Forest Policy and Direction Statements
This section outlines key forest-related policy milestones in the RFA area since 1960, highlighting the impact of State and Federal Government policies on the forest and timber industries It includes insights from Cabinet minutes, guidelines, investigations, and official statements, with a focus on the resulting changes in the region Social impacts are acknowledged where relevant, with more detailed discussions available in Section 3.
The devastating wildfires in Dwellingup, which led to the destruction of smaller sawmill settlements, prompted a shift from total protection of regenerated areas to widespread prescribed burning as a fire control strategy This approach, implemented during spring and autumn when fire spread risk was minimal, aimed to reduce fuel loads by intentionally burning forest sections By creating a varied landscape with different fuel amounts, the risk of wildfires was significantly lowered However, the Dwellingup incident fostered a perception among the public that small forest towns were at risk of fire.
In the northern jarrah region, by the mid-1960s:
Despite the presence of some untouched virgin forest, most of the area had been logged multiple times, particularly in the more productive western half This extensive deforestation limited the timber industry's ability to keep pace with economic demands, leading to a decline in its significance within the overall economy Although the number of sawmills continued to decrease, the timber industry remained a crucial supplier of sleepers for railway construction in the northwestern iron ore sector (Havel, 1989: 297).
In 1965, Western Australia had 18,000 hectares of publicly owned softwood plantations, with a goal of planting 1,200 hectares annually to ensure a sustainable timber supply and address future demand shortages Most plantations were established on purchased farmland, and with increased Commonwealth funding, the planting rate rose to 2,400 hectares per year by the late 1960s Since then, public softwood plantation planting has continued at an annual rate of 1,500 to 2,500 hectares In contrast, privately funded softwood planting remained low until it surpassed 400 hectares annually in 1970.
The community acknowledged that plantations could potentially replace native hardwood forests; however, there remains skepticism within the building industry regarding the strength and durability of structural pine in comparison to native hardwood.
Clearfelling logging prescriptions have been reintroduced in karri forest logging operations, replacing the long-standing group selection cut method that had been prevalent for many years (Christensen, 1992).
Clearfelling in the karri forest has sparked significant community concern regarding forest management practices Unlike the jarrah forest, which has been logged multiple times and lacks a European aesthetic, the karri forest is admired for its majesty and beauty, evoking strong sentimental feelings The visual impact of clearfelling has elicited powerful emotional reactions from residents in Perth Conversely, in the southern region, clearfelling is perceived as a more effective method for utilizing and regenerating forest resources.
In 1969, the Government enacted the Woodchipping Industry Agreement Act, formalizing a partnership with the Western Australian Chip and Pulp Company Pty Ltd (WACAP), a subsidiary of Wesfarmers Bunnings, to develop the woodchip industry This agreement ensured the Government would provide 500,000 tons of logs annually for 15 years, a commitment that was later expanded by an amendment to the Act in 1973.
Woodchipping operations did not commence in the forest until 1976 and were preceded by an Environmental Impact Statement (the first of its kind in Western Australia).
Logging operations have increasingly encroached upon the last untouched sections of the northern jarrah forest region The preservation of the wandoo and jarrah woodlands in the Helena catchment area significantly contributed to the closure of a local sawmill, ultimately undermining the sustainability of the charcoal-iron industry in the region (Havel, 1989: 302).
The protection of pristine forests in the headwaters of the Harvey and Collie Rivers has raised concerns about the sustainability of two sawmills and the surrounding townships Havel notes that this decision sparked significant backlash from both the timber industry and local communities (1989: 302).
By this time most of the publicly owned karri forest was classified as State forest, with only a small percentage designated as conservation or nature reserves (Christensen, 1992).
The General Working Plan No 85, adopted by the Forests Department, introduced the principle of multiple-use forest management, which remains central to public forest management in Western Australia today This approach recognizes the diverse purposes forests serve, necessitating the division of areas for specific uses, some of which may be compatible while others are not The plan outlined a five-year strategy for forest management, emphasizing timber production, catchment protection, water supply, recreation, mining, scientific research, education, and the preservation of flora, fauna, and landscapes.
