Introduction: Evaluating the Local Process of Decentralization and Reporting Views from the Grassroots
and Reporting Views from the Grassroots
Over the past decade, the movement to decentralize school management has gained traction globally, influenced by Western policy trends Leaders and international agencies are increasingly convinced that enhancing school choice and granting autonomy from public bureaucracy can yield significant benefits This belief has intensified as many have grown frustrated with perceived inefficiencies and costs associated with central government oversight Consequently, there is a growing acceptance of market principles, advocating for greater accountability of public institutions to fulfill their commitments.
This article examines Nicaragua's efforts to decentralize local school management, a significant policy reform initiated in 1993 by Violetta Chamorro's center-right party The initiative for "democratic education" (educación democrática) presents a noteworthy case from the developing world, contrasting with the centralized policies of the leftist Sandinista government While the Sandinista approach maintained a top-down administrative structure reminiscent of the Somoza education ministry, it differed fundamentally in educational objectives and content.
The recent trend in the West to shift school management away from state or local bureaucracies began in Britain and the United States, where central government authority is already limited compared to local districts This movement, rooted in Reagan-Thatcher era reforms emphasizing school-based management, has been adopted by development banks and governments in developing countries eager to streamline bureaucracies and enhance school effectiveness In Latin America, however, control over funding, curricula, and personnel has historically been centralized, reflecting both a legacy of colonial administration and ongoing efforts to equalize educational resources between affluent and disadvantaged communities.
Nicaragua's school reform emphasizes decentralizing management and budget decisions to local school councils, aiming to enhance accountability and resource allocation for improved student achievement The policy suggests that involving parents, teachers, and school directors in decision-making will lead to more rational use of resources Unlike other educational models that promote school choice through vouchers or charter schools, this decentralization initiative does not focus on increasing parental options among different schools, particularly in Managua and secondary towns.
Nicaragua's "theory of action" promotes autonomous schools (centros autónomos) as self-governing entities that enhance parental involvement and community resource allocation through tuition fees and volunteer labor School councils possess extensive legal authority, including the ability to hire and fire staff, adjust teacher salaries, set and collect fees, choose textbooks, and evaluate teachers In theory, these councils can allocate resources flexibly across various educational inputs, training programs, and curricular areas as needed.
In late 1995, a collaborative research team from the Nicaraguan Ministry and North American researchers initiated a formative evaluation to understand how school-level stakeholders perceive and react to the government's decentralization initiative The primary objective is to gather insights from local actors, such as parents, teachers, school directors, and regional Ministry staff, rather than to evaluate the overall effectiveness of the reform across Nicaragua This study aims to analyze how this significant structural change impacts these grassroots actors within their schools Concurrently, the government and the World Bank are conducting a quantitative study to assess the implementation of the initiative through school surveys and student achievement metrics.
This study utilizes qualitative interview data to explore how local school actors from 12 different schools perceive and define autonomy (autonomia) We identify patterns that reveal the conditions within various communities that may hinder the implementation of reforms, as well as aspects of the reform that are poorly understood or challenging to execute Additionally, we emphasize the differing interpretations of organizational changes among various stakeholders, such as school directors and parents, highlighting their contrasting views on decentralization Ultimately, our goal is to shed light on how key actors, each with unique histories and organizational dynamics, construct their understanding of school autonomy.
"decentralization," connotations that may resemble or depart from conceptions of the reform held by policy makers and ministry officials in Managua
The qualitative data presented are inadequate for assessing the effectiveness of a nascent complex reform Instead, we focus on how various school-level stakeholders interpret the concept of school autonomy, highlighting specific aspects of the reform that appear beneficial or challenging as local actors work to enhance their schools.
This report is one of several outcomes from the Ministry's evaluation project and is co-authored by two U.S.-based scholars Below, we outline the roles of the entire research team involved in this initiative.
In Section II, we outline the primary objectives of Nicaraguan policymakers in delegating political and fiscal authority to local school councils, highlighting a model designed to transform the actions of school actors and the social norms and economic incentives that drive their motivations This model serves as a framework for evaluating the actual organizational changes from the perspective of school-level actors, which we introduce in Section III Existing theories and empirical evidence from other contexts reveal institutional factors that may hinder the implementation of this idealized decentralization model We briefly discuss these theoretical perspectives, as they provide insight into the successes and challenges faced by school actors in Nicaragua as they strive for independence from central authority and regulation.
