure The standards were developed based on definitions taken from official governmental documents and other academic literature Because awareness is one of the most important factors in consumers’ perceptions (Swarbrooke, 1996), an individual must be properly aware of a subject to interpret and perceive its meaning (Bockstein, Bennett, & Uken 1991; Solomon, Bamossy, 100 E Ko et al Table Profiles of the interviewees Category Interviewee group Subject no Gender Age Nationality Korean traditional artifact culture Korean 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 F F F M F M F M F F F F F M F M M F F M M M F F 31 31 33 28 24 26 29 25 25 23 22 27 28 28 23 24 24 29 29 25 27 22 27 21 Korea Korea Korea Korea Korea Korea Argentina Switzerland Germany France USA China Korea Korea Korea Korea Korea Korea USA Switzerland Norway Germany China USA Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Non-Korean Korean traditional mentifact culture Korean Non-Korean & Askegaard, 1999) Therefore, we chose non-Korean respondents who were staying in Korea for more than just brief travel purposes Results This paper aims to address two main objectives Study concentrates on consumers’ perceptions of artifact culture in terms of traditional lifestyle culture (i.e., clothing, food, and housing), whereas Study focuses on perceptions of mentifact culture 4.1 Study 1: Consumers’ perceptions of artifact culture 4.1.1 Perceived authenticity of artifact culture Based on the in-depth interviews, attributes of authenticity were categorized into five aspects: uniqueness and originality, workmanship, cultural and historic integrity, aesthetics, and function and use This approach supports Littrell et al.’s (1993) study, which identified the components of authenticity in cultural tourism “Uniqueness and originality” is related to the rarity and “one-of-a-kindness” held by an artifact “Workmanship” refers to the craftsmanship or handmade quality of products “Cultural and historic integrity” illustrates the cultural/historic ties that a product represents “Aesthetics” signifies aesthetic appeal in design, color, shape, and style Finally, “function and use” indicates a product’s practicality and accessibility in relation to individuals’ daily lives Of these five attributes, cultural and historic integrity was perceived to be most important in all three lifestyle culture dimensions In contrast, workmanship was found to Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 101 Figure Procedure and image collection standards of preliminary test be less important in terms of authenticity Uniqueness and originality were mentioned most frequently by non-Korean respondents, who acknowledged their won culture in comparison to the Korean culture Non-Korean respondents mentioned how easily items could be found in their home country, which influenced their perception of the authenticity of the products The finding that non-Koreans give greater importance to uniqueness and originality than locals indicates a low level of experience with traditional culture and an increased emphasis on uniqueness (Littrell et al., 1993) That is, non-Koreans, who have relatively lower knowledge and experience of Korean traditional culture, are more likely to sense difference and uniqueness (Pearce & Moscardo, 1985) In terms of differences among the lifestyle culture categories, some attributes were emphasized more than others In the case of Hanbok, due to the traits of the clothing itself, interviewees frequently recognized the attribute of aesthetics In this category, elements 102 E Ko et al such as shape, drape, color, design, pattern, silhouette, or color tone were frequently noted Hansik elicited “cultural and historic integrity” and “uniqueness and originality” more often than the other categories The perception of “cultural and historic integrity” indicates that most participants knew what traditional Korean food was; local respondents identified the elements that were traditionally Korean, whereas the non-Koreans identified the elements that were not traditionally Korean For Hanok, the feature of “function and use” was most frequently considered because modern housing facilitates more advanced technology, such as electricity and advanced home appliances, resulting in the perception that old residences are inconvenient Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 4.1.2 Consumers’ preferences according to the perception matrix Respondents’ personal preferences for Korean traditional culture were analyzed on the perception matrix (authenticity x price positioning) Overall, the high-end sector showed higher preferences: high authenticity (traditional) x high-end sector was favored more than low authenticity (modern) x high-end dimensions The analyses of consumers’ preference based on more detailed authenticity attributes and artifact culture categories are schematized in Figure First of all, a different orientation in authenticity criteria is induced for each different perception dimension Generally, preferences in highauthenticity (traditional) dimensions are related to the perception of “cultural and historic integrity” and “uniqueness and originality,” whereas the low authenticity (modern) dimension is more relevant to perceptions of “aesthetics” and “function and use.” Respondents’ personal preferences varied with traditional