As multiple use management was gradually developed and implemented throughout the 1970’s the Forests Department started to take a more active role in recreation management
“Mill and Forestry settlements which closed down were retained and leased to recreational interests, eg Pimelea, Donnelly River, and Tone River” (Christensen, 1992: 89).
CTRC Green Book for System 2
The Conservation Through Reserves Committee has published its draft recommendations in Green Book 1, highlighting the necessity for conservation reserves on Crown land, particularly within the karri forest along the south coast This initiative has sparked community interest in the importance of establishing these reserves for environmental protection.
In response to the spread of the dieback fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi in the forest, the Forest Diseases Amendment Act of 1974 was enacted, allowing for quarantine measures with Ministerial approval It was recognized that logging and road construction facilitated the distribution of infected soil, prompting significant changes for the Forest Department, the timber industry, and other forest users Consequently, silvicultural practices in the northern jarrah forest were adjusted to combat the issue (Havel, 1989).
The community expressed mixed feelings about the dieback issue, with some resentment over the extensive forest areas being off-limits to the public This situation raised concerns about the potential loss of forests, especially given the lack of an affordable cure at that time.
The book, known as the Green Book due to its green cover, was later succeeded by the Red Book after the EPA adopted its recommendations, which featured a striking red cover.
Logging in the Eastern Karri Forest
Timber Industry Technology and General Economic Activity
In the last thirty-five years, the forest products industry has transformed significantly, evolving from numerous companies with localized access to forests and individual logging operations to a landscape dominated by a single company that controls approximately 80% of the market This shift has reshaped the industry's structure and its impact on surrounding communities.
The market is dominated by 75 percent of major players, alongside various smaller competitors Current production focuses on a diverse array of log products sourced from forests, effectively integrating the manufacturing of poles, chip logs, sawlogs, and additional log types.
Historically, the native hardwood industry has been closely tied to the structural timber sector, leading to vulnerability to fluctuations in building cycles and resulting in inconsistent job opportunities In response to these challenges, companies have typically resorted to either providing redundancy or relocating employment to different areas.
The majority of significant mill closures took place during the 1970s and 1980s, yet some smaller mills continue to undergo adjustments, and shifts are still being closed at various other mills.
All aspects of forest product technology are rapidly increasing in sophistication and diversity The production facilities are becoming larger and more centralised, necessitating longer log transport distances.
The trend towards more stable employment opportunities in select locations is linked to a demand for higher skill levels While there are chances to enhance employment in value-added sectors, the greatest potential for job growth lies in manufacturing At present, most manufacturing activities take place outside the region, and there is a prevailing belief that both government policies and the forest product industry do not adequately support the manufacturing sector.
This section looks at the changes in the forest industry particularly the impact of economic and technology decisions made by companies that operate in the forest product industry.
The forest product industry has traditionally focused on sawlogs for structural timber, leading to employment that fluctuates with corporate economic decisions, market cycles, and resource availability As a result, job opportunities in this sector have been inconsistent In response to downturns, companies typically resort to offering redundancies or relocating employees to other positions.
In the 1970s and 1980s, significant structural adjustments in the industry took place at a regional level, yet local impacts continue to emerge Recently, the Bunnings mill in Nannup reduced operations by closing one shift, and the Whittakers facility has experienced a temporary shutdown.
The forest products industry is undergoing a transformative phase, marked by substantial investments in technology aimed at enhancing value With the assurance of resource security, this sector is poised for unprecedented growth Notably, pine is increasingly being utilized as a structural timber alternative to native hardwoods Additionally, the burgeoning hardwood plantation industry is fostering new export markets for chip wood, which may eventually lead to the establishment of a local paper mill.
