Effects of Computer Mediated Instruction on Classroom Dialog

Effects of Computer-Mediated Running head: EFFECTS OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED INSTRUCTION ON DIALOGUE Effects of Computer-Mediated Instruction on Classroom Dialogue: A Review Bettie Hall University of Cincinnati Professional Seminar I December 9, 2004 Effects of Computer-Mediated Abstract The effects of computer-mediated instruction on classroom dialogue between students and the teacher and among the students are considered in this paper, including the benefits, problems and possible solutions to those problems A literature review of more than 30 previous works has been done to determine whether there are any such beneficial or detrimental effects, what those effects are, whether the effects are positive, and whether there are possible solutions to detrimental effects The principal result determined from this review is that computer-mediated instruction does appear to have many enhancing effects on classroom dialogue Dialogue between the teacher and students most often improves when the communication takes the form of electronic mail initiated by the student However, dialogues between students that took place through web logs (or blogs) or chat room conversations and other innovative devices are less discernibly edifying The use of the computer can eliminate the frustrations and perils of paper-and-pencil communication experienced by students and increase the satisfaction of the students with classes that include computer-mediated instruction At the same time, problems with communications availability can be a major concern, along with software and hardware difficulties, significant delays of communications between instructor and student, which can disrupt the flow of communication, and fewer physical or auditory cues for the student to follow while attempting to acquire information from an instructor While a number of studies were found that discuss these effects, a more intensive review, and particularly more experimental or quasi-experimental studies, should be undertaken to determine statistically significant results for the beneficial effects of computermediated instruction when replaces, rather than augments, traditional, face-to-face Effects of Computer-Mediated instruction on the classroom dialogue between students and teachers, and among the students Introduction To ensure shared understanding of terms, the following definitions are offered, based on definitions from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language (2000), and some of the assumptions that may be tacitly implied during the discussion are stated The computer was first used as a machine for performing calculations automatically, but now is being increasingly used in the classroom As it is situated between the teacher and the student, and among the students, it is in a perfect location to mediate or be in the middle, or to intervene in the dialogue, or exchange of information and ideas, among the participants It can be regarded as an equalizing tool for each able user, and when used especially for the purpose of effecting agreements or posting questions and answers between student and teacher, the computer could bring about the mediated improvement of education that results in increased satisfaction to all participants in the act, practice, or profession of instructing It may also improve the imparting of knowledge by instructors and enhance the acquisition of knowledge by students Instruction by definition is an explanation of an applicable principle The act of instructing involves the imparting of information or directions Sometimes, the activities of educating or instructing are the focus, such as activities that impart knowledge or skill, rather than information itself This has traditionally been the domain of the educator, but today, particularly in the business world, instruction is being increasingly packaged as Effects of Computer-Mediated programmed modules by instructional designers working with subject matter or content experts for audiences they never expect to meet, rather than by the instructors who plan to facilitate the knowledge and who expect to develop a relationship with their students during the course This factor, along with the growing demand and availability of distance learning or web-based courseware, increases the need to understand what is gained and lost by eliminating face-to-face communication (Barron, 1998; Bodzin and Park, 2000; deVries, Lund, and Baker, 2000; Chickering and Erhmann, 1996) The profession of a teacher who prepares for teaching by learning about teacher education in college is called pedagogy and it is generally recognized as an important profession, although convincing arguments have been made concerning the need to elevate and further edify that status (Shulman, 1987) The place in which classes are conducted, while traditionally an indoor or outdoor classroom, may today be a home office or cyber café This change in contexts may have important impacts on the content and quality of dialogue among teachers and learners The main ingredient of instruction today can be as simple as a conversation between two people, or as complex as an asynchronous, online conference The exchange of ideas or opinions outside the classroom permits students to engage in an informal construction of knowledge This practice has been enabled or revived, particularly with reference to communication between parties in institutional contexts such as a university, by the computer (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1994) Berge and Collins (1995) note in their introductory chapter of ComputerMediated Communication and the Online Classroom in Higher Education that the term computer-mediated communication (CMC) can be used in a general manner when Effects of Computer-Mediated discussing the pairing of computers with telecommunications technologies (which can summarily be termed "networks") to support education Their work provides a range of perspectives from the educational community in response to the need for systems that provide something more than an automated slide-show presentation With such a broad array of issues that could be discussed, it is necessary for us to narrow focus for the purpose of this paper, which is to explore the effects of computermediated instruction on the classroom dialogue between students and the teacher and among the students To determine theses effects, a literature review of previous works has been made The goal is to determine whether there are any such effects and, if so, to describe some of those effects In addition to the effects, there is a need to establish whether benefits and drawbacks may exist in computer-mediated instruction in relation to dialogue, and whether solutions for those drawbacks or issues have been proposed or implemented with what result, and what directions future research may take Discussion Benefits There are many benefits to computer-mediated interaction, some of which will be shown in the following discussions of the research publications of a variety of educational researchers Freedom from the constraints of time and space, as well as possibilities for more personalized learning are first and foremost in the list of benefits, as discussed in Hentea, Shea, and Pennington (2003) When used as a tool for asking questions, especially if it is voluntary and initiated by the student, it can provide important advantages over traditional, face-to-face interaction, especially for shy students (Berge and Collins (1995) Another advantage of providing computer-mediated Effects of Computer-Mediated communication for students is emphasized by the The Council for Exceptional Children, In Teaching Writing Skills to Students with Disabilities (1999) Among the many suggestions for instructional designers, teachers, and others that may be found at the ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education's web site, http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/eric/index.html, are frequent mentions of using technologydriven, creative means of communicating with students who may have various disabilities Suggestions of such creative means are graphic organizers such as bookmarks, instructional scaffolding, and alternative media, so students can access materials and engage in a meaningful interaction with them While the computer can serve as a cognitive tool to establish a simultaneous, dual partnership between the user and the technology, as well as between the users of that technology, it does not give those users better cognitive ability, it just increases the pace The best materials still require effective methods, as described by Brophy (1995) Berge and Collins' (1995) multiple-volume text on Computer Mediated Communication, or CMC, provides excellent information in its chapters on various ways in which computers are used to mediate human communications in support of instruction, including basic functions of electronic mail, group conferencing, and interactive messaging systems, as well as using on-line databases and campus-wide information systems They found that CMC provided a new medium for learning that emphasizes the exploratory nature of communication Further, the electronic dialogue can be preserved and retrieved, reread, and used to scaffold future learning Computer-mediated dialogue has also found purchase in teaching foreign languages González-Bueno (1995) describes the use of computer-mediated instruction Effects of Computer-Mediated for foreign language instruction and described benefits to the students such as their learning a greater amount of language, being able to discuss a greater variety of topics and language functions, exhibiting a higher level of language accuracy When students were able to engage in online chats, their dialogue demonstrated more similarity with oral language, and there were more student-initiated interactions, as well as more personal and expressive language use Although some studies are inconclusive, several researchers find that students enjoy the empowerment provided by controlling what, how much, when they engage in learning (Berge & Collins, 1995; Brophy, 1995; Yang, 2002) For example, in Kuh and Shouping's (2001) survey of more than 18,000 students at 71 colleges and universities, it was determined that students benefited more when the computer was permitted to be used frequently and in a variety of ways In addition, computer use was positively related to student effort In a similar study, found that students felt empowered by their use of the internet In the adult education arena, Berge and Collins (1993) compare the similarities and differences of computer conferencing with other channels of communication and concluded several benefits of computer conferencing for professional development, such as repetitive information processing, and independence of temporal or spatial elements In another study of older students, Black (2002) compared perceptions of how well course goals were achieved in a web-based course with the same perceptions from a traditional class Interestingly, she found that older students reported perceptions of achieving higher levels of course goals, and that students who took the web-based class Effects of Computer-Mediated understood some goals better than those who took the classroom-based course She also found that student satisfaction was significantly higher While such controlled studies are rare, researchers are increasingly turning to software functionality to replace face-to-face