culture category In the case of clothing, respondents preferred the high-end sector, while differences appeared between Koreans and non-Koreans in relation to authenticity level This difference involves a discriminant perception of authenticity: that is, the high tendency of Koreans to prefer high-end “traditional” clothing involves a perception of “cultural and historic integrity.” Korean respondents evaluated artifacts based on their knowledge of their representation of Figure Consumer preference map on Korean artifact culture Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 103 social status In contrast, the non-Koreans preferred the high-end “modern” sector and primarily perceived the importance of “aesthetics” and “function and use” because they identify the product itself due to a lack of product background knowledge This difference is recognizable through phrases such as “rough, old, casual clothes of commoners” [2], “for ordinary people, countrified, monotonous, and simple” [5], “everyday wear, heritage, wearable” [8], and “daily wear, bring out colors” [11] Korean traditional food with high authenticity (traditional) was preferred, based on most of the authenticity criteria (i.e “cultural and historic integrity,” “uniqueness and originality,” “aesthetics,” and “function and use”) In particular, both locals and nonKoreans preferred Korean food to have distinct ties to culture and historical value, from which uniqueness and originality are manifested As the Korean traditional food culture was found to receive the greatest exposure and experience, standards regarding what is authentic to Korean tradition were apparent among both Korean and non-Korean respondents In terms of high-end dimensions, preferences were established by the perception of aesthetic aspects, as can be seen from comments such as “refined and tasteful representation” [8][3] and “beautiful colors and designs” [1][10] Interestingly, Korean foods in traditional x low-end dimension were preferred corresponding to “function and use,” which indicates that the degree of familiarity and availability for home-cooking is taken into consideration Responses related to the traditional x low-end sector include phrases such as “traditional home food” [4] and “most favorable dimension, the style most familiar with by experience” [11] On the other hand, both Korean and non-Korean respondents had the lowest preference for the modern x low-end sector This mainly resulted from a loss of identity or uniqueness and the negative implications of the prototype of the food (often inexpensive fast food) Relevant comments included “imitation of the modern food” [4], “neither real modern nor real traditional” [6], “not Korean” [9], and “junk food, greasy” [10] Finally, Hanok was mostly favored in the high-end dimension as well The preference in high-end x high authenticity Hanok resulted from the perception of “cultural and historic integrity”, whereas the high-end x low authenticity Hanok was preferred mainly due to the aspects of “aesthetics” and “function and use” Overall, a high preference for modern dimensions was found, especially from non-natives, due to associations of age and discomfort with the traditional way of living In reverse, the nonKoreans’ unfavorability toward traditional x low-end Hanok suggests that the major attribute in perceptions of authenticity in traditional living culture is “functionality and use.” The comments regarding negative associations with traditional Hanok include “basic, old-fashioned, or even stone age” [7], “very old, very basic, not nice” [9], and “small, poor” [12] In contrast, Koreans, especially those with experience of staying in their ancestors’ homes in rural areas, had better perspectives on the traditional x lowend sector Comments included “old-fragrance, reminiscence” [1] and “local lyricism, eco-friendly” [6] 4.1.3 Globalization of artifact culture Regarding the future directions for globalizing artifact culture (lifestyle culture), all participants noted the high-end dimension In terms of the globalizing authenticity, perspectives varied according to the lifestyle culture category For traditional clothing, “aesthetics” was an important criterion in the perception of authenticity Both Koreans and non-Korean respondents asserted that clothing should be modernized to be considered beautiful in the global market Some significant comments are as follows: 104 E Ko et al To be aesthetically appealing for use in the global standard, it needs to be modernized; just being pretty is not enough [5] It should still be shown where it is from, but it should be wearable in other places than Korea [9] Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 The globalization strategy for traditional food varied according to nationality Koreans suggested that it should be transformed to fit a global standard, modernized, and positioned as high-end However, the non-Koreans responded that keeping the original “Koreanness” of the product is crucial to successful globalization, rejecting the idea of mixing or hybridizing food Traditionality here includes not only the content of the food but also its presentation Significant opinions are highlighted as follows: Foreigners would have a hard time adopting the strong flavor of Korean food, so some flavors should be substituted with more familiar