Investment in the timber industry focuses on capital-intensive plants and equipment, leading to a world-class timber products sector However, job creation in forest management and milling remains limited, with only modest employment growth in value-adding segments While downstream manufacturing holds significant potential for job creation, there is a prevailing belief that government support for these initiatives is lacking A major barrier to developing a robust wood manufacturing industry is the perception that the Australian sector prioritizes upgrading raw materials over manufacturing, hindered by a lack of good design, innovation, and effective marketing strategies.
Increased mill efficiencies and closures
Until the early 1960’s there were many mills spread throughout the RFA area employing 50-
A total of 100 individuals are associated with forest permit areas, where mills primarily focus on structural timber and the export market In addition to their main operations, many of these mills also provide on-site timber drying and processing These mills are supported by small settlements, each contributing to the local forestry economy.
The department officer oversaw the management of forest and logging teams linked to the mills, which predominantly operated on steam power and frequently provided electricity to nearby communities Forest management practices typically utilized short haul routes, employing trucks or steam-driven rail systems from the designated permit areas.
The mid 1960's minerals boom in the north of the state created a large demand for sleepers for railways and structural timber.
The sawmilling industry has sought increased efficiency by rationalizing smaller mills, leading to the continued electrification of operations while phasing out steam power Focused primarily on structural timber, the industry has shifted operations from small towns to major processing centers, resulting in longer haul routes.
The technological advancements in the forest product industry remain under-documented, prompting the collection of insights from various industry experts Key contributions were made through interviews with Mr David Fry and Mr Ed Valom from Bunnings Pty Ltd, Mr Trevor Richardson of Bushmills Pty Ltd, Ms Marg Pearce from the Forest Protection Society, Mr Nick Oaks of the AWU, and Mr Tim Daly from the CFMEU.
The structural timber industry faced challenges due to economic recessions and fluctuations in the building market, leading to uncertainty in employment and staffing levels.
The WACAP woodchip mill in Diamond has begun operations, marking a pivotal shift in karri forest management and creating new markets for forest products This major restructuring has led the industry to adopt a multiple product approach, enhanced by new technology and wood chipping techniques that improve the recovery of sawlogs and other log products Previously, logging was conducted on a single product basis, requiring multiple entries into the forest for different products Additionally, the industry has seen continued takeovers and amalgamations of timber companies, resulting in the closure of some small mills.
Planning
Historically, town planning focused minimally on the forest products industry However, in the past decade, planning has evolved to encompass regional and strategic considerations, integrating social and economic objectives alongside land allocation in urban areas.
Several towns in the RFA region are poised to benefit from economic growth, particularly those that are larger and connected to significant economic hubs The planning in these areas primarily focuses on suburban development.
Planning encompasses the activities involved in managing land allocation and development Historically, the 1927 Town Planning Act guided the planning process primarily through market demand and the development industry, ensuring orderly land development However, recent changes have expanded the Ministry for Planning's role to include strategic, regional, and rural planning, reflecting a more comprehensive approach to land use management.
The Role of Local Authorities
Local authority planning schemes play a crucial role in local land use decisions and policies, necessitating individual consideration due to their specific nature These schemes, which may be referred to as 'district schemes' or 'rural strategies', can be developed by a local authority for various purposes within its district Once approved and adopted, these schemes carry the force of law.
Planning schemes were originally concentrated on major townsites within the area Local authorities collaborate with the State Government, specifically the WA State Planning Commission, to address planning issues within their jurisdictions The legal framework for this collaboration is established by the State's Town Planning and Development Act 1927, which clearly defines the responsibilities of both state and local authorities.
The land reserves system in Western Australia is centered around the idea that parcels of Crown land, primarily forests, are allocated to specific authorities for designated purposes The Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) serves as the principal land manager for National Parks, Nature Reserves, and State forests According to the CALM Act, land is entrusted to the National Parks and Nature Conservation Authority and the Lands and Forest Commission, which are responsible for approving the Management Plans for the lands overseen by CALM.
With the increasing diversity and complexity of land uses and human activities in the RFA area, the planning system has adopted a more proactive strategy for regional and strategic planning.
