Michael Baker Towards a Post-Eurocentric Mathematics and Science Education

TOWARDS A POST-EUROCENTRIC MATHEMATICS & SCIENCE EDUCATION1 Eurocentrism and the Modern/Colonial Curriculum: A Critical Interpretive Review Michael Baker University of Rochester, New York, USA Table of Contents Introduction Methodological and Theoretical Rationale Eurocentrism as the Epistemic Framework of Colonial Modernity Towards a Post-Eurocentric Curriculum in Math & Science Education 41 Ethnomathematics 47 Ethnosciences 60 Conclusion: Towards an Epistemological Multiculturalism References 79 82 At the end of the colonial era, people began to ask the West what rights its culture, its science, its social organization and finally its rationality itself could have to laying claim to a universal validity: is it not a mirage tied to an economic domination and a political hegemony? (Foucault, 1991, p 12) Confronting Eurocentrism requires ultimately a confrontation of history and the project of modernity as a whole (Dirlik, 2002, p 8) Introduction Originally published as Eurocentrism and the Modern/Colonial Curriculum:Towards a Post-Eurocentric Math & Science Education – A Critical Interpretive Review, by Michael Baker, University of Rochester Unpublished Paper, 2009 https://www.academia.edu/1517810/Towards_a_Post_Eurocentric_Math_and_Science_Education_A_Critic al_Interpretive_Review Accessed 30 November 2020 This essay reviews literature in science and mathematics education that assumes the possibilities for knowing the realities of the world through the official curriculum are reductively maintained within a Eurocentric cultural complex (Carnoy, 1974; Swartz, 1992; Willinsky, 1998) Eurocentrism will be described as the epistemic framework of colonial modernity, a framework through which western knowledge enabled and legitimated the global imposition of one particular conception of the world over all others Eurocentrism is an ethnocentric projection onto the world that expresses the ways the west and the westernized have learned to conceive and perceive the world At the center of this ethnocentric projection are the control of knowledge and the maintenance of the conditions of epistemic dependency (Mignolo, 2000a) Every conception of the “world” involves epistemological and ontological presuppositions interrelated with particular (historical and cultural) ways of knowing and being All forms of knowledge uphold practices and constitute subjects (Santos, 2007a) What counts as knowledge and what it means to be human are profoundly interrelated (Santos, 2006) The knowledge that counts in the modern school curriculum, from kindergarten to graduate school, is largely constructed and contained within an epistemic framework that is constitutive of the monocultural worldview and ideological project of western modernity (Meyer, Kamens & Benavot, 1992; Wallerstein, 1997, 2006; Lander, 2002; Kanu, 2006; Kincheloe, 2008; Battiste, 2008) The monocultural worldview and ethos of western civilization are based in part upon structures of knowledge and an epistemic framework elaborated and maintained within a structure of power/knowledge relations involved in five hundred years of European imperial/colonial domination (Quijano, 1999, p 47) If our increasingly interconnected and interdependent world is also to become more and not less democratic, schools and teachers must learn to incorporate the worldwide diversity of knowledges and ways of being (multiple epistemologies and ontologies) occluded by the hegemony of Eurocentrism Academic knowledge and understanding should be complemented with learning from those who are living in and thinking from colonial and postcolonial legacies (Mignolo, 2000, p 5) Too many children and adults today (particularly those from non-dominant groups) continue to be alienated and marginalized within modern classrooms where knowledge and learning are unconsciously permeated by this imperial/colonial conception of the world The reproduction of personal and cultural inferiority inherent in the modern educational project of monocultural assimilation is interrelated with the hegemony of western knowledge structures that are largely taken for granted within Eurocentric education (Dei, 2008) Thus, in the field of education, “we need to learn again how five centuries of studying, classifying, and ordering humanity within an imperial context gave rise to peculiar and powerful ideas of race, culture, and nation that were, in effect, conceptual instruments that the West used both to divide up and to educate the world” (Willinsky, 1998, pp 2-3) The epistemic and conceptual apparatus through which the modern world was divided up and modern education was institutionalized is located in the cultural complex called “Eurocentrism” Western education institutions and the modern curriculum, from the sixteenth century into the present, were designed to reproduce this Eurocentric imaginary under the sign of “civilization” (Grafton & Jardine, 1986; Butts, 1967, 1973) Eurocentric knowledge lies at the center of an imperial and colonial model of civilization that now threatens to destroy the conditions that make life possible (Lander, 2002, p 245) From a post-Eurocentric interpretive horizon (described below), the present conditions of knowledge are embedded within a hegemonic knowledge apparatus that emerged with European colonialism and imperialism in the sixteenth century (Philopose, 2007; Kincheloe, 2008) Based upon hierarchical competition for power, control, and supremacy among the “civilized” nation-states, imperialism is an original and inherent characteristic of the modern western interstate system that emerged with the formation of sovereign European territorial states in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Wallerstein, 1973; Gong, 1984 ; Hindness, 2005; Agnew, 2003; Taylor & Flint, 2000) Closely interrelated with imperialism, colonialism involves a civilizing project within an ideological formation established to construct the way the world is known and understood, particularly through the production, representation, and organization of knowledge (Mignolo, 2000a; Kanu, 2006) Colonialism reduces reality to the single dimension of the colonizer Colonialism and imperialism impose on the world one discourse, one form of conscience, one science, one way of being in the world “Post-colonial analysis leads to a simple realization: that the effect of the colonizing process over individuals, over culture and society throughout Europe’s domain was vast, and produced consequences as complex as they are profound” (Ashcroft, 2001a, p 24) In yet to be acknowledged ways, the Eurocentric curriculum, and western schooling in general, are profoundly interrelated with both modern imperialism and colonialism The persistence and continuity of Eurocentrism rather leads one to see it as a part of a habitus of imperial subjectivity that manifests itself in a particular kind of attitude”: the European attitude – a subset of a more encompassing “imperial attitude.” The Eurocentric attitude combines the search for theoria with the mythical fixation with roots and the assertion of imperial subjectivity It produces and defends what Enrique Dussel has referred to as “the myth of modernity” (Maldonado-Torres, 2005b, p 43) Western schooling reproduces this “Eurocentric attitude” in complicity with a globalized system of power/knowledge relations, tacitly based upon white heterosexual male supremacy (Kincheloe, 1998; Allen, 2001; Bonilla-Silva, 2001, 2006; Twine & Gallagher, 2008; Akom, 2008a, 2008b) Eurocentrism is a hegemonic representation and mode of knowing that relies on confusion between abstract universality and concrete world hegemony (Escobar, 2007; Dussel, 2000; Quijano, 1999, 2000) Worldwide imperial expansion and European colonialism led to the late nineteenth century worldwide hegemony of Eurocentrism (Quijano, 2005, p 56) Eurocentrism, in other words, refers to the hegemony of a (universalized) Euro-Anglo-American epistemological framework that governs both the production and meanings of knowledges and subjectivities throughout the world (Schott, 2001; Kincheloe, 2008) Eurocentrism is an epistemological model that organizes the state, the economy, gender and sexuality, subjectivity, and knowledge (Quijano, 2000) The production of Eurocentrism is maintained in specific political, economic, social and cultural institutions and institutionalized practices that began to emerge with the colonization of the Americas in the sixteenth century The nation-state, the bourgeois