In Sections IV, V, and VI, we analyze data gathered from 12 sampled schools, emphasizing insights from parents, teachers, and school directors This study also incorporates perspectives from the local delegación (the Ministry’s regional education office) and the consejo directivo, which contributed through a focus group discussion The findings are organized around three key sets of questions that capture the views of these pivotal school stakeholders.
The variability in school contexts significantly influences the implementation of school autonomy, shaping how authority and political power are perceived within local educational settings Decentralization is redefining traditional sources of authority and influence, prompting a reevaluation of governance structures in schools Understanding these dynamics is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of school autonomy initiatives in diverse educational environments.
• The contrasting meanings of “autonomia.” How does the interpreted meaning and key elements of autonomia del centro (school autonomy) vary among parents, teachers, and school directors?
Organizational changes within schools significantly impact their structure and financing when granted autonomy This transformation is evident in four key areas: increased parent participation enhances community engagement, while shifts in management and leadership promote more effective decision-making Additionally, alterations in spending patterns and parental fees influence resource allocation, and the approach to classroom pedagogy adapts to foster innovative teaching methods.
The interplay between school autonomy and various factors is complex and multifaceted Perceptions of autonomy among school stakeholders can differ significantly, particularly in schools that lack a cohesive mission before decentralization begins Additionally, the internal conditions of schools, including their material resources and historical dynamics, vary widely and influence how changes in micro-politics unfold For instance, when authority shifts to a new consejo in a previously divided school, the outcomes may be detrimental Instead of simply questioning the success of the school autonomy experiment, it is more insightful to explore which aspects of decentralization are effective under specific school conditions Furthermore, evaluators often use different criteria to assess the success of organizational innovations, raising questions about what constitutes a successful outcome Is decentralization deemed successful if authority is transferred to local consejos and directors, or must it also result in improved student achievement? If parent involvement increases without a corresponding rise in student performance, can we still consider the reform a success? Understanding the experiences of schools that struggle with decentralization, despite unchanged student performance, may provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of such reforms.
In Section VIII, we analyze and draw preliminary conclusions from our findings, highlighting the impact of the school's context and local history on the implementation of the government's decentralization initiative The specific meaning of this policy reform is influenced by unique school situations, making it challenging to assess its overall effectiveness Our process evaluation aims to identify which aspects of the autonomia initiative are successful and where enduring challenges may arise due to contextual factors We are gaining insights into how a school's environment can hinder successful implementation and which organizational features can support the goals of decentralization.
How Do We Determine If Schools Are Decentralizing Successfully?
Evaluation Method: Sampling for Variability among Schools, Communities and Actors
Sampling for Variability among Schools, Communities, and Actors
The process evaluation involved 18 primary and secondary schools, aiming to explore decentralization in diverse local conditions This sample size allowed for a comprehensive examination of each school while highlighting significant variability Unlike quantitative research, qualitative studies do not seek representative samples; instead, they focus on in-depth analysis of a limited number of cases to uncover local dynamics and the perspectives of individuals within their specific contexts Our primary goal is to present the insights and experiences of local actors, providing a structured understanding of their perceptions regarding ongoing actions in their schools.
To ensure variability among schools and their community settings, we sampled 8 primary and 10 secondary schools, noting that several secondary schools had joined the decentralization program before primary schools We selected three pairs of secondary schools that participated in the program in 1993, 1994, and 1995, respectively, and included "control schools" to evaluate differences in management and organizational dynamics among those not involved in decentralization Utilizing 1995 survey data, we assessed activity and participation levels to highlight variability among autonomous schools, demonstrating the benefits of conducting qualitative and quantitative research concurrently Additionally, we chose 3 rural primary schools within Núcleos Educativos Rurales Autónomos (NER) and 3 urban primary schools for comparison Our research involved spending 2-3 days in each school in 1996, conducting interviews, focus groups, and informal observations.
Our research team has successfully conducted interviews and analyzed data from 12 of the 18 sampled schools, with the remaining six schools to be featured in the Ministry’s upcoming report on the process evaluation This paper specifically examines these 12 schools, as detailed in Table 1, which presents fundamental data derived from the quantitative research conducted by the Ministry and the World Bank The survey encompasses directors, teachers, and numerous parents from a wide range of primary and secondary schools, highlighting the diversity of educational institutions across Nicaragua.