In rural areas, town planning became prevalent among local authorities as the decline of mill towns significantly impacted the demographics and structure of communities in forest regions As some towns evolved into hubs for enhanced milling activities, they initiated the development of town planning schemes to accommodate this growth.
The influx of urban residents to desirable rural locations like Margaret River has led to a heightened demand for small, affordable rural lots This migration has significantly transformed the landscape of traditional farming and timber communities due to the establishment and occupation of Special Rural Zones.
The South West Development Authority was created as a statutory body to plan, coordinate, and promote social and economic development in Bunbury and the South West of Western Australia, marking a pivotal move towards regionally focused development planning Tasked with overseeing the region's economic and social progress, the Authority laid the groundwork for similar Development Authorities in the Peel and Great Southern regions.
The State Planning Commission implemented several land use policies impacting the RFA area, including the Rural Land Use Policy, which established objectives for the planning of rural land Additionally, the Bunbury Wellington Regional Planning Study provided the planning framework for the southern region of the northern jarrah forest.
The State Planning Commission (now the WA Planning Commission) developed the Rural
The Land Use Policy (SPC, 1989, Policy DC 3.4) prioritizes the formulation of regional and local rural strategies Local authorities are tasked with developing these strategies to guide future decisions regarding the zoning, subdivision, and development of rural land.
Strategic Planning of Rural Areas
The State Planning Strategy was released and set, among a range of other planning matters, the social agenda for the regions in Western Australia Within the RFA area the Warren
Blackwood Regional Planning Strategy and the Leeuwin Naturaliste Statement of Planning Policy give very detailed prescriptions over the direction of development in the regions.
The planning process now incorporates social issues, focusing on employment creation, social infrastructure, and community well-being It aims to fill the gaps in regional areas by addressing challenges related to town growth, closures, and shifts in economic activity (Martin, 1997).
After the 1993 election, the newly formed government transformed the Development Authorities into Commissions, focusing primarily on facilitating regional economic development Despite this shift, the Commissions continued to tackle social issues, particularly the sustainability of small towns in the forest region.
Commission, 1994) The Commissions represent the Government’s response to increasing complexity of regional development.
As the region experiences economic growth, larger towns linked to major industries are expanding, leading to increased populations in suburban developments surrounding these centres While much of this growth has occurred on an as-needed basis, initiatives like the Leeuwin Naturaliste Statement of Planning Policy illustrate a structured approach, establishing town sizes and a settlement hierarchy This strategic planning may be applied to other areas in the future to manage development effectively.
Mining
Mining serves as the primary economic driver in the RFA region, exerting a significant impact despite its limited geographic reach The presence of major mines and mineral processing facilities attracts further development, acting as economic hubs that stimulate growth and investment across the area.
The most thorough social impact assessments in the region have been done by the mining industry.
Mining plays a crucial role in the economy of the northern forest (Peel Region) and the central forest (South West Region), as highlighted by the Peel Development Commission and South West Development Commission reports from 1996 The growth of the mining sector, especially in the northern areas of the Regional Forest Agreement (RFA), has generated significant alternative economic opportunities and job prospects, reducing reliance on the forest product industry Key initiatives, such as the Milestone Agreement Acts, have been instrumental in supporting these mining ventures.
The mining industry has played a significant role in conducting social impact assessments in the region, with notable examples including the Kemerton Industrial Park and the BHP Beenup heavy mineral sands mine.
Prior to 1960 coal mining at Collie and tin mining at Greenbushes had been significant mining ventures in the region These have continued, with various modifications since that time.
This act was passed and Western Aluminium N.L (a predecessor of Alcoa) was granted a
The mining lease, spanning over 1 million hectares and encompassing most of the northern jarrah forest region, was granted for a duration of 84 years This agreement conferred extensive rights to the company, which were not subject to previous parliamentary legislation Initially, mining operations began near Jarrahdale, starting at 14 hectares per year and rapidly increasing to 121 hectares annually within just ten years.
The alumina industry brought significant social changes, offering a viable economic alternative to forest use while generating employment in previously uncertain job markets Additionally, it heightened awareness of forest conservation, leading to community-driven initiatives focused on preserving the jarrah forest amidst mining interests.