family, the capitalist corporation, Eurocentric rationality, and western educational institutions are all examples of worldwide institutions and institutionalized practices that contribute to the production of Eurocentrism (Quijano, 2008, pp 193-194) Eurocentrism as a historical phenomenon is not to be understood without reference to the structures of power that EuroAmerica produced over the last five centuries, which in turn produced Eurocentrism, globalized its effects, and universalized its historical claims Those structures of power include the economic (capitalism, capitalist property relations, markets and modes of production, imperialism, etc.) the political (a system of nation-states, and the nation-form, most importantly, new organizations to handle problems presented by such a reordering of the world, new legal forms, etc.), the social (production of classes, genders, races, ethnicities, religious forms as well as the push toward individual-based social forms), and cultural (including new conceptions of space and time, new ideas of the good life, and a new developmentalist conception of the life-world) (Dirlik, 1999, p 8) Eurocentric thinking is embedded in the concepts and categories through which the modern world has been constructed “The West defines what is, for example, freedom, progress and civil behavior; law, tradition and community; reason, mathematics and science; what is real and what it means to be human The non-Western civilizations have simply to accept these definitions or be defined out of existence” (Sardar, 1999, p 44) The mostly taken-for-granted definitions and conceptual boundaries of the academic disciplines and school subjects such as “philosophy”, “math”, “science”, “history”, “literature”, “literacy”, “humanities”, “education” are all Eurocentric constructions If Eurocentrism is intrinsic in the way we think and conceptualize, it is also inherent in the way we organize knowledge Virtually all the disciplines of social sciences, from economics to anthropology, emerged when Europe was formulating its worldview, and virtually all are geared to serving the need and requirements of Western society and promoting its outlook Eurocentrism is entrenched in the way these disciplines are structured, the concepts and categories they use for analysis, and the way progress is defined with the disciplines (Joseph et al 1990) (Sardar, 1999, p 49) This hegemonic knowledge formation envelops the modern school curriculum within an imperial/colonial paradigm legitimated by the rhetoric of modernity (i.e., equal opportunity, mobility, achievement gap, meritocracy, progress, development, civilization, globalization) Western education (colonial and metropolitan) reproduces imperial/colonial, monocultural, and deluded conceptions of and ways of being in the world (Mignolo, 2000a; Kincheloe, 2008) “The effect of Eurocentrism is not merely that it excludes knowledges and experiences outside of Europe, but that it obscures the very nature and history of Europe itself” (Dussel, 1993) Understanding Eurocentrism thus involves recognizing and denaturalizing the implicitly assumed conceptual apparatus and definitional powers of the west (Sardar, 1999, p 44; Coronil, 1996) Individually, understanding Eurocentrism may also involve the experience of disillusionment and culture shock as one begins to demythologize the dense mirage of modernity Yet, today, in the academic field of education, “Eurocentrism” is commonly understood as a cultural perspective among political conservatives who ascribe to the superiority of western contributions (e.g., scientific, cultural and artistic) to world civilization that in turn justify the continued exclusion of non-European cultures and knowledges in the curriculum (Collins & O’Brien, 2003) Understanding Eurocentrism as a conservative perspective on western culture and education ignores the historical claim that Eurocentrism is the framework for the production and control of knowledge – that Eurocentrism is the way the “modern” world has been constructed as a cultural projection For many of us educated in the western tradition – within this still dominant epistemological framework a Eurocentric worldview may be all we know We may not recognize that our enlightened, liberal versus conservative, university educated ways of thinking, knowing, and being are a reflection of a particular historical-culturalepistemological world-view, different from and similar to a variety of other equally valid and valuable ways of knowing and being (Santos, 2007; Battiste, 2008) In other words, if we are “well educated”, we conceive, perceive, interpret, know, learn about, and (re)produce knowledge of the “world” through an ethnocentric cultural projection known as “Eurocentrism” (Ankomah, 2005) This review begins therefore by situating Eurocentrism within the historical context of its emergence – colonial modernity – and proceeds to define Eurocentrism as the epistemic framework of colonial modernity From this decolonial (or postEurocentric) historical horizon and framing of Eurocentrism, the second part will frame and review literature on the critique of Eurocentrism within mathematics and science education that represent alternatives to the hegemony of western knowledge in the classroom This literature was searched for and selected because it provides critiques of Eurocentrism that include specific proposals for de-centering and pluralizing the school curriculum The review concludes by summarizing, situating, and appropriating these two school subject proposals within a vision for a post-Eurocentric curriculum In framing, selecting, and reviewing literature that challenges and reconceptualizes the underlying Eurocentric assumptions of the modern school curriculum, this literature review adopts from critical philosophical (Haggerson, 1991), interpretive (Eisenhardt, 1998), and creative process approaches (Montuori, 2005) The rationale for this two-part organization, as well as the type of review this rationale calls for deserve further clarification, before analyzing the historical context of Eurocentrism Methodological and Theoretical Rationale Conventional literature reviews seek to synthesize ideas as overviews of knowledge to date in order to prefigure further research (Murray & Raths, 1994; Boote & Beile, 2005) Eisenhardt (1998) however, describes another purpose of literature reviews as interpretive tools to “capture insight ….suggesting how and why various contexts and circumstances inform particular meanings and reveal alternative ways of making sense (p 397) Following Eisenhardt’s description, this unconventional literature review is intended to situate and review an emergent literature on a post-Eurocentric curriculum within an historical analysis of Eurocentrism A post-Eurocentric interpretive horizon is described that provides an alternative way of making sense of the curriculum literature Eurocentric modernity is the historical context within which the modern curriculum is conceived Most uses of term Eurocentrism within the curriculum literature have yet to include analyses of the origins and meaning of Eurocentrism within the history and project of modernity This lack of recognition and analysis of the historical context of Eurocentrism contributes to both incoherence and impotency in the use of this critical concept (for examples see Mahalingam, 2000; Gutierrez, 2000; Aikenhead & Lewis, 2001) The concepts Eurocentrism and post-Eurocentrism offer contrasting paradigms through which the curriculum can be evaluated in relation to whether teaching and learning reproduces or decolonizes the dominant modern/colonial system of power/knowledge relations The successful development and implementation of a postEurocentric curriculum is dependent upon an adequate historical-philosophical interpretation of Eurocentrism As such, this literature review adopts elements from the critical philosophical, interpretive, and creative process approaches (Haggerson, 1991; Eisenhardt, 1999; Livingston, 1999; Meacham, 1998; Schwandt, 1998; Montuori, 2005) Eisenhardt describes interpretive reviews as presenting information that “disrupts conventional thinking” and seeks to “reveal alternative ways of making sense” (Eisenhardt, 1999, p 392, 397) Haggerson’s critical philosophical inquiry attempts to give meaning and enhance understanding of activities and institutions, bringing their norms of governance to consciousness, and finding criteria by which to make appropriate judgments (Haggerson, 1991) Montouri’s creative process model includes