To maintain the anonymity of each institution, we have designated a unique identifying code for schools, indicating their type and governance status For example, PA1 refers to an autonomous primary school, while SC2 denotes a secondary control school that has not received decentralization.
Table 1 Twelve Schools Included in the Process Evaluation
Schools play a crucial role in primary education, catering specifically to primary-age students The pupil-to-teacher ratio is calculated by combining both primary and secondary enrollment figures and dividing them by the total number of teachers in the institution.
Many primary schools typically have moderate enrollments of under 400 students; however, PC2 stood out with 1,619 students during a 1996 visit The distribution of teacher positions varies significantly among schools, with PA3 having less than 20 students per teacher, while PC2 has more than 46 pupils for each teacher.
Secondary schools exhibit significant size and staffing diversity, with enrollments ranging from 710 students in SA5 to 1,720 in SA1 The distribution of teaching posts is notably uneven; for instance, SC2 has a student-to-teacher ratio of nearly 21:1, while SA5's ratio exceeds 54:1 Additionally, the director of SA4 has six years of teacher preparation and university training, contrasting with the SC2 director, who only holds a secondary school diploma Furthermore, community surveys indicate that parental education levels generally do not extend beyond primary school.
Our evaluation design examined the perspectives of three key groups—parents, teachers, and school directors—on the decentralization process within their schools We aimed to understand the functioning of the consejo and its role in promoting school autonomy Additionally, we interviewed a local education office staff member, such as a delegado or técnico, to gain further insights To explore the internal dynamics of the consejo, we conducted a 60-90 minute interview with the entire council To ensure diverse viewpoints, we held separate focus group sessions with 3-5 parents and teachers from each school, typically lasting around 90 minutes This paper emphasizes the individual interviews with directors and the focus group discussions with parents and teachers.
We developed a series of guided interview questions for individual interviews and focus group sessions, ensuring confidentiality for all participants To maintain integrity, we refrained from sharing information between sessions and avoided mixing different groups, focusing on comparing the perspectives of parents, teachers, and school directors The interview protocol began with warm-up questions to foster rapport and openness, with all interviews conducted by native Nicaraguans We initiated discussions by exploring the strengths of the school, independent of their involvement in decentralization, and inquired about the sources of leadership within the school or community Notably, the concept of leadership presented challenges in schools with perceived weak leadership, where both teachers and parents viewed leadership as a collective effort rather than an individual role.
We then moved into a set of questions that asked about what "descentralización" or
"autonomia" meant to them, that is, what does this push by the Ministry connote in their minds?
We investigated the impact of "autonomous management" on schools, assessing both positive and negative changes Interviewers were provided with five key changes associated with the program, including empowering the new consejo, increasing teacher participation in decision-making, enhancing parental involvement, raising fees charged to parents, and improving staff development opportunities Our approach aimed to encourage genuine feedback without leading the respondents, focusing on their observations and interpretations of changes related to the decentralization process.
Research staff underwent extensive training to utilize flexible protocols for conducting individual interviews and focus groups This week-long training, held at the Ministry, included simulated interviews that were videotaped and reviewed, alongside pilot interviews in actual schools, which led to necessary adjustments in the protocols All team members received instruction in qualitative methods, with two having prior experience in similar studies or advanced training in research methodology Fieldwork commenced in spring 1996, during which 82 audio-recorded interviews were conducted and transcribed across 18 sampled schools Although some local delegates were unavailable for interviews or parent focus groups could not be organized, the completed transcripts typically ranged from 16 to 20 pages in length.
Process evaluations necessitate the meticulous gathering of qualitative data from local stakeholders engaged in reform efforts This labor-intensive process involves organizing and conducting individual interviews, focus groups, and informal conversations, as well as immersing oneself in local environments to observe interactions and dynamics.
Understanding the "natural life" of an organization requires essential technical knowledge, particularly in qualitative research methods for effective information collection and analysis It's vital for the research team to incorporate members with local expertise who can grasp the perspectives of local stakeholders and their interpretations of the situation This task becomes more challenging when evaluating controversial and politically charged reforms Therefore, it's important to strive for an unbiased understanding of teachers' and parents' viewpoints on the dynamics at play, free from external interpretations.