Alumina Refinery (Pinjarra) Agreement Act 1969
Alumina Refinery (Worsley) Agreement Act 1973
Alumina Refinery (Wagerup) Agreement Act 1978
The expansion of bauxite mining into the jarrah forest has generated a substantial source of employment and economic activity, as indicated by recent legislative acts While the environmental impact assessments for the Worsley and Wagerup projects acknowledge the social benefits, such as job creation and potential downstream economic effects, they lack a comprehensive evaluation of the broader social impacts.
For many years, the Wundowie Iron and Steel Works utilized jarrah from the northern jarrah forest to produce charcoal for iron smelting In 1974, the State formalized the sale of this operation through the Wundowie Charcoal Iron Industry Sale Agreement Act.
1994) This meant the effective closure of the town of Wundowie.
Collie Coal (Griffin) Agreement Act 1979
Collie Coal (Western Collieries) Agreement Act 1979
The Acts established a strategic framework for the future growth of the coal industry in Collie Despite the restructuring that took place in the 1980s and 1990s, coal mining continued to be a major source of employment in the region.
The establishment of the Worsley Alumina Joint Venture at the Boddington gold mine highlighted the potential for positive social impacts, particularly in terms of recruitment and workforce stability due to its favorable location Additionally, the Joint Venturers committed to implementing a housing assistance scheme to support the workforce.
It has transpired that the town of Boddington has been rejuvenated as a consequence of bauxite and gold mining activity in the area.
Collie, a town encircled by coal mining activities, faced challenges as mining encroached on residential zones, leading to issues like salination of the Collie River and the potential loss of recreational spaces In response to these growing concerns, the Cabinet established a working group to evaluate land use in the area, which included a limited social assessment focused on the impacts on town planning and recreation (Collie Land Use Working Group, 1987).
In the mid-1980s, the state sought new heavy industrial areas as alternatives to Kwinana, leading to the identification of Kemerton, north of Bunbury, for a proposed aluminium smelter This proposal initiated a comprehensive review of the potential social impacts on Bunbury and surrounding regions Although the smelter project did not move forward, the social impact assessment continued into the early 1990s, employing a monitoring process that evaluated various parameters and reported to a community committee (Syme, 1989; Campbell-Hicks, 1992).
Mineral Sands on the South Coast
The south coast is home to significant mineral sand deposits, with the Beenup and Jangardup mines commencing commercial operations in the 1990s, creating alternative employment opportunities in the Shires of Nannup and Augusta-Margaret River The BHP Minerals Beenup mine, along with its power supply and the Sues Rd connecting Bunbury Port to the mine, underwent one of the most comprehensive community consultation and mitigation processes in the state's history.
The environmental impact assessment for the project thoroughly examined community attitudes and potential options, incorporating targeted mitigation strategies It specifically evaluated the effects of the mine on the Shire of Augusta Margaret River and the town of Augusta during both the construction and operational phases.
The Cable Sands Jangardup mine is expected to positively impact employment in the Nannup Shire, addressing concerns over the area's exclusive reliance on the precarious timber industry, which is heavily dependent on CALM activities Additionally, the recreational impact on the D’Entrecasteaux National Park is projected to be minimal (Martinick, 1989).
Agriculture
Agricultural production has led to significant land clearing in the region, with timber harvested as a by-product The 1960s marked the peak of agricultural activity, but since then, the industry has faced increasing international competition, prompting a drive for economic efficiencies and larger operations This shift has contributed to a decline in rural populations, especially in the eastern RFA area, resulting in diminished services and a gradual reduction in the size and number of rural towns.
Environmental degradation is escalating, characterized by topsoil loss, soil acidification, salinization of soils and waterways, and the decline of native vegetation In response, Landcare activities and Integrated Catchment Management have gained prominence Agriculture WA has initiated the Sustainable Rural Development Program, which adopts a holistic approach to agriculture by connecting ecologically sustainable farming practices with community economic development.