interaction in computer-mediated instruction For example, Turoff (1995) describes the objective of using the powers of the computer to actually better than what normally occurs in the face-to-face class He uses software functionality to create a virtual classroom that permits instructors to tailor the communication process to the nature of the group Types of functionality included electronic mail, computer conferencing, decision support systems, and electronic meeting systems What was interesting was that he did not want to duplicate the face-to-face class, but to improve it Similarly, Aist (2002) reports on a computer-assisted oral reading to help children learn their vocabulary A computer program uses automatic speech recognition to "hear" children read out load, then provides instruction This program was compared to traditional, classroom-based reading and human oral reading Third graders who used computer-assisted oral reading performed significantly better than did other third graders on word comprehension, which might indicate that, at least in this case, computer-mediated instruction enhances the learning experience because of the ability of the learner to engage in simulations of live dialogue In another study that points out the advantages of computer-mediated instruction over face-to-face instruction, Diehl (2001) argues that computers can facilitate teaching and make new methods of teaching possible While face-to-face dialogue is impermanent, difficult to reconstruct, and occurs once, with the cognitive consequences of computer Effects of Computer-Mediated representations, learners may visualize their argument structures, using epistemic scaffolding provided by interactive dialog boxes To balance this argument, LaRose et al (1998) describe audiographic telecourses for the Web that were designed knowing that the loss of teacher immediacy could cause student dissatisfaction The course was designed so students could listen to an audio of classroom interaction while viewing the course and World Wide Web sites They concluded that the audiographic course holds several advantages over a virtual classroom, which uses email, news groups, listservs, bulletin boards, and chat rooms With much focus on the interactions that occur among students, we sometimes overlook the instructor as learner Kayany (1998) focused on instructor experiences in his review of instructional uses of World Wide Web course pages Using open-ended survey methodologies, he found that while the availability of course material on the Web can increase student participation, and help them better prepare, the main benefit was to the instructor's understanding of the students, as a result of increased interaction between instructors and students Steffey (2001) also notes improvements in the quality of communication in instruction, as well as increased satisfaction Shea (2000) studied captioned interactive video as a means of learning a second language, and confirms that computer mediated education has positive effects on learner motivation Shea's work used syntactic chunking, a means of dealing with the overabundance of information that can overwhelm online discussions As Shea notes, while computer mediated discussion can help motivate, save time, and address areas of weaknesses, and helped the "least able" students in that they were able to perform Effects of Computer-Mediated 10 "beyond their apparent ability." An experiment was performed with a control group, and it was found that the experimental group could complete tasks more quickly Thus, the benefits of computer-mediated instruction are clear (or as clear as possible without a statistical analysis of all the numbers referenced in these pieces of research) but there are problems that can hamper the implementation of computermediated instruction Problems There are intrinsic difficulties in usability built in to all e-learning applications, as discussed in Zaharias, Vassilopoulou, and Poulymenakou (2002) The attributes of the hardware and software, network speed and reliability, capabilities and experience of the users, etc are some examples Some other drawbacks can be lack of staff training in new methods of instruction, poor course design, flawed assessments, and inappropriate applications, as described by Hentea et al (2003) Different creative solutions to these problems include projects like the text-based virtual world described by McCallum, McGrath, and Rusch (1997), where students created their own versions of an ideal classroom, complete with characters, rooms, and importantly, dialogue exchanged during a virtual "open house." Hentea et al (2003) stressed that interaction must be frequent, and interspersed with face-to-face meetings requiring local instructors for facilitation We will have a more complete discussion of possible solutions later in the paper While CMC liberates the instructor and student from communicating at preset times or places, it also places new demands on students and instructors For instructors, there is a new need to design and use computer applications instead of engaging in simple, face-to-face instruction This is added to the already complex and demanding Effects of Computer-Mediated 11 pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1988) However, according LaRose et al (1998), there is so much information with some types of computer-mediated instruction, such as audiographic telecourses, that the instructors and students are often overwhelmed Constructionist courses use learner-centered computer games, multiple-player formats, and online role-plays in artificial environments However, the cost of these is high, which can strain already stretched community resources Computer-managed instruction uses graphics, audiovisuals, and text, all of which present