Our research team, comprising a diverse group of researchers and policy analysts, is focused on understanding how local school actors, parents, and education officials interpret the decentralization movement This process evaluation, initiated by Patricia Callejas from the Ministry of Education and supported by Elizabeth King and Laura Rawlings from the World Bank, involved collaboration with Bruce Fuller and Magdalena Rivarola to develop the evaluation design Their efforts included formulating initial interview questions, creating a representative sample of schools from various local contexts, establishing a coding method for interview and focus group data, and analyzing the extensive transcriptions generated in Nicaragua.
This paper presents an initial analysis of our extensive qualitative data, contributing to the Ministry's evaluation efforts It reflects two years of collaboration with colleagues in Managua and Washington, with Liliam López and Nora Gordon providing essential guidance The Ministry's evaluation staff, led by Patricia Callejas, supported the overall design, refined interview protocols, and managed data collection across 18 schools over six months in 1996 The challenging yet insightful work was coordinated by Ms López, with significant contributions from Adolfo.
Analysis One: School Context, Authority and Micro-Politics
Before the Chamorro Government's decentralization efforts, schools in Nicaragua had already developed unique identities and reputations within their communities The educational landscape includes a spectrum of institutions, from large, high-quality secondary schools to small rural primary schools with minimal staffing Our analysis highlights these contextual differences, considering both the recent history of the schools and their surrounding communities It is within these diverse environments that autonomous school management seeks to establish itself, with a particular emphasis on the dynamics of authority and power as crucial components of the school context.
Table 2 outlines the contextual features and authority dynamics of 12 schools, showcasing key evidence from various school stakeholders The subsequent narrative offers an in-depth exploration of specific schools, highlighting how autonomy influences the exercise of authority, resulting in either positive or negative shifts related to change initiatives or the maintenance of existing practices.
In examining two contrasting secondary schools, SA5 stands out as a case with potential for "autonomous management." Established in 1995, this small municipality school had an enrollment of only 710 students during our 1996 visit The average education level of participating parents was just over five years, highlighting socio-economic challenges Staffing issues were evident, with nearly 55 students per teacher, resulting in a significantly lower staffing ratio compared to other secondary schools Additionally, the staff's experience was limited, averaging less than seven years, although the director possessed four years of teacher preparation and university training.
During our school visit, the phrase "calidad de educación" (the quality of education) emerged as a shared commitment among teachers and staff to enhance the school's already strong reputation The director emphasized the institution's historical effectiveness and solid administrative system, stating, "Before autonomy, we already had a strong administrative system We like to do things well." This sentiment was echoed by a teacher focus group, which highlighted the cohesive and motivated nature of the staff Notably, the school has operated largely independently of the central Ministry long before decentralization took place.
For seven years, the institution has maintained a strong reputation for student discipline and respect towards teachers and parents Another educator notes that while autonomy is a recent development, the school has consistently pursued its own goals and perspectives, successfully achieving them even prior to gaining autonomy.
The director describes a "collegiate system" that fosters social relations among school staff, highlighting teachers' professional commitment and a semi-democratic organizational structure This approach has cultivated a robust sense of membership and identity within the school, embraced by both teachers and students Students wear a standard uniform adorned with a vibrant ribbon and school emblem (escarapela) on their shirts, further enhancing their sense of belonging.
The daily attendance card system aids in monitoring students who attend school sporadically Each year, student government leaders are elected to represent their peers Additionally, SA5 actively engages in regional achievement competitions in math and spelling, with their students demonstrating commendable performance in these academic contests.
The teaching staff’s level of commitment is remarkable and generally recognized by the director and parents As described by the director:
Teachers play a crucial role in supporting students' academic success When they notice students struggling, they often provide additional classes to help them catch up However, when teachers are absent due to health issues, the lack of resources for substitute teachers can be challenging In such cases, teachers make an effort to compensate for lost instructional time by conducting make-up classes during weekends or their free time To ensure honest feedback, we guarantee confidentiality for all participating schools and individuals, using code numbers instead of actual school names.
Decentralization policies enable SA5 to expand existing practices, such as providing salary incentives to teachers, which are tied to the tradition of offering a "thirteenth salary" bonus known as traceavo Additionally, the school runs a modest cafeteria that sells food and beverages to both staff and students, reportedly generating substantial revenue.
Decentralization empowers school directors with enhanced leadership tools, allowing for more effective management A teacher notes that the introduction of the new consejo has led to increased complexity and hierarchy in school administration Chaired by the former mayor, who aligns with the director's goal of boosting school performance, the consejo plays a pivotal role The director emphasizes that the Ministry's authority and policy priorities have gained greater influence within the school due to decentralization.