The forest and agricultural industries share common historical origins, yet they have evolved in distinct ways Agricultural lands are often owned by multiple parties, and government regulations have limited power to dictate land usage, primarily focusing on recent restrictions regarding land clearing and vegetation management Historically, landowners made decisions about agricultural practices, guided by recommendations from the Agricultural Department to enhance production efficiency.
In the last three decades, the agricultural industry has evolved significantly, embracing greater diversity and advanced technology, resulting in a shift towards capital-intensive practices over labor-intensive ones However, it faces challenges from international competition and environmental issues like drought, salinization, acidification, and soil fertility loss, prompting substantial changes within rural communities.
Economic pressures are driving the consolidation of farms and prompting rural residents to relocate, leading to a decline in community structure and services This trend is especially noticeable as one moves eastward from the coast into the wheatbelt region.
In the early 1990s, Agriculture Western Australia (AgWA) launched the Sustainable Rural Development Program, which adopts a holistic approach to rural development by integrating environmentally sustainable practices with community and economic growth.
In the central RFA area, agriculture is evolving with a focus on diversification, particularly in viticulture and horticulture, alongside a burgeoning farm forestry industry that is impacting rural communities While plantations help manage salinity and provide stable income for retiring farmers, concerns arise about the potential transformation of traditional farming communities into areas with transient populations seeking contract work and absentee landowners This shift may require further examination, especially as the farm forestry and plantation sectors expand, potentially affecting transport routes, community dynamics, and land use patterns.
The post-war soldier settlement era marked a significant boom for the agricultural industry, driving land clearance expansion under successive governments The policy aimed to develop one million acres annually, supported by initiatives such as land release programs, new land farms, and conditional purchase agreements.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the grain and wool markets faced a significant collapse, worsened by a drought in 1969, leading to widespread challenges for farmers, particularly those who had recently acquired new land The initial ease of entering the farming industry often resulted in inadequate business planning and insufficient capital investment While many managed to sustain their farms for a few years, they eventually faced a financial crunch requiring additional investment to maintain profitability Unfortunately, during this industry downturn, many were unable to secure the necessary capital, and the combination of inexperience, harsh environmental conditions, isolation, and the physically demanding nature of farming prompted numerous individuals to abandon their farms.
Wellington Dam Catchment Clearing Controls
In response to rising salinity levels in the Wellington Dam, a ban was implemented on the release of Crown land for clearing within the catchment area, where 35% had already been alienated by 1989 (Havel, 1989) Over the years, the Water Agency 3 has acquired and reforested substantial portions of the catchment, resulting in a decrease in the number of farmers operating in the area.
In response to farm collapses, the government initiated 'rural reconstruction programs' and the Industry Assistance Commission conducted an Inquiry into New Land Farms This period saw the development of Rural Adjustment, which focused on creating development budgets and farm plans, particularly in areas recently settled and associated with new land farms Previously, the Lands Department managed land release, a process marked by significant political influence (Australia Industries Assistance Commission, 1975; Western Australia Land Release Policy Review Committee, 1979; Journal of Agriculture WA, 1980; Department of Agriculture, 1983).
In the late 1970s, government departmental staff began to acknowledge the importance of integrating diverse land uses into effective land use planning, moving beyond a sole focus on agriculture Although this perspective was not universally embraced by the government, studies like the Murray River Catchment Study and the Darling Range Study Group fostered interdepartmental collaboration by involving multiple government sectors.
In the Wellington Dam Catchment, forest clearance restrictions were enforced to manage salinity risks, varying in intensity based on specific areas These regulations applied uniformly, irrespective of land ownership, leading to significant protests from affected farmers despite receiving compensation for their losses (Havel, 1989).
In 1976-1978, legislation was enacted to impose a complete ban on clearing privately owned forests in high salinity risk catchments, compensating affected farmers through the Public Works Department's purchase of a portion of cleared land for reforestation This initiative successfully halted farm clearing in the Collie (Wellington Dam) catchment, preserving 23 percent of the total area, equivalent to 64,000 hectares (Havel, 1989).