sauces The presentation is important in food; it should look good and be more refined [3] Traditional food, when you mix it, it is not real anymore Service should be western, not the taste [7] When considering globalizing Korean housing, one common suggestion was for Hanok to have a certain amount of traditional authenticity as well as modern comfort Regarding the solution, respondents hold different opinion in between exterior and interior style The exterior is not necessarily restricted to a certain type of authenticity in globalization What mattered, however, was that the interior of a traditional house should contain modern conveniences Significant opinions are highlighted as follows: Just being unique and different is not good enough; it should be preferable as well [1] Because we are used to our usual comfortable style, modernized utilities are necessary [12] I want the modernized facility, but it should still keep the essence of Korea [8] 4.2 Study 2: consumers’ perceptions of mentifactculture 4.2.1 Perceptions of the key values of traditional culture The analysis of the keywords that the interviewees provided regarding the key values of Korean traditional culture demonstrated a high level of accordance as well as latent equivocality in understanding each value (see Table 2) Of the three values, harmony was most easily acknowledged by the non-Koreans Harmony was perceived largely through two semantic groups, one that related harmony to nature and the other that related harmony to the co-existence of entities Although Korean respondents recognized the value of harmony as either nature-related or entity-related to similar degrees, the non-Korean respondents were more familiar with the eco-aspect of this value The findings indicated that most interviewees were not aware of the value of symbolism In general, this value involves philosophy, a desire for longevity, and spiritual aspects Both locals and non-Koreans were unfamiliar with this terminology Finally, the value of “Heung” (Korean native language for fun, pleasure, excitement) was perceived most easily by Koreans; many interviewees instantly associated the word “Heung” with related terms such as “Haehak” (Korean native language for humor) and “Pungryu” (Korean native language for taste or appreciation of the arts) Even without understanding the Korean word “Heung,” non-Korean respondents easily produced words such as “enjoyment” or “expressing.” In general, “Heung” was perceived in terms of two types of enjoyment – active and passive The former included activities such as performance, and Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 105 Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Table Elicitation of keywords for perception on three Korean traditional values Harmony Symbolism philosophy Heung U Harmony of nature and human U Symbiosis U Wishing good health U Tradition through nature U Soul U Balance of nature U Combining many different things U Combining people and nature U Eco-friendly life U Harmony with emphasis on process U Desire U Symbolism U Haehak (Korean native language for humor) U Pungryu (Korean native language for taste of appreciation for the arts) U Heung (Korean native language for fun, pleasure, excitement) U Beauty of movement U Enjoyment, fun U Myth U Recreation U Ritual U Religious U Exciting U Appreciation of life U U U U U U U U U Ascription of meaning Wishing for better life Belief Philosophy Concerned about living healthily U Longevity U ‘Everything reflects how you perceive life’ Aesthetics Entertainment Expressive Emotion U Amusement the latter included relaxation by taking pleasure in nature Whereas Koreans perceived this value in both active and passive enjoyment, non-natives were more likely to understand it as active entertainment related to Samulnori, the Korean traditional percussion quartet 4.2.2 Perceived authenticity of mentifactculture Regarding the question of whether the participants considered the three values to have authenticity in Korean traditional culture, the responses varied (see Table 3) Overall, both local and non-Korean respondents perceived these values as holding distinctively Korean (positive in cultural and historic integrity) and universal (negative in uniqueness and originality) value simultaneously That is, the results show differences in the concepts of perceiving authenticity, particularly in terms of understanding “cultural and historic integrity” and “uniqueness and originality” as contradictions Additionally, most perceptions of authenticity appeared to be highly influenced by individuals’ prior knowledge and experience Respondents who were more involved with traditional Korean culture perceived distinctive authenticity based on their prior knowledge and experience “Harmony” elicited perceptions of authenticity in terms of both “harmony with nature” and “co-existence of entities.” However, greater knowledge and experience of Korean traditional culture led to greater perceptions of authenticity from a nature-friendly perspective Due to the universality of symbolism in global culture, the value of symbolism was less likely to elicit perceptions of distinctiveness for Korean traditions However, greater knowledge and experience in Korean culture led to more in-depth understandings of the distinctive meanings and stories embedded in traditional