“With parents involved more in the school, teachers have become more accountable.” And the Ministry’s emphasis on assessing student outcomes leads the director to say,
“The Ministry is evaluating us by retention rates [and] graduation rates.”
Under the decentralization of school funding, parents have consistently contributed a modest cuota, leading to an increase in revenue This boost in funds has empowered school principals to exercise greater authority through small patronage initiatives, including providing minor loans to teachers Additionally, teachers recognized for their merit can earn up to 50% more than their base salary, according to insights from the teacher focus group.
The director actively supports all her teachers, including the controversial maestros empíricos hired without formal teaching credentials during the Sandinista Government She has allocated rising quota revenue to fund their necessary training programs, demonstrating her commitment to helping them meet new credentialing requirements In contrast, other schools often perceive these teachers as lower quality or overly political.
SA3, a secondary school situated in Managua, exemplifies a challenging environment and a complex institutional background As one of the largest urban secondary schools to adopt autonomy, it faces significant obstacles The director highlights the dire and perilous conditions of the surrounding community, underscoring the difficulties the school must navigate.
Teachers and students are facing harassment from gangs, with incidents resulting in serious injuries, including a teacher who can no longer perform her duties due to head trauma Despite their desperate situation, the police have been unresponsive to their pleas for help One teacher highlighted the dire security conditions, stating that they are left to defend themselves with makeshift weapons while male teachers attempt to confront the gangs Parents are even offering to pay extra for police protection, yet their requests continue to be ignored.
The director reports little support from local government, despite attempts to get stronger police protection and to win support for improving the school’s facilities
Teachers express concerns regarding the school's troubled reputation, highlighted by recent newspaper reports of student sexual harassment and staff economic blackmail However, there is a growing sense of improvement and positive leadership within the institution, as noted by one teacher.
Analysis Two: The Contrasting Meanings and Interpretation of Autonomia
Through discussions with parents, teachers, and directors, we discovered that their interpretations of autonomy and decentralization differ significantly These variations encompass their understanding of the associated implications, necessary organizational and personal changes, and the intended outcomes Notably, these differing definitions of autonomy can exist among individuals within the same school as well as between different schools.
Analysis Two examines the varying interpretations of "autonomous school management" and how these differences reflect organizational cohesion and collective goals for school improvement A key benefit of process evaluation, particularly through in-depth qualitative interviews, is the revelation of these differing perspectives, which clarify the sources of unity or conflict within the organization The relationship between shared meanings, belief systems, strong leadership, and structural unity remains a critical yet unexplored question in this study.
Decentralization in education introduces a novel vocabulary and logic to motivate school action, highlighting the unique social dynamics of consejos The concept of performance-based incentive pay for teachers is relatively new, prompting directors to quickly grasp the complexities of banking and accounting as funding is decentralized to delegados and consejos Tracking student achievement, including repetition and drop-out rates, requires a new analytical approach and discussions on enhancing performance Understanding the meanings behind this new vocabulary is crucial for the successful implementation of decentralization, with the second analysis focusing on how school stakeholders interpret autonomy.
Divergent Meanings Voiced by School Actors
In examining two distinct schools, we see differing interpretations of the term "autonomia," which is more prevalent locally than "descentralización." PA1, an urban primary school located in a low-income area far from Managua, has a director who successfully reduced the monthly fee from 5 córdobas to just 2 This decision limits the financial resources available for the school, as the director notes, “With little income from the córdobas there is little we can do Contribution, yes, rifas (raffles) yes But a fixed contribution each month, we cannot ask for that.”
Actors at PA1 express a positive perspective on the implementation of autonomia within their school The director believes in a participatory approach to the consejo's operations, stating that this management style enhances community engagement and appeals to parents Autonomia allows her to involve teachers and parents in a more collaborative manner, fostering a sense of shared responsibility in school management.
At the same time, the director talks as if she is following the desires of the parish priest in detailing her optimistic feelings about decentralization:
Nicaragua is making significant progress towards aligning with developed nations, thanks to the Ministry's efforts to implement improvements Although the journey may be costly, it is essential to continue moving in this positive direction.
The director defines autonomy as part of a broader program, legitimately crafted by the central Ministry, to move the society forward.
The director has effectively enhanced participation and fostered community engagement by organizing popular social events for parents, such as the well-received Mother’s Day celebration Additionally, she has established a credible consejo and implemented an "attendance book" for teachers to promote accountability within the school.