their own, unique challenges for instructors Video may be easier, but the majority of Internet connections among learners still not support the level of speed and network capacity demanded by video instruction Furthermore, course materials presented via expensive video over the Web cannot be cheaply modified While computer-mediated communication does lead to scaffolding pedagogical ideas, there are disadvantages Park and Bodzin (2000) analyzed patterns of computermediated communication in a public, Web based forum, and found that while participants were sharing their perceptions, a great deal of structure is needed for students to have productive discussion Instructor intervention, monitoring, reading, and rapidly responding to student postings can be demanding on the instructor's time In addition, when there is a large group of participants using one forum, they found the resulting number of length of postings could be overwhelming to the students When using collaborative software for distributed instruction or distance classrooms, a number of issues can arise Dunlap, Neale, and Carroll (2000) examined such issues teachers encountered The three issues they reported are "organizational chaos," physical and temporal dispersion of events and causes, and individualism in Effects of Computer-Mediated 12 teaching Zaharias et al (2002) describe similar challenges in e-learning applications to acquire skills and knowledge Solutions If we consider how the benefits of computer-mediation instruction may outweigh the potential problems, what steps can be taken to mitigate the difficulties and make the learning experience better for all involved? In my research, I came across many creative suggestions about how to make incremental improvements to computer-mediated instruction, some of which I described in the first paragraph of the previous section De Vries et al (2002) looked at computer-mediated epistemic dialogue from the perspective of using explanation and argumentation to help students understand concepts They note that while the role of dialogue in learning has recently been studied, the actual creation of situations and circumstances under which students best engage in epistemic dialogue has not They identified factors to consider when designing a computersupported collaborative learning situation, namely domain, proposed activities, and the role technology plays in the situation They used a system for collaborative confrontation, negotiation, and construction of text They performed a study in which students wrote about a phenomenon, then worked in pairs, then in groups to discuss their texts In another creative solution to the problem of "organizational chaos," Bull and Kimball (1999) use hyperbook techniques in their modules related to teaching computer mediated learning, which encourages learner-initiated interaction A balance of computerbased instructional design, end user needs, domain, technology, and learning theory is discussed by Brophy (1995) Again, however, it creates an additional demand on the instructor A partnership needs to be established, where the computer is recognized as a Effects of Computer-Mediated 13 cognitive tool used to achieve mastery of concepts The computer can be used to amplify the cognitive ability of an individual The second kind of partnership concerns the use of computer as a scaffolding of cognitive ability In addition to the demands on instructions, Matthews, Bunn, Gustafson, Megill, and O'Connor (1995) emphasize that good results require good practices and that decisions surrounding the use of technology should remain in the hands of faculty and instructors They suggest guidelines for best practices for using what they call Technology Mediated Instruction (TMI) They agree with Chickering and Ehrmann (1996) that good teaching is good teaching regardless of the mode, so the computer has to be held to the same standard as any other tool In order to meet these standards, the interaction among users in a computermediated environment msut be flexible, individual, personal, and challenging (Muirhead, 2000) A future direction for research might center around questions about the quality of computer medicated educational programs center around social interaction that occurs during these online classes, whether "genuine" dialogue and social interaction are vital elements in the learning process, and whether interactivity is immediate or delayed, as with telephones or chat sessions or through electronic mail or discussion board Since computer-mediated collaboration depends strongly on the coordination activities among the users, Rummel, Spada, Hermann, Caspar, and Schornstein (2002) define recommendations for networked groups, such as well-defined sequences of tasks, phases, and problem solving to work effectively Despite the difficulties in constructing a system to support dialogue, Hsiao (2004) reports that computer-supported, collaborative learning (CSCL), a computer-based Effects of Computer-Mediated 14 network system to support group work in a common task, provides such a shared interface It focuses on what is communicated, rather than on the techniques of that communication The study distinguishes between business settings and educational settings, where the purpose of CSCL is to help support or scaffold students learning together Such well-designed systems can support and facilitate group process and group dynamics in ways that are not achievable by face-to-face, but they cannot, and indeed are not designed to, replace face-to-face dialogue CSCL is founded on sociocultural theory in the Vygotskian tradition, constructivism, self-regulating, situated cognition, cognitive apprenticeship, and problem based learning These theories are grounded in the idea that individuals are active