culture Finally, when understood simply as excitement, “Heung” was mostly considered to lack 106 E Ko et al Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 Table Perceived authenticity of mentifact culture (values of traditional culture) Category HARMONY KOREAN “It is Korean, yet also very Asian Personally, I think the ‘harmony with nature’ is very Korean, but not the concept of ‘harmony of philosophy.” [13] “Although other countries have the value of ‘harmony’, it is a different type of harmony from Korean Western harmony is a ‘chord’, the harmony that is very scientific and needs studying, whereas Korean harmony is what you learn naturally from society.” [16] NON-KOREAN “It does, but also every country has somewhat harmony It is a basic way of living We cannot live without nature Like people of Native America or people from Asia also have some harmony with nature.” [20] “Yes, it definitely does First of all, that has a better life, keeping nature part of your life, the community aspect of eating together, dancing together, I think in general the word harmony is very Korean.” [22] INTRINSIC SEMANTICS HEUNG(興) “There are many traditional customs that are very distinctive Korean In addition, wishing for better life rather than after death seems very Korean to me However, it should be taken in good consideration when arguing as Asian culture, from my own experience in Japan, has a similar customs.” [13] “Although the terminology is very new, the concept itself seems very Korean.” [15] “The Heung of Japan is more passive Festival in Japan is to simply watch fireworks sitting outdoors, wearing Kimono However, Koreans actively dance altogether wearing loud colored clothes.” [13] “Because we are all human beings, historically, I think all cultures had some sort of symbolism in it.” [17] “It is Chinese but I think Korea had its own way of it For example, the Buddhism comes from India But there is Korean version of it.” [20] “Not just a Korean thing I think every person enjoys, loves to enjoy music It’s just human thing, not special to Korea.” [18] “The Samulnori performance is similar to marching bands, and they are both enjoyable, but slightly different And yes I think it is very naturally Korean Definitely for sure.” [19] “Yes, from all the images provided I think it is a very Korean keyword.” [21] “I think it is definitely more typical for Korea than Germany for example I think people are more likely to express themselves, be cheerful than in Germany Nobody would go that cheerful for our baseball game That would never happen.” [22] “Heung is Korean, but fundamentally it means to enjoy and pursue excitement In what other countries they not wish to be joyful? Therefore I think all countries must have some kind of entertaining aspect.” [15] Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 107 Table – continued Category HARMONY INTRINSIC SEMANTICS HEUNG(興) Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 “Yes, when I think of Korean traditional culture, I instantly think of getting close with nature.” [23] uniqueness and originality With increased understanding and experience of Korean traditional culture, however, “Heung” was perceived as the most unique and distinctive aspect of Korean traditional culture This value involves an intrinsic sentiment experienced in Korean culture 4.2.3 Globalization of mentifactculture Regarding the question of which value is most accepted in the global world, “Heung” ranked first, followed by harmony and symbolism Both Korean and non-native respondents suggested that the value of “Heung” could be globalized most successfully, especially due to its potential to be realized via performance art However, the nonKoreans with a short length of residence ranked harmony first Although the concepts of “harmony” and “symbolism” are rather conceptual, “Heung” is something that can be shown and enjoyed instantly, like Gangnam Style by Psy I think rap or hip-hop music is similar to the traditional Korean music in a way that there are specific rules and chords rather than following instinct [16] Already through K-pop, “Heung” is spreading worldwide [17] I think “Heung” involves the ethnicity of traditional Korea Compared to other countries, Korea unifies very well [18] I think it should be “Heung” because it is the most distinctively Korean Yes, the idea itself may be international, but the way it is expressed is very unique [20] If it’s for other people to get interested in Korea, I think harmony would be the best because this shows that people are concerned with harmony with nature, people, and everything So that’s a very appealing and good element for the people outside [15] With globalization affecting every country, harmony is a new global issue Therefore, it is a concept [through which] the world can accept and understand Asia Harmony would be very helpful not only in human relations but also in business [24] Conclusion The objective of this research was to investigate global consumers’ perceptions of Korean traditional culture with a focus on authenticity and to provide implications for positioning and globalizing Korean traditional culture, including artifact culture (lifestyle culture) and mentifact culture (cultural values) Study includes an analysis of the tangible side of traditional culture by focusing on traditional lifestyle culture, including