The director noted that the primary downside of autonomy is the additional time spent managing her own accounts and traveling to the nearest bank in another town She emphasized that they are required to follow the procedures set by the Ministry, stating, “We are being held accountable this is what we are told to do [the procedure for setting up accounts].”
Critics may argue that the director is merely presenting a favorable view of decentralization, tailored for an audience from Managua However, teacher and parent focus groups revealed similar interpretations of autonomy, despite some inconsistencies One teacher emphasized that autonomy entails greater accountability, punctuality, and improved lesson planning and teaching Another educator echoed the director's sentiment, suggesting that the changes associated with autonomy will primarily be social rather than economic.
Autonomy in school management involves gaining independence from the Ministry, relying on support from parents and the community However, the contributions from parents in this context are minimal due to their financial limitations.
Another teacher emphasizes the participatory benefits, echoing the director:
Autonomy in education involves active parental participation in the teaching and learning process This means that parents should not only contribute financially but also have the authority to evaluate the appropriateness of the subjects being taught to their children.
Teachers are excited about active methodology but feel uncertain about their implementation of this educational reform Like the director, one teacher shows a keen interest in adhering to the Ministry's guidelines for the new teaching approach.
We are seeking assistance as we implement the active methodology, as we are not yet fully familiar with the approach We are diligently striving to adhere to the guidance provided by the Ministry.
The interplay of two organizational logics is intriguing, as key stakeholders, including the director and teachers, exhibit strong agreement on the implications and actions related to decentralization Despite this consensus, these actors still regard the central Ministry as the ultimate authority, viewing it as a legitimate body whose directives should be adhered to.
In our focus group, parents expressed their views on autonomy in education, emphasizing shared responsibility between families and the Ministry of Education One mother highlighted the importance of parental involvement, stating, “Autonomy means to share responsibility with the Ministry of Education.” Another parent positively noted the significance of making independent decisions without external directives Additionally, a mother addressed the economic aspects of autonomy, explaining, “Helping the teachers with the cuota We are giving money monthly to help teachers this is autonomy for me Also to help the school.”
Analysis Three: Major Organizational and Resource Issues
Interpretations of autonomia are closely linked to tangible actions and occasional conflicts within the school environment Our analysis highlights four primary types of actions frequently discussed during interviews and focus group sessions, emphasizing key issues that emerged from these conversations.
• Parent participation Are parents becoming more involved in the school? If so, through what forms of participation? How do teachers and the director respond to parental involvement?
Autonomy significantly influences the nature of leadership within schools, affecting both the actions of the consejo and the director This shift in leadership dynamics prompts these figures to advocate for increased accountability and elevated performance standards, ultimately transforming the educational environment By embracing autonomy, school leaders can foster a culture of responsibility and drive improvements in student outcomes.
The issue of parental fee increases has sparked significant debate among school stakeholders, particularly regarding how these additional funds are allocated Many schools are grappling with the pressure to raise fees, leading to contentious discussions about the use of extra revenue, especially concerning incentive pay for teachers.
Classroom and pedagogical improvements are at the forefront of discussions among directors and teachers aiming to enhance student achievement by reducing repetition and drop-out rates This renewed emphasis on educational outcomes is a significant advantage of decentralization Key factors influencing the potential rise in student achievement include both the constraints faced by educators and the positive dynamics emerging within the educational system.
Table 4 highlights the diverse experiences of school actors regarding four key issues, organized by individual school reports This structure reveals the varying impacts of these issues across different educational environments To enhance clarity, we use symbols to categorize each report as positive (P), negative (N), or neutral (F), effectively illustrating the overall progress of each school—considering perspectives from parents, teachers, and directors—on these critical matters.
At primary school PA1, the consejo has been instrumental in organizing more festivals and social events, as reported by the director and families focus group Parents have actively participated in fundraising efforts to repair the school’s roof, showcasing community involvement The director highlighted improved communication with parents, attributed to increased autonomy For instance, a parent was informed that her daughter was no longer required to have a proper pair of shoes to attend school, dispelling a common misconception.
The director at PA1 voiced concerns about increased paperwork and the necessity of traveling to a neighboring town for banking due to changes in autonomous school management However, both the director and teachers noted positive developments, such as timely teacher payments and increased parental involvement in student attendance Parents expressed satisfaction with their ability to hold the school accountable, citing the departure of an ineffective teacher as a result of their collective efforts through the consejo.