problematizing the underlying presuppositions of a field of inquiry along with creating new frameworks for reinterpreting bodies of knowledge (Montouri, 2005) This review does not describe and compare different perspectives This review instead presents an alternative, post-Eurocentric framework for reinterpreting the modern Eurocentric curriculum, with a specific focus on math and science education This post-Eurocentric framework provides an alternative way of thinking about school knowledge whereby the entire spectrum of different perspectives can be re-viewed in relation to each other One purpose of this literature review is to situate and describe contemporary critiques of Eurocentrism in mathematics and science education that contribute to the creation of a post-Eurocentric science and mathematics curriculum This review begins therefore by characterizing Eurocentrism as the epistemic framework of colonial modernity from a post-Eurocentric interpretive horizon This analysis of Eurocentrism from a post-Eurocentric interpretive horizon is a necessary precondition to selecting and framing any school subject critiques that aim to contribute to a curriculum no longer contained within the epistemic framework of colonial modernity A post-Eurocentric interpretive horizon and curriculum are possible through an analysis of Eurocentrism that escapes its constitutive relations with the boundaries and conceptual presuppositions of modernity A second purpose of this review then is to layout a decolonial critique of Eurocentrism in relation to the modern curriculum from a post-Eurocentric interpretive horizon A decolonial critique of Eurocentrism involves a confrontation with the history and project of modernity (Dirlik, 2002; 2007) If Eurocentrism is an expression of the conceptual apparatus that created the modern worldview (western historical consciousness of the present), then Eurocentrism cannot be adequately understood from within this worldview alone The widespread assumption in our day that Eurocentrism may be spoken or written away, …… rests on a reductionalist culturalist understanding of Eurocentrism Rendering Eurocentrism into a cultural phenomenon that leaves unquestioned other locations for it distracts attention from crucial ways in which Eurocentrism may be a determinant of a present that claims liberation from the hold on it of the past What is at issue is modernity, with all its complex constituents, of which Eurocentrism was the formative moment Just as modernity is incomprehensible without reference to Eurocentrism, Eurocentrism as a concept is specifiable only within the context of modernity (Dirlik, 1999, pp 1-2) So Eurocentrism cannot be adequately understood separate from its formation within the history of western modernity Yet Eurocentrism is the “formative moment” of modernity Most theories of modernity in fact, interpret the history and meaning of modernity from within the perspective of modernity itself, from within the historical horizon of Eurocentric consciousness (Mignolo, 2000a; Mignolo & Tlostanova, 2008) The idea of modernity, first of all, has been conceived from the perspective of European history and has been framed based on the historical process and subjective experience of Western European countries and people – more specifically, on the complicity between Western Christiandom and the emergence of capitalism as we know it today Europe and modernity have become synonymous and essential components of modern European identity (Mignolo & Tlostanova, 2008, p 113) In recent years the history of western modernity has been interpreted from the perspective of the history of colonial power/knowledge relations (Mignolo & Tlostanova, 2008; Escobar, 2007; Dussel, 2000; Quijano, 2000) This recent reframing opens up a more global account of modernity that contributes to a more historical and critical understanding of Eurocentrism As the epistemic framework through which knowledge and understanding are colonized, Eurocentrism must to be adequately understood and clarified in order to think beyond its conceptual and epistemic boundaries Eurocentrism as the Epistemic Framework of Colonial Modernity Until 1960s, the Eurocentric interpretation of modernity was the largely unquestioned cultural-narrative background in the social and political imaginary of the modern/colonial world-system “Imaginary” here refers to the ways a culture has of perceiving and conceiving itself and the world The modern/colonial world system is a socio-historical structure that comprises the dominant imaginary and material constructions of the modern historical period, from 1492 to the present Occidentalism became the dominant cultural imaginary of the modern/colonial world system in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Orientalism became the hegemonic cultural imaginary when the image of the “heart of Europe” (England, France, Germany) replaced the “Christian Europe” of the fifteenth to mid-seventeenth century (Italy, Spain, Portugal) (Mignolo, 2000a) Broadly conceived, European civilizational and modernization processes constructed the dominant intersubjective and material conditions that constituted these two interrelated imaginaries The variety of modern knowledge disciplines, and particularly the field of education, (with their historical and intimate interrelations with the state, the economy, and ethnocentric nationalism), are maintained within this macronarrative of western civilization Self-serving institutionalized academic disciplinary boundaries, unexamined nationalist ideologies in scholarship, and insufficient comparative research across the social sciences and humanities have all contributed to a lack of critical awareness of the presence and limits of this civilizational narrative in the historical consciousness of western modernity (Taylor, 1999; Agnew, 2003) In addition, Eurocentric scholarship and disciplinary divisions normally interpret modernity and colonialism as completely separate phenomena, upholding the mythical march of modernity In the United States for example, the term “colonial” has been effectively appropriated in nationalist historiography and the public consciousness to refer exclusively to the early “American” historical period, i.e., “colonial history”, “settler colonies” (Stasiulis & Yuval-Davis, 1995; Greene, 2007) Colonialism is largely absent in the curriculum in most U.S schools and many universities It is also largely absent in the historical consciousness of the white population within the U.S This macronarrative of western civilization first emerged in the Renaissance and consolidated during the Enlightenment, and today, it is tied to the historiography of the Renaissance and the philosophy of the Enlightenment (Mignolo, 2000a) In the nineteenth century, various German philosophers ensured its solidified extension into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, i.e., Kant, Hegel, Husserl, Heidegger (MaldonadoTorres, 2005) 10 Daun, Holgar (Ed.) (2002) Education restructuring in the context of globalization and national policy New York: Routledge/Falmer Dei, George J Sefa, Mazzuca, Josephine, McIsaac, Elizabeth & Zine, Jasmin (1997) Reconstructing ‘drop-out’: A critical ethnography of the dynamics of black students’ disengagement from school Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press Dei, George J Sefa (2001) Rethinking the role of indigenous knowledge in the academy NALL working paper, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto Dei, George J Sefa (2006) In Yata Kanu (Ed) Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations Toronto: University of Toronto Press Dei, George J Sefa, Hall, Budd L & Rosenberg, Dorothy Goldin (Eds.) (2000) Indigenous knowledges in global contexts: Multiple readings of our world Toronto: University of Toronto Press Dei, George J Sefa & Asghazadeh, Alireza (2001) The power of social theory: the anticolonial discursive framework Journal of educational thought, 35(3), pp 297323 Dei, George J Sefa & Kempf, Arlo (Eds.) (2006) Anti-colonialism and education: The politics of resistance Delanty, Gerard (1995) Inventing Europe: Idea, identity, reality New York: St Martin’s Press Deloria, Jr., Vine (1999a) Knowing and understanding: Traditional education in the modern world In Vine Deloria Jr Spirit & reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., reader Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing Deloria, Jr., Vine (1999b) The burden of Indian education In Vine Deloria Jr., Spirit & reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., reader Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing Des Jarlais, Cheryl Woolsey (2008) Western structures meet native traditions: The interfaces of educational cultures Information Age Publishing Dimitriades, G & McCarthy, C (2001) Reading & teaching the postcolonial: From Baldwin to Basquiat and beyond New York: Teachers College Press Dirlik, Arif (1999) Is there history after Eurocentrism? Globalism, postcolonialism, and the disavowal of history Cultural critique, 42, pp 1-34 Dirlik, Arif (2002a) Rethinking colonialism: Globalization, postcolonialism, and the nation Interventions, 4(3), pp 428-448 Dirlik, Arif (2002b) History without a center? Reflections on Eurcocentrism In Eckhardt Fuchs & Benedikt Stuchtey (Eds.) Across cultural borders: Historiography in global perspective New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Dirlik, Arif (2003) Global modernity? Modernity in an age of global capitalism European journal of social theory, 6(3), pp 275-293 Dirlik, Arif (2007) Global modernity: Modernity in the age of global capitalism Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Dirlik, Arif (2008) Race talk, race, and contemporary racism PMLA: Modern language association of America, 123(5), pp 1363-1379 DuBois, W.E.B [1905] (1990) The souls of black folk New York: Vintage Books Dussel, Enrique (1993) Eurocentrism and modernity (Introduction to the Frankfurt lectures) Boundary 2, 23(3), pp 65-76 Dussel, Enrique (1995) The invention of Americas: Eclipse of “the Other” and the myth of modernity Translated by Michael D Barber New York: Continuum 87 Dussel, Enrique (1998) Beyond Eurocentrism: The world-system and the limits of modernity In Fredric Jameson & Masao Miyoshi (Eds.) The cultures of globalization Durham, NC: Duke University Press Dussel, Enrique (2002) Eurocentrism and trans-modernity Nepantla, 3(2), pp 221-243 Dussel, Enrique (2003) Beyond philosophy: Ethnics, history, Marxism, and liberation theology Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Eisenhardt, M (1988) On the subject of interpretive reviews Review of educational research, 68, pp 391-399 Eisenstadt, Shmuel N (2001) The civilizalizational dimension of modernity: Modernity as a distinct civilization International sociology, 16(3), pp 320-340 Ernest, Paul (2004) Postmodernism and the subject of mathematics In Margaret Walshaw (Ed.) Mathematics education within the postmodern Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing Escobar, Arturo (2007) Worlds and knowledges otherwise: The Latin American modernity/coloniality research paradigm Cultural studies, 21(2-3), pp 179-210 Evans, Ronald W (2004) The social studies wars: What should we teach the children? New York: Teachers College Press Fals-Borda, Orlando & Mora-Osejo, Luis (2003) Eurocentrism and its effects: A manifesto from Columbia Globalisation, societies & education, 1(1), pp 103107 Fanon, Franz (1963) The wretched of the earth New York: Grove Press Fanon, Franz 1967) Black skin, white masks New York: Grove Press Fasheh, Munir, (1991) Mathematics in a social context: Math within education as praxis versus math within education as hegemony In Mary Harris (Ed.), Schools, mathematics and work New York: Falmer Press Feldman, Shelly (2001) Intersecting and contesting positions: Postcolonialism, feminism, and world-systems theory Review, 23(3), pp 343-371 Ferro, Marc (1997) Colonization: A global history New York: Routledge Forte, Maximillan C (1998) Globalization and world-systems analysis: Toward new paradigms of a geo-historical social anthropology (a research review) Review, 21(1), pp 29-99 Foucault, Michel (1980) Lecture One In Michel Foucualt Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977 New York: Pantheon Books Frankenstein, Marilyn & Powell, Arthur B (1994) Toward liberatory mathematics: Paulo Freire’s epistemology and ethnomathematics In Peter L McLaren & Colin Lankshear (Eds.) Politics of liberation: Paths from Freire New York: Routledge Freire, Paulo (1985) The politics of education: Culture, power and liberation South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey Publishers Fuller, Steve (1997) Science Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press Fuller, Steve (2000) The governance of science: Ideology and the future of society Buckingham, UK: Open University Press Gabbard, David A (1998) Decolonizing society Peace review, 10(1), pp 107-113 Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1989) Truth and method New York: Crossroads Press Galilston, P & Stump, D (Eds.) (1996) The disunity of science: Boundaries, contexts, and power Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 88 Geyer, Michael & Bright, Charles (1995) World history in a global age American historical review, 100(4), pp Gill, Stephen (2003) Power and resistance in the new world order New York: Palgrave macmillan Ginsburg, Mark B (2002) Imperialism and education In David Levinson, Peter W Cookson & Alan R Sadovnik (Eds.), Education and sociology: An encyclopedia New York: Routledge Giroux, Henri (1983) Theory and resistance in education South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey Publishers Giroux, Henri (1998) The Business of Public Education Z Magazine, July/August Goldberg, David Theo (1993) Racist culture: Philosophy and the politics of meaning Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Goldberg, David Theo (1994) Introduction: Multicultural conditions In David Theo Goldberg (Ed.), Multiculturalism: A critical reader Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell Goldberg, David Theo (2002) The racial state Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Gong, Gerrit W (1984) The standard of “civilization” in international society Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press Goodson, Ivor (1987) School subjects and curriculum change: Studies in curriculum history – a revised & extended edition London, UK: Falmer Press Goodson, Ivor F (1994) Studying curriculum: Cases and methods New York: Teachers College Press Goodson, Ivor (1995) The making of curriculum: Collected essays (second edition) Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press Goodson, Ivor F (1997) The changing curriculum: Studies in social construction New York: Peter Lang Gorski, Philip S (2003) The disciplinary revolution: Calvinism and the rise of the state in early modern Europe Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press Gough, Noel (2007) All around the world science education, constructivism, and globalization In Bill Atweh, Angela Calabrese Barton, Marcelo C Borba, Noel Gough, Christine Keitel & Renuka Vithal (Eds.) Internationalisation and globalization in mathematics and science education Netherlands: Springer Grafton, Anthony & Jardine, Lisa (1986) From humanism to the humanities: Education and liberal arts in fifteenth and sixteenth-century Europe Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Greene, Jack P (2007) Colonial history and national history: Reflections on a continuing problem William and Mary quarterly, 44(2), pp 235-250 Grosfoguel, Ramon (2002) Colonial difference, geopolitics of knowledge, and global coloniality in the modern/colonial capitalist world-system Review, 25(3), pp 203-224 Grosfoguel, Ramon & Cervantes-Rodriquez, Ana Margarita (2002) Introduction Unthinking twentieth-century Eurocentric mythologies: Universalist knowledges, decolonization, and developmentalism In Ramon Grosfoguel & Ana Margarita Cervantes-Rodriquez (Eds.) The modern/colonial/capitalist world-system in the twentieth century: Global processes, antisystemic movements, and the geopolitics of knowledge Westport, CT: Praeger 89 Gutierrez, Rochelle (2000) Is the multiculturalization of mathematics doing us more harm than good? In Ram Mahalingam & Cameron McCarthy (Eds.), Multuicultural curriculum: New directions for social theory, practice, and policy New York: Routledge Habermas, Jurgen (1975) Legitimation crisis Boston, MA: Beacon Press Habermas, Jurgen (1990) The philosophical discourse of modernity: Twelve lectures Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Haggerson, N.L (1991) Philosophical inquiry: Amplitative approach In E.C Short (Ed.), Forms of curriculum inquiry (pp 43-60) Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Hamilton, David (1989) Towards a theory of schooling New York: Falmer Press Hamm, Bernd (2005) Cultural imperialism: The political economy of cultural domination In Bernd Hamm & Russell Smandych (Eds.), Cultural imperialism: Essays on the political economy