Hanbok (clothing), Hansik (food), and Hanok (housing) Study focuses on the three intangible values of Korean traditional culture derived from multilateral literature reviews, including harmony, symbolism, and Heung Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 108 E Ko et al In summary, the results of Study identified five criteria for perceiving authenticity: “uniqueness and originality,” “cultural and historic integrity,” “workmanship,” “aesthetics,” and “function and use.” Additionally, different attributes of authenticity were perceived according to three different categories of artifact culture The “aesthetic” feature was mostly considered for Hanbok, “uniqueness and originality” and “cultural and historic integrity” were considered for Hansik, and “function and use” was mostly considered for Hanok The analysis of consumers’ preferences based on the authenticity x price positioning matrix revealed that high-end pricing was crucial for either high or low authenticity Discrepancies appeared among different culture categories as well as in the domestic and non-Korean respondent groups Finally, future directions in globalization from consumers’ perspectives were analyzed based on the perception matrix The results indicate that consumers find the general high-end price dimension to be most successful in globalizing Korean artifact culture, whereas perspectives varied according to the lifestyle culture category The outcomes of Study confirm that the cultural values (i.e., harmony, symbolism, and Heung) derived from the literature reviews were in accordance with consumers’ perceptions, with a few substituted semantics Specifically, harmony was perceived mainly as either nature-related or as the coexistence of entities Symbolism was conceived in many different ways, with concepts of spiritual belief, and Heung was recognized as either passive or active enjoyment All of these values were confirmed to be traditionally Korean as well as global Regarding a globalization strategy, Koreans suggested that Heung was the most suitable, whereas non-natives mostly proposed harmony as the most appropriate value for globalization However, people who were more involved with traditional Korean culture chose Heung as the most suitable The results of this study contribute to both academic and practical fields With regard to theory, this exploratory study extends tourism studies on authenticity to traditional culture marketing In particular, the criteria for perceiving authenticity were validated These results can be applied to future research on relevant matters In addition, this study identified some latent values that influence consumers’ perceptions of traditional culture According to the results of the study, familiarity (i.e., knowledge and experience) is an important factor in perceptions of traditional culture, which confirms the findings of previous studies (Baloglu, 2001; Knudsen et al., 2008) Finally, this study is unique in its consideration of both artifact (tangible) and mentifact (intangible) culture That is, this study highlights the relationship between the physical and imaginary realism in consumers’ conceptualizations based on experience of traditional culture (Knudsen et al., 2008) Additionally, this study contributes to the provision of a preliminary foundation for marketing traditional culture globally by analyzing consumers’ perceptions based on authenticity as well as price positioning Marketing traditional culture in a modern context involves a re-appropriation and negotiation process that interacts with authenticity (Apostolakis, 2003) Consumers’ perceptions of authenticity were found to have a considerable influence on the formation of preferences for or positive images of traditional culture Thus, this study signposts basic guidelines for global positioning and marketing strategies for governmental, industrial, or corporate bodies In addition, the varied implications of different culture categories can produce more detailed ideas for marketing strategies This study was conducted through in-depth interviews with a limited number of participants Additional quantitative studies could enhance the outcomes of this study Considering differences in personal factors as well as demographic characteristics could also contribute to further understanding of consumers’ perceptions For instance, this Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 109 study conducted in-depth interviews only with individuals in a limited (young) age group These results may differ if various age groups are considered – as younger consumers are more materialistic than ethnocentric compared to the elderly (Cleveland, Laroche, & Papadopoulos, 2012), consumer perception and preference in a different age group may provide different findings In addition, the current study explored differences only between Korean and non-Korean groups, but examining different nationalities could deepen the strategic implications for global marketing Acknowledgements Downloaded by [Yonsei University] at 20:43 05 January 2015 The present research was supported by a research grant from the Asan Foundation, Republic of Korea (2012) References Ahmad, Y (2006) The scope and definitions of heritage: From tangible to intangible International Journal of Heritage 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