In schools located in impoverished communities, the issue of monthly fees, or cuota, has proven challenging, with the fee recently reduced from 5 to 2 córdobas The school director and teachers acknowledge that this decrease in revenue will hinder the ability to implement incentives and improvements in the near future Parents are left confused about the nature of the cuota, unsure if it is mandatory or voluntary; while some feel pressured to contribute, others view it as optional and do not stress over payment.
The director and teachers highlight that the consejo serves as a vital "stimulus" to enhance student achievement, publicly recognizing high-performing students every two months A mural displays the names of these students, celebrating their success The director and two teachers are actively participating in metodologia activa training programs, sharing innovative teaching techniques with the entire staff However, significant challenges persist, particularly the lack of textbooks and instructional materials Many stakeholders express concerns over the Ministry's focus on organizational reforms while neglecting the effective distribution of essential educational resources.
In examining schools across the four thematic areas, we identify key implementation challenges and highlight successful initiatives within specific institutions Table 4 details which stakeholders—parents (P), teachers (T), and directors (D)—emphasized each issue, providing a level of reliability and triangulation to confirm whether actions were reported accurately or perceived from a single perspective.
Many schools are witnessing an increase in celebrations and social events organized by parents' councils, which effectively encourage parental involvement This trend serves as a key indicator of engagement, with directors noting high attendance rates, such as 70% at school fairs in SA3 Additionally, parents contribute to the school community by assisting with repairs and painting classrooms, further enhancing their connection with the educational environment.
Many school directors express frustration over low parental involvement in meetings and school activities One director emphasized the seriousness of the issue by stating, "We sent a notice saying that children would be expelled if their parents did not attend meetings." Another director lamented that parents only show up for registration In contrast, one proactive director makes an effort to engage parents by meeting with them individually every couple of months.
Parent involvement is closely linked to the director's management approach at SA1, as the consejo has emerged as the primary management partner The director expresses concern about the influence of parents on the consejo, highlighting the delicate balance between collaboration and control in school governance.
“ are the only ones involved with the school.” Sometimes parents do not understand what their role is because of a lack of education.” Later the principal complains,
“They thought they had the authority to fire someone” [authority the consejo arguably does possess].
Many parents perceive school staff as unapproachable and indifferent to their concerns, with one mother in a focus group stating, “we feel mistreated and humiliated by teachers.” This sentiment reflects a broader interpretation among parents that teachers' comments are often critical and disrespectful At SA1, there was an attempt by parents to remove the current director, but this was thwarted by the local delegado Meanwhile, the director of SA4 acknowledged that while there are some parent leaders within the consejo, they require additional training and guidance to be effective.
The qualitative evidence indicates challenges in measuring the impact of decentralization on parental involvement, with hopes that upcoming quantitative data from the Ministry/World Bank survey will provide clearer insights Interviews and focus groups highlight variability in parental engagement, often manifesting through social events and festivals, which is a positive initial step While some parents are actively participating in consejos, they face skepticism from teachers who may perceive them as needing training and lacking understanding of their roles, potentially undermining their influence The role of the school director is crucial; a welcoming and skilled director fosters respect and participation among parents, whereas a director who operates independently from the consejo can hinder broader parental involvement.
Conclusions and Formative Recommendations for Improving Decentralized School Management
The findings from Nicaragua's decentralization experiment prompt a reevaluation of its implications, highlighting the importance of incorporating the perspectives of school actors These local insights advocate for targeted programmatic adjustments that could enhance the benefits of decentralized school management Additionally, complex issues, like the extent to which the Ministry should advocate for cuota increases, present challenges that require more than just empirical evidence for resolution.
The qualitative data collected from 12 schools is not enough to support broad generalizations However, when reports from parents, teachers, and directors align across these schools, we recommend that the Ministry investigate these issues further, either through additional analysis to assess the extent of the problem or by making necessary programmatic changes It is important to interpret our findings in conjunction with the quantitative evidence from the Ministry’s school survey and student achievement studies.
How do the findings of our process evaluation encourage us to think in novel ways about the decentralization of school management?
Policymakers aim to implement organizational and economic changes that foster genuine behavioral shifts within schools and classrooms Neoconservative and centrist governments increasingly focus on policies that rationalize incentives and promote "rational choice" for parents and public service clients These "efficient-State" strategies reflect a theory of action, suggesting that local financing through quotas can enhance parental involvement, while school-based political control may create direct accountability channels, ultimately increasing teacher effort and improving student achievement.