of cultural domination, Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press Harding, Sandra (1993) Introduction: Eurocentric scientific illiteracy – a challenge for the world community, in Sandra Harding (Ed.), The ‘racial’ economy of science: Toward a democratic future Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press Harding, Sandra (1994) Is science multicultural? Challenges, resources, opportunities, uncertainties In David Theo Goldberg (Ed.), Multiculturalism: A critical reader Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell Harding, Sandra (1997) Is modern science an ethnoscience? Rethinking epistemological assumptions In Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze (Ed.), Postcolonial African philosophy: A critical reader Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers Harding, Sandra (1998) Multiculturalism, postcolonialism, feminism: Do they require new research epistemologies? Australian educational researcher, 25(1), 37-51 Harding, Sandra (2008) Sciences from below: Feminisms, postcolonialisms, and modernities Durham, NC: Duke University Press Heit, Helmut (2005) Western identity, barbarians, and the inheritance of Greek universalism The European legacy: Toward new paradigms 10(7), pp 725-739 Helle, Alro & Skovsmose, Ole (2002) Dialogue and learning in mathematics education: Intentions, reflection, critique Dordrecht: Kluwer Hess, David (1995) Science and technology in a multicultural world New York: Columbia University Press Heydon, Rachel M & Iannacci, Luigi (2008) Early childhood literacy and the depathologizing of childhood Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press Hind, Robert J (1984) The internal colonial concept Society for comparative study of society and history, 26(3), pp 543-568 Hindness, Barry (2005) Citizenship and empire In Thomas Blom Hansen & Finn stepputat (Eds.), Sovereign bodies: Citizens, migrants, and states in the postcolonial world Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Holmgren, D (2002) Permaculture: Principles and pathways beyond sustainability Tasmania, Australia: Holmgren Design Services Hopkins, Terrence K &Wallerstein, Immanuel (1967) World-systems analysis: Methodological issues In B.H Kaplan (Ed.), Social change in the capitalist world-economy, pp 199-217 London: Sage 90 Hopkins, Terrence K & Wallerstein, Immanuel (1977) Patterns of development of the mderon world-system, Review, 1(2), pp 111-145 Huggan, Graham (2001) The postcolonial exotic: Marketing the margins New York: Routledge Hunter, Ian (1996) Assembling the school In Andre Barry Thomas Osborne & Nikolas Rose (Eds.), Foucault and political reason: Liberalism, neo-liberalism and rationalities of government Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press Huntington, Samuel P (1996) The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order New York: Touchstone Hurd, Paul deHart (2002) Modernizing science education Journal of research in science teaching, 39(1), pp 3-9 Hursh, David (1997) Multicultural social studies: Schools as places for examining and challenging inequality In E Wayne Ross (Ed.), The social studies curriculum: Purposes, problems, and possibilities Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Hursh, David (2008) High-stakes testing and the decline of teaching and learning: The real crisis of education Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Illich, Ivan (1971) Deschooling society New York: Harper & Row Publishers Illich, Ivan & Verne, Etienne (1976) Imprisoned in the global classroom New York: Writers & Readers Publishing Cooperative Illich, Ivan (1978) Toward a history of needs Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books Jacob, M (1997) Scientific culture and the making of the industrial west New York: Oxford University Press Jacques, Martin (2009) The new depression New statesman February 12th, 2009 Joseph, George Gheverghese (1987) Foundations of Eurocentrism in mathematics Race & class, 28(3), pp 13-28 Joseph, George Gheverghese (1991) The crest of the peacock: Non-European roots of mathematics London, UK: I.B Tauris Joseph, George Gheverghese, Reddy, Vasu & Searle-Chatterjee, Mary (1990) Eurocentrism in social sciences Race & class, 31(4), pp 1-27 Kanu, Yatta (2006a) Introduction In Yatta Kanu (Ed.), Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations Toronto: University of Toronto Press Kanu, Yatta (2006b) Reappropriating traditions in the postcolonial curricular imagination In Yata Kanu (Ed) Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations Toronto: University of Toronto Press Karenga, Maulana (2003) Afrocentricity and multicultural education: Concept, challenge and contribution In Ama Mazama (Ed.) The Afrocentric paradigm Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press Kates, R.W et Al., (2001) Environment and development: sustainability science, Science, 292(5517), pp 642-643 Kelly, Gail P & Altbach, Philip G (1987) Introduction In Philip G Altbach & Gail P Kelly (Eds.) Education and colonialism New York: Longman Kincheloe, Joe L (Ed.)(1998) White reign: Deploying whiteness in America New York: St Martins Press Kincheloe, Joe L (2001) Getting beyond the facts: Teaching social studies/social sciences in the twenty-first century (second edition) New York: Peter Lang 91 Kincheloe, Joe L (2006) Critical ontology and indigenous ways of being: Forging a postcolonial curriculum In Yata Kanu (Ed) Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations Toronto: University of Toronto Press Kincheloe, Joe L (2008) Knowledge and critical pedagogy: An introduction Montreal: Springer Kirch, Susan A (2007) Re/production of science process skills and a scientific ethos in an early childhood classroom Cultural studies of science education, 2(4), pp 785-815 Klieberg, Herbert (1986) The struggle for the American curriculum 1893-1958 London: Routdege & Kegan Paul Knauft, Bruce (2002) Exchanging the past: A rainforest world of before and after Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press Koehl, Robert (1975) Cultural imperialism as education: An indictment Comparative education review, 9(2), pp 276-285 Kyle, W.C (2001) Towards a political philosophy of science education In A Calabrese Barton & M.D Osborne (Eds.), Teaching science in diverse settings: Marginalized discourses & classroom practices (pp xi-xvii) New York: Peter Lang Publishing Laclau, Ernesto (1992) Universalism, particularism and the question of identity October, 61, pp 83-90 Ladson-Billings, Gloria (1997) It doesn’t add up: African-American students’ mathematics achievement Journal for research in mathematics education, 28(6), pp 697-709 Ladon-Billings, Gloria (1998) From Soweto to the South Bronx: African Americans and colonial education in the United States In Carlos A Torres & Theodore R Mitchell (Eds.) Sociology of eduation: Emerging perspectives Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Ladson-Billings, Gloria & Tate, William F (1995) Toward a critical race theory of education Teachers college record, 97(1), pp 47-68 Lam, Wan Shun Eva (2006) Culture and learning in the context of globalization: Research directions Review of research in education, 30, pp 213-237 Lander, Edgardo (2000) Eurocentrism and colonialism in Latin American thought Nepantla: View from South, 1(3), pp 519-532 Lander, Edgardo (2002) Eurocentrism, modern knowledges, and the “natural” order of global capital Nepantla: Views from the South, 3(2), pp 245-268 Landes, David S (1999) The wealth and poverty of nations: Why some are so rich and some so poor New York: W.W Norton & Company Latouch, Serge (1996) The westernization of the world: The significance, scope and limits of the drive towards global uniformity Cambridge, MA: Polity Press Lee, Richard E (2000) The structures of knowledge and the future of the social sciences: Two postulates, two propositions, and a closing remark Journal of world-system research, 6(3), pp 786-796 Leersson, Joep (2006) Nationalist thought in Europe: A cultural history Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press Lefebvre, Henri (1991) The production of space Cambridge, MA: Blackwell 92 Lemke, J.L (2001) Articulating communities: Sociocultural perspectives on science education Journal of research in science teaching, 38(3), pp 296-316 Levine, Robert A (1978) Western schools in non-western societies: Psychosocial impact and cultural response Teachers college record, 79(4), pp Livingston, G (1999) Beyond watching over established ways: A review of recasting the literature, recasting the lived