agents in their own learning Another example of such a solution is encouraging online "chats." Instructional electronic chat rooms can replace or support classroom discussion, and when used effectively, such formats encourage teachers and students to collaborate and work together to construct knowledge, as reported by Murphy and Collins (1998) Their methodology included content analysis of such chat dialogue, the purpose of which was to identify how chat users developed "rules" about how they communicated, such as keywords, shorthand techniques, non-verbal cues, and asking questions In a similar study, McCallum et al (1997) created a cyberspace project, an elementary school where students created their version of an ideal classroom, complete with characters, rooms, and importantly, dialogue during a virtual "open house." These are examples of the kind of simulation of real life that computer-mediated dialogue can engender among students Conclusions Effects of Computer-Mediated 15 The conclusions I have drawn from this literature review include the following Computer-mediated instruction has many champions among education researchers; it has even more champions in the rapidly expanding business of distance learning and distance education Low-residency and no-residency programs have begun at numerous colleges and universities, and there is still a great deal of discussion about whether and how they should be accredited, how they should be evaluated, and of what consumers of that knowledge should beware (Chickering & Ehrmann, 1996) However, fewer researchers have similarly concentrated on the effects of such instruction on the dialogue between instructors and students, and among the students, and whether that dialogue does, or does not, have beneficial effects As a circumspect consumer of information, we should be mindful of the theoretical bases, rationales, and motivations for future studies There is much evidence that computer-mediated dialogue benefits students who are already adept at representing themselves in writing, who are shy in face-to-face interactions, and who need to review and perhaps revise their dialogue in order to feel confident Instructors, too, can benefit from the ability to use posted dialogue among students to monitor learning, to answer questions, and to pose challenges to which students can respond A recommendation for studying the effects of dialogue would be an independent measures statistical test of the same group of instructors and students in a computer-mediated course, and again in a face-to-face course There are numerous challenges involved in creating, fostering, and maintaining the kind of computer-mediated instruction that results in benefits to students and instructors Students and instructors are presented on a more equal playing field in such an environment, such that the instructor can lose authority power and be viewed more as Effects of Computer-Mediated 16 a facilitator of knowledge than an expert Issues of hardware, software, programming, usability, network connectivity, and familiarity with computer-mediated dialogic techniques cannot be ignored Students can be easily overwhelmed by the amount and extent of information available to them, especially if a dialogue engenders extensive discussion, and enable them to lose focus unless the instructor monitors the environment, gauges responses, and intervenes when appropriate The level of trust and confidence a student has in the instructor, him- or herself, and in fellow students can vary the extent of willingness to engage in computer-mediated discussions, which again requires appropriate monitoring and intervention to prevent Finally, not everything that is faster is better While computer-mediated instruction can certainly increase the frequency and content of student-to-student interaction, those interactions are not always related to instructional content, but can take wings and fly off into vagaries unassociated with the instructional purpose or objective It is certainly worth pursuing new technologies and creative innovations in the search for a better methodology in computer-mediated instruction in order to create a better learning experience for all involved While cost and training time must be considered, along with other possible difficulties, computer-mediated design has been shown to benefit many students who otherwise would not be able to attend classes, along with benefiting traditional students as an additional toolset offered them in their classroom work However, it is important o consider the effects of this toolset on dialogue, and continue to offer every learner an environment in which this important cognitive activity can best take place Effects of Computer-Mediated 17 References Aist, G (2002) Helping children learn vocabulary during computer-assisted oral reading Educational Technology & Society Retrieved 12/5/04 from the World Wide Web: http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_2_2002/v_2_2002.html The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000) Houghton Mifflin Company Barron, A (1998) Designing web-based training British Journal of Educational Technology, 29, 355-370 Berge, Z L & Collins, M P (1993) Computer conferencing and online education The Arachnet Electronic Journal on Virtual Culture, [On-line Serial] Retrieved 12/5/04 from http://www.emoderators.com/papers/bergev1n3.html Berge, Z L & Collins, M P (1995) Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom in higher education Computer-Mediated Communication Magazine, 2, 39 Berge, Z L & Collins, M P (Eds.) 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These are examples of the kind of simulation of real life that computer- mediated dialogue can engender among students Conclusions Effects of Computer- Mediated