The feedback from various school stakeholders reveals that the expected outcomes of policy changes, particularly in teacher transformation within remote primary classrooms, are not as straightforward as anticipated While we do not claim that policymakers' theories of action are incorrect, the insights and observations from school actors highlight several institutional barriers that hinder the objectives of decentralization advocates.
Analysis 1 and Analysis 2 reveal that local institutional and economic constraints significantly hinder the successful implementation of reforms Each school's unique history and context create entrenched conditions that affect the autonomy reform's effectiveness Schools located in impoverished communities or those with a history of poor organization are unlikely to generate the necessary cuota revenues Regardless of the policy's design, local circumstances will ultimately impede its success.
The historical arrangement of authority within schools significantly influences micro-political dynamics aimed at enhancing teacher performance and student achievement Schools with established authority structures focused on improving student outcomes and a participatory political environment have generally embraced autonomy positively among their stakeholders.
The Ministry should consider the benefits of centralized authority, as local responses to the government's investment in FISE and metodologia activa have been overwhelmingly positive These initiatives are recognized as crucial resources that bolster support for autonomous management among teachers.
Analysis 2 revealed the varied interpretations of the concept of autonomia among school staff and parents While some view it merely as an administrative reform lacking pedagogical focus, enthusiastic teachers link it to increased accountability, student progress, and active methodologies Parents highlight the importance of social events and quotas as key elements of the reform in their schools It's important to note that the impact of reform can differ significantly across various school environments In instances where a limited understanding of autonomia leads to resistance, the Ministry may need to adapt its training and strategies to foster a broader comprehension of the reform Additionally, some school directors show little interest in collaborating with teachers to enhance pedagogical practices, often prioritizing administrative duties over instructional leadership.
Before examining changes in the behavior and commitments of school staff and parents, it is essential to consider two key factors: first, the dynamics of the local community and school, specifically whether the established authority and participation align with decentralization goals; second, whether school actors and parents share a unified or conflicting understanding of what autonomy entails regarding their actions and the transformed social and political norms within the school If we do not see the expected behavioral changes in autonomous schools, it may be necessary to investigate the historical context and the meanings constructed by the involved actors to comprehend the challenges in implementation.
Our analysis revealed consistent concerns and resistance to autonomy among various schools and stakeholders We examined four key sets of issues, leading to important implications regarding the adoption of autonomy in educational settings.
Implementing a large-scale organizational reform is inherently challenging, and the Ministry has initiated a comprehensive evaluation to guide necessary adjustments in the decentralization program Our findings indicate that certain aspects of autonomy may struggle to maintain their intended impact, which we categorize as first-order problems A significant issue is the contentious effort to consistently collect and increase cuotas While some schools benefit from this approach by hiring more teachers and enhancing facilities, many others experience resistance from parents, resulting in minimal additional revenue.
The analysis revealed significant disparities in staffing levels and student-teacher ratios among schools, indicating deep inequalities within the existing school finance system Consequently, it remains unclear how the newly implemented decentralized finance scheme will address and reduce the unequal distribution of staff resources across different schools.
Parental participation in schools remains a significant challenge, often influenced by concerns over increasing fees and the limited ability of school councils and directors to engage a broader parent base Factors such as family poverty and the perception that schools are primarily the domain of educators, rather than a shared responsibility with parents, contribute to this issue Consequently, reports of increased parental involvement are scarce, and there is a notable lack of communication on how parents can support their children's education at home.
The autonomia initiative has led to some emerging issues from qualitative evaluation data, particularly regarding the Ministry's focus on monitoring student promotion and drop-out rates in schools While some school directors are responding positively, it remains unclear if they are adopting an instructional leadership role or simply becoming overwhelmed with additional administrative tasks The effectiveness of the Metodologia activa, aimed at enhancing classroom practices, hinges on whether school directors and the consejo actively support teachers in implementing and sustaining innovative teaching methods.
The authority over teacher postings raises concerns, as regional delegados manage a limited number of positions while striving for fairness in distribution The decentralization program suggests that consejos can dismiss underperforming teachers or create new posts if additional funding is secured However, total control at the school level may worsen financial disparities among schools The concept of autonomia becomes ineffective if consejos do not have a significant role in this process, indicating a need for clearer guidance from the Ministry.