Review of educational research, 69, pp 9-19 Lowy, Richard F (1995) Eurocentrism, ethnic studies, and the new world order: Toward a critical paradigm Journal of black studies, 25(6), pp 712-736 Lyotard, Jean-Francois (1984) The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press MacGillivray, Laurie, Ardell, Amy Lassiter, Curwen, Margaret Sauceda & Palma, Jennifer (2004) Colonized teachers: Examining the implementation of a scripted reading program Teacher education, 15(2), pp 131-144 Macedo, Donaldo & Gounari, Panayota (Eds.) (2006) The globalization of racism, Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers Mahalingam, Ram (2000) Beyond Eurocentrism: Implications of social epistemology for mathematics education In Ram Mahalingam & Cameron McCarthy (Eds.), Multuicultural curriculum: New directions for social theory, practice, and policy New York: Routledge Maldonado-Torres, Nelson (2002) Postimperial reflections on crisis, knowledge, and utopia: Transgresstopic critical hermeneutics and the “death of European man.” Review, 25(3), pp 277-315 Maldonado-Torres, Nelson (2004) The topology of being and the geopolitics of knowledge: Modernity, empire, coloniality City, 8(1), pp 29-56 Maldonado-Torres, Nelson (2005) Decolonization and the new identitarian logics after September 11t: Eurocentrism and Americanism against the new barbarian threats Radical philosophy review, 8(1), pp 35-67 Maldonado-Torres, Nelson (2008) Against war: Views from the underside of modernity Durham, NC: Duke University Press Malpus, Simon (2006) Historicism In Simon Malpus & Paul Wake (Eds.) The Routledege companion to critical theory New York: Routledge Maturana, H R & Varela, F J (1987) The Tree on Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding New Science Library, Shambhala, London Matus, Claudia & McCarthy, Cameron (2003) The triumph of multiplicity and the carnival of difference: Curriculum dilemmas in the age of postcolonialism and globalization In William F Pinar (Ed.), International handbook of curriculum research Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mayo, P., Borg, C & Dei, G (2002) Editorial introduction: Postcolonialism, education and an international forum for debate Journal of postcolonial education, 1, pp 37) Mazlish, Bruce (2004) Civilization and its contents Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press McGovern, Seanna (1999) Education, modern development, and indigenous knowledge: An analysis of academic knowledge production New York: Garland Publishing Meacham, S.J (1998) Threads of a new language: A response to Eisenhart’s ‘On the subject of interpretive reviews.’ Review of educational research, 68, pp 401-407 93 Montuori, Alfonso (2005) Literature review as creative inquiry: Reframing scholarship as a creative process Journal of transformative education, 3(4), pp 374-393 Morana, Mabel, Dussel, Enrique & Jauregui, Carlos A (2008) Colonialism and its replicants In Mabel Morana, Enrique Dussel & Carlos A Jaurequi (Eds.), Coloniality at large: Latin America and the postcolonial debate Durham, NC: Duke University Press McCarthy, C., Giardina, M.D., Harewood, S.J & Park, J.-K (2003) Contesting culture: Identity and curriculum dilemmas in an age of globalization, postcolonialism, multiplicity Harvard educational review, 73, pp 449-460 McDonald, Kara (2006) Learning whose nation? In Yata Kanu (Ed) Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations Toronto: University of Toronto Press McGee, Patrick (1993) Decolonization and the curriculum of English In Cameron McCarthy & Warren Crichlow (eds.), Race, identity and representation in education New York: Routledge McKinley, Elizabeth (2001) Cultural diversity: Masking power with innocence Science education, 85, pp 74-76 Memmi, A (1965) The colonizer and the colonized Boston, MA: Beacon Press Merryfield, Merry M (1997) Infusing global perspectives into the social studies curriculum In E Wayne Ross (Ed.), The social studies curriculum: Purposes, problems, and possibilities Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Merryfield, Merry M (2001) Moving the center of global education: From imperial world views that divide the world to double consciousness, contrapuntal pedagogy, hybridity, and cross-cultural competence In W.B Stanley (Ed.), Critical issues in social studies research for the 21st century (pp 179-207) Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing Merryfield, Merry M & Wilson, Angene (2005) Social studies and the world: Teaching global perspectives Silver Spring, MD: National Council for the Social Studies Meyer, John W., Kamens, David H & Benavot, Aaron (1992) School knowledge for the masses: World models and national primary curricular categories in the twentieth century Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press Montuori, Alfonso (2005) Literature review as creative inquiry: Reframing scholarship as a creative process Journal of transformative education, 3(4), pp 374-393 Mignolo, Walter D (1997) Gnosis, colonialism, and cultures of scholarship In S.C Humphreys (Ed.), Cultures of scholarship Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press Mignolo, Walter D (1999a) I am where I think: Epistemology and the colonial difference Journal of Latin American cultural studies, 8(2), pp 235-245 Mignolo, Walter D (1999b) Stock to watch: Colonial difference, planetary ‘multiculturalism’, and radical planning Plurimundi: An international forum for research and debate on human settlements, ½, pp 7-33 Mignolo, Walter D (2000a) Local histories/global designs: Coloniality, subaltern knowledges, and border thinking Princeton, NJ: Princeton Unviversity Press Mignolo, Walter D (2000b) Many faces of cosmo-polis: Border thinking and critical cosmopolitanism Public culture, 12(3), pp 721-748 94 Mignolo, Walter D (2001) Coloniality at large: The Western Hemisphere in the Colonial Horizon of Modernity CR: The New Centennial Review, 1(2) pp 19-54 Mignolo, Walter D (2002a) Rethinking the colonial model In Linda Hutcheon & Mario J Valdes (Eds.), Rethinking literary history: A dialogue on theory New York: Oxford University Press Mignolo, Walter D (2002b) The enduring enchantment: (Or the privilege of modernity and where to go from here) South Atlantic Quarterly, 101(4) pp 927-954 Mignolo, Walter D (2002c) Geopolitics of knowledge and the colonial difference The South Atlantic quarterly, 101(1), pp 57-96 Mignolo, Walter D (2003a) Markers of race: Knowledge and the differential/colonial accumulation of meaning Neohelicon, Acta comparationis litterarum universarum, 30(1), pp 89-102 Mignolo, Walter D (2003b) Philosophy and the colonial difference In Eduardo Mendieta (Ed.), Latin American philosophy: Currents, issues, debates Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press Mignolo, Walter D (2003c) Globalization and the geopolitics of knowledge: The role of the humanities in the corporate university Nepantla, 4(1), pp 97-119 Mignolo, Walter D (2006) Citizenship, knowledge, and the limits of humanity American literary history, 18(2), pp 312-331 Mignolo, Walter D (2007) De-linking: The rhetoric of modernity, the logic of coloniality and the grammar of de-coloniality Cultural studies, 21(2/3), pp 449-514 Mignolo, Walter D (2008) De-linking epistemology from capital and pluri-versality: A conversation with Walter Mignolo (Parts & 2) Reartikulacija, & web journal http://www.reartikulacija.org/ Murray, F & Raths, J (1994) Call for manuscripts Review of educational research, 64, pp 197-200 Neyland, Jim (2007) Globaliation, ethics and mathematics education In Bill Atweh, et al., (Eds.), Internationalisation and globalization of mathematics and science education Springer Ngugi, Wa Thiong’o (1993) Moving the center: The struggle for cultural freedoms Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Oakes, Jeannie (1985) Keeping track: How schools structure inequality New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Oliver, Donald W (1989) Education, modernity, and fractured meaning: Toward a process theory of teaching and learning Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Omi, Michael & Winant, Howard (1989) Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s New York: Routledge Orfield, Gary (Ed.) (2004) Dropouts in America: Confronting the graduation rate crisis Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press O’Sullivan, Edmund (2001) Transformative learning: Educational vision for the 21st century New York: Zed Books Osborne, Michael A (1999) Introduction: The social history of science, technoscience and imperialism Science, technology & society, 4(2), pp 161-170 Osterhammel, Jurgen (1997) Colonialism: A theoretical overview Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers 95 Patterson, Thomas C (1997) Inventing western civilization New York: Monthly Review Press Paty, Michael (1999) Comparative history of modern science and the context of dependency Science, technology & society, 4(2), pp 171-203 Pels, Peter (1997) The anthropology of colonialism: Culture, history, and the emergence of western governmentality Annual review of anthropology, 26, pp 163-183 Pep Pepper, Margot (2006) No corporation left behind: How a century of illegitimate testing has been used to justify internal colonialism Monthly review, 58(6), pp 38-47 Peters, Michael A (Ed.) (2002) Heidegger, education, and modernity New York: Rowman & Littlefield Pieterse, Jan Nederveen & Parekh, Bikhu (1995) The decolonization of imagination: Culture, knowledge and power New York: Zed Books Pinar, William F., Reynolds, William M., Slattery, Patrick & Taubman, Peter M (1996) Understanding curriculum: An introduction to the study of historical and contemporary curriculum discourses New York: Peter Lange Pinar, William F (2004) What is curriculum theory? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers Pinxten, Rik (2016) Multimathemacy: Anthropology and mathematics education Switzerland: Springer International Publishing Popkewitz, Thomas S (1987) The formation of school subjects and the political context of schooling In Thomas S Popkewitz (Ed.) The formation of school subjects: The struggle for creating an American institution New York: The Falmer Press Popkewtiz, Thomas (1997) The production of reason and power: Curriculum history and intellectual traditions Journal of curriculum studies, 29(2), pp 131-164 Popkewitz, Thomas S (2000) Reform as the social administration of the child: Globalization of knowledge and power In Nicholas C Burbules & Carlos Alberto Torres (Eds.), Globalization and education: Critical perspectives New York: Routledge Popkewitz, Thomas S (2007) Alchemies and governing: Or, questions about the questions we ask Educational philosophy and theory, 39(1), pp 65-83 Popkewtiz, Thomas K (2008) Cosmopolitanism in the age of school reform: Science, education, and making society by making the child New York: Routledge Povey, Hilary (1996) Constructing a liberatory discourse for mathematics classrooms Mathematics education review, 8, pp 41-54 Povey, Hilary (2001) Promoting social justice in and through the mathematics curriculum: Exploring the connections with epistemologies of mathematics Mathematics education research journal, 14(3), pp 190-201 Powell, Arthur B & Frankenstein, Marilyn (Eds.) (1997) Ethnomathematics: Challenging Eurocentrism in mathematics education Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Prakash, Gyan (1994) Subaltern studies as postcolonial criticism The American historical review, 99(5), pp 1475-1490 Pratt, Mary Louise (2002) Modernity and periphery: Toward a global and relational analysis In Elixabeth Mudimbe-Boyi (Ed.), Beyond dichotomies: Histories, identities, cultures, and the challenge of globalization Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 96 Prazniak, Roxann (2000) Is world history possible? An Inquiry In Arif Dirlik, Vinay Bahl & Peter Gran (Eds.) History after the three worlds: Post-Eurocentric historiographies Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Proctor, R (1991) Value-free science? Purity and power in modern knowledge Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Pyenson, Lewis (1993) The ideology of western rationality: History of science and the European civilizing mission Science & education, 2, pp 329-343 Quijano, Anibal & Wallerstein, Immanuel (1992) Americanity as a concept, or the Americas in the modern world system International social science journal, 134, pp 449-557 Quijano, Anibal (1999) Coloniality and modernity/rationality In Goran Therborn (Ed.), Globalizations and modernities: Experiences and perspectives of Europe and Latin America Stockholm: Forskningsradsnamnden Quijano, Anibal (2000) Coloniality of power, knowledge, and Latin America Neplanta: Views from South, 1(3), pp 533- 580 Quijano, Anibal (2005) The challenge of the “indigenous movement” in Latin America Socialism and democracy, 19(3), pp 55-81 Quijano, Anibal (2007) Coloniality and modernity/rationality Cultural studies, 21(2-3) pp 168-178 Quijano, Anibal (2008) Coloniality of power, Eurocentrism, and social classification In Mabel Morana, Enrique Dussel & Carlos A Jaurequi (Eds.), Coloniality at large: Latin America and the postcolonial debate Durham, NC: Duke University Press Raskin, Marcus G (1971) Being and doing New York: Random House Ravitch, Diane (2005) Political correctness hits the math classroom Hoover digest: Research and opinion on public policy, Hoover institution, Vol 3, July 30, available at: https://www.hoover.org/research/ethnomathematics Restivo, Sal & Loughlin, Julia (2000) The invention of science Cultural dynamics, 12(2), pp 135-149 Reyhner, Jon & Eder, Jeanne (2004) American Indian education: A history Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press Rizvi, Fazal, Lingard, Bob & Lavia, Jennifer (2006) Postcolonialism and education: Negotiating a contested terrain Pedgagogy, culture & society, 14(3), pp 249-262 Rojas, Cristina (2002) Civilization and violence: Regimes of representation in nineteenth-century Coloumbia Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press Rorty, Richard (1989) Contingency, irony, and solidarity New York: Cambridge University Press Rorty, Richard (1979) Philosophy and the mirror of nature Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Rowlands, Stuart & Carons, Robert (2002) Where would formal, academic mathematics stand in a curriculum informed by ethnomathematics: A critical review of ethnomathematics Educational studies in mathematics, 50(1), pp, 79-102 Santora, Marc (2009) CUNY plans new approach to community college New York Times, Jan 26th, Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (1999) On oppositional postmodernity In Ronaldo Munck & Denis O’Hearn (Eds.), Critical development theory: Contributions to a new paradigm New York: Zed Books 97 Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (2006) The rise of the global left: The world social forum and beyond New York: Zed Books Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (Ed.) (2007a) Another knowledge is possible: Beyond northern epistemologies New York: Verso Books Santos, Boaventura de Sousa, Nunnes, Joao Arriscado & Meneses, Maria Paula (2007b) Introduction: Opening up the canon of knowledge and recognition of difference In Boaventura de Sousa Santos (Ed.), Another knowledge is possible: Beyond northern epistemologies New York: Verso Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (2007c) From an epistemology of blindness to an epistemology of seeing In Boaventura de Sousa Santos (Ed.) Cognitive justice in a global world: Prudent knowledge for a decent life UK: Lexington Books Santos, Boaventura de Sousa (2007d) Beyond abyssal thinking: From global lines to ecologies of knowledges Review, 30(10), pp 143-166 Sardar, Ziauddin (1999) Development and the locations of Eurocentrism In Ronaldo Munck & Denis O’Hearn (Eds.), Critical development theory: Contributions to a new paradigm New York: Zed Books Scantlebury, Kathyrn, McKinely, Elizabeth & Jesson, Joce (2002) Imperial knowledge: Science, education and equity In Berta Esperanza & Hernandez-Truyol (Eds.), Moral imperialism: A critical anthology New York: New York University Press Schiebinger, L (1993) Nature’s Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science Boston, MA: Beacon Press Schott, Thomas (2001) Global webs of knowledge: Education, science, and technology The American behavioral scientist, 44(10), pp 1740-1751 Schwandt, T.A (1998) The interpretive review of educational matters: Is there any other kind? Review of educational research, 68, pp 409-412 Schwarzmantel, John (1988) The age of ideology: Political ideologies from the American revolution to postmodern times New York: New York University Press Scott, David (1999) Refashioning futures: Criticism as postcoloniality Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Semali, Ladislaus M & Kincheloe, Joe L (Eds.) (1999) What is indigenous knowledge: Voices from the academy Seth, Sanjay (2000) A Postcolonial world? In Greg Fry & Jacinta O’Hagan (Eds.), Contending images of world politics London, UK: St Martins Press Shields, Carolyn M., Bishop, Russell & Mazawi, Andre Elias (2005) Pathologizing practices: The impact of deficit thinking on education New York: Peter Lang Siegel, H (2002) Multiculturalism, universalism, and science education: In search of common ground Science education, 85, pp 803-820 Stasiulius, Daiva & Yuval-Davis, Nira (Eds.) (1995) Unsettling settler societies: Articulations of gender, race, ethnicity and class Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Steger, Manfred B (2002) Globalism: The new market ideology Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Steger, Manfred B (Ed.) (2004) Rethinking globalisim Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield 98 Stinson, David W (2006) African American male adolescents, schooling (and mathematics): Deficiency, rejection, and achievement Review of educational research, 76(4), pp 477-506 Strutchens, M.E., Lubienski, S.T., McGraw, R & Westbrook, S.K (2004) NAPE findings regarding race and ethnicity: Students’ performance, school experiences, and attitudes and beliefs, and family influences In P Kloosterman & F.K Lester (Eds.), Results and interpretations of the 1990 and through 2000 mathematics assessment of the national assessment of educational progress (pp 269-304) Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Skovsmove, Ole (2004) Critical mathematics education for the future Skovsmove, Ole & Valero, Paola (2001) Breaking political neutrality: The critical engagement of mathematics education with democracy In Bill Atweh, Helen Forgasz & Ben Nebres (Eds.), Sociocultual research on mathematics education: An international perspective Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Slater, Don & Tonkiss, Fran (2001) Market society: Markets and modern social theory Cambridge, UK: Polity Press Slattery, Patrick (2003) Hermeneutics, Subjectivity, and Aesthetics: Internationalizing the Interpretive Process in U.S Curriculum Research In William F Pinar (Ed.), International handbook of curriculum research Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Snively, G & Corsiglia, J (2001) Discovering indigenous science: Implications for science education Science education, 85, pp 6-32 Stanley, W.B & Brickhouse, N.W (2001) Teaching sciences: The multicultural question revisited Science education, 85, pp 35-49 Swartz, Ellen (1992) Emancipatory narratives: Rewriting the master script in the school curriculum Journal of Negro education, 61(3), pp 341-355 Swazo, Norman K (2002) Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Tate, William F (1997) Critical race theory and education: History, theory and implications Review of research in education, 22, pp 195-247 Taylor, Peter J (1999) Modernities: A geohistorical interpretation Minneapolis, MI: University of Minnesota Press Taylor, Peter J & Flint, Colin (2000) Political geography: World-economy, nation-state, and locality (fourth edition) New York: Pearson Prentice-Hall Tikly, Leon (1999) Postcolonialism and comparative education International review of education, 45(5/6), pp 603-621 Tikly, Leon (2004) Education and the new imperialism Comparative education, 40(2) 173-198 Tully, James (2007) The imperialism of modern constitutional democracy In Martin Loughlin & Neil Walker (Eds.) Paradox of constitutionalism: Constituent power and constitutional form Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press Turnbull, D (2000) Masons, Tricksters and Cartographers, Harwood Academic Publishers, London Twine, France Winddance & Gallagher, Charles (2008) Introduction The future of whiteness: A map of the ‘third wave’ Ethnic and racial studies, 31(1), pp 4-24 Venn, Couze (2000) Occidentalism: Modernity and subjectivity London: Sage 99 Venn, Couze (2002) Altered states: Post-enlightenment cosmopolitanism and transmodern socialities Theory, culture & society, 19(1/2), pp 65-80 Venn, Couze (2006) The postcolonial challenge: Towards alternative worlds Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Villegas, Malia, Neugebauer, Sabina Rak & Venegas, Kerry R (Eds.) (2008) Indigenous knowledge and education: Sites of struggle, strength, and survivance Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review Vithal, Renuku & Skovsmose, Ole (1997) The end of innocence: A critique of ‘Ethnomathematics’ Educational studies in mathematics, 34(2), pp 131-157 Vlahakis, George N., Malaquias, Isabel Maria, Brooks, Nathan M., Regourd, Francois, Gunergun, Feza & Wright, David (Eds.) (2006) Imperialism and science: Social impact and interaction Denver, CO: ABC-CLIO Volmink, J (1994) Mathematics by all In S Lerman (Ed.) Cultural perspectives on mathematics classrooms Dordrecht: Kluwer Walshaw, Margaret (2004) Introduction: Postmodernism meets Mathematics education In Margaret Walshaw (Ed.) Mathematics education within the postmodern Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974) The modern world-system New York: Academic Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (1980) Imperialism In Albert Bergesen (Ed.), Studies in the modern world-system New York: Academic Press Inc Wallerstein, Immanuel (1991a) Geopolitics and geoculture: Essays on the changing world-system Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (1991b) Call for a debate about paradigm In Immanuel Wallerstein, Unthinking social science: The limits of nineteenth century paradigms, pp 244-256 Cambridge: Polity Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (1995a) After liberalism New York: Free Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (1995b) The end of what modernity? Theory and society, 24, pp 471-488 Wallerstein, Immanuel et al (1996) Open the social sciences: Report of the Gulbenkian commission of the restructuring of the social sciences Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (1997) Eurocentrism and its avatars: The dilemmas of social science New Left Review, 226, pp 93-160 Wallerstein, Immanuel (1998) Utopistics, or, historical choices for the twenty-first century New York: The New Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (1999) The heritage of sociology, the promise of social science, Current sociology, 107(1), pp 1-37 Wallerstein, Immanuel (2003) The decline of American power New York: W.W Norton & Company Wallerstein, Immanuel (2004) The uncertainties of knowledge Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press Wallerstein, Immanuel (2006) European universalism: The rhetoric of power New York: The New Press Wallersetin, Immanuel (2008) Remembering Andre Gunder Frank while thinking about the future Monthly review, 60(2), pp 50-61 100 Warnick, Byron R & Stemhagen, Kurt (2007) Mathematics teachers as moral educators: The Implications of conceiving of mathematics as a technology Journal of curriculum studies, 39(3), pp 303-316 Wexler, Philip (1987) Social analysis of education: After the new sociology Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul Willinsky, John (1998) Learning to divide the world: Education at empire’s end Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press Willinsky, John (2006) High school postcolonial: As the students ran ahead with the theory In Yata Kanu (Ed) Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations Toronto: University of Toronto Press Winant, Howard (2001) The world is a ghetto: Race and democracy since World War II New York: Basic Books Winant, Howard (2006) Race and racism: Towards a global future Ethnic and racial studies, 29(5), pp 986-1003 Yosso, Tara J., Parker, Laurence, Soloranzo, Daniel L & Lynn, Marvin (2004) From Jim Crow to affirmative action and back again: A critical race discussion of racialized rationales and access to higher education Review of research in education, 28, pp 1-25 Young, Michael F.D (Ed.) (1971) Knowledge and control: New directions for the sociology of educationl London: Collier-Macmillan Young, Robert J.C (2001) Postcolonialism: An historical introduction Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers 101 ... curriculum Ethnomathematics thus began from a growing awareness among mathematicians of the social, cultural, political, and historical aspects of mathematics and math education Although for a long time... social justice and cultural relevance rationales behind particular teaching practices associated with “ethnomathematics,” conservative educational historian Diane Ravitch reasserts the familiar assumptions... The fact that European colonialism always operated both internally and externally, and, that there was ongoing reciprocal borrowing of educational policies and practices between metropolitan and