Salinity and Land Conservation Districts
The growing issue of salinity in waterways led to the establishment of Land Conservation Districts (LCD), particularly in wheatbelt areas where land degradation is more pronounced than in forested regions This initiative was accompanied by the Department of Agriculture's efforts to hire additional staff with expertise in community development to address these environmental challenges.
Tourism
Tourism is a relative newcomer to the region’s industrial base however it is already a major economic contributor and a significant employer with a great potential for growth in some towns.
The industry has a major focus on nature based tourism The south west with its matrix of forest, farmland and other land uses is a valuable resource for the tourist industry.
Tourism in the State has evolved through three significant phases: the first phase, prior to the 1980s, focused on status and trophy value, characterized by the sentiment of 'I've been there.' The 1980s marked a shift towards activity, with tourists embracing the mindset of 'I've done that.' By the 1990s, the emphasis transitioned to knowledge and experiential travel, reflected in the phrase 'I've experienced this' (Stankevicius, 1997).
Tourism is a rapidly growing industry, experiencing an annual growth rate of 10-15 percent, which presents substantial employment opportunities across various service sectors According to the South West Regional Tourism Association, this growth underscores the sector's potential for economic development and job creation.
The forests of Pemberton contribute significantly to the local economy, with their value to tourism surpassing that of the timber industry by generating substantial employment opportunities While the direct economic value of these forests is only 50 percent of what they provide to timber, the tourism sector has led to a remarkable 610 percent increase in employment over five years, highlighting the broader economic benefits that forests bring to the community.
The tourism policy focuses on enhancing nature-based opportunities, making the southwest region, with its diverse forests and land uses, a significant asset for the tourism industry Current priorities include the development of nature-based products, improved access and transportation, and effective marketing strategies The industry believes there is still considerable potential for growth and achievement.
The Tourism Commission is exploring a collaborative study with the University of Notre Dame and CALM to assess the economic value of forests and trees, focusing on the diverse interests associated with these natural resources.
Non-coastal areas are gaining popularity as tourist destinations, with the establishment of quality facilities like the Karri Valley Resort significantly attracting visitors.
Major milestones are listed below.
The Western Australian Tourism Commission came into being.
Western Australian Tourism Commission Amendment Act 1984
A series of nine Regional Strategies were developed, including the:
South West Regional Tourism Strategy;
Great Southern Regional Tourism Strategy;
Central South Regional Tourism Strategy.
This was the inaugural formal regional examination of tourism conducted by the State government, occurring when regional boundaries differed from today's, particularly due to the recent establishment of the Peel region Concerns arose regarding the adequacy of the initial documents, prompting a supplementary examination to address these issues.
A comprehensive Tourism Development Implementation Strategy was created for various regions, with two distinct series developed for the periods 1989-1992 and 1992-1994 These strategies emphasized increased regional and local participation, garnering positive feedback from local government authorities As a result, they facilitated effective forward planning, particularly in budget allocation for infrastructure development.
Eco-Ethics of Tourism Development
A code of ethics was established to address the challenges of promoting 'wilderness experience' tourism, highlighting the importance of managing delicate natural resources This code has been incorporated into the latest Nature Based Tourism Strategy, reflecting a modern understanding of sustainable tourism practices.
Draft Western Australian Tourism Strategy
This document addresses the necessity for a comprehensive strategy that integrates all regions, facilitating coordinated development and prioritization It explores key topics such as access, attractions, accommodation, and services Currently, the document remains in draft form and is under review by the Minister.
Arts Western Australia launched a strategy that effectively merges tourism and the arts, overcoming initial hesitations about their collaboration This partnership has demonstrated its value, revealing that these two industries are highly complementary As a result, a program focused on mutual benefits has been successfully developed.
State Nature Based Tourism Strategy
In response to growing market demands and the need for effective natural resource protection, this document emphasizes the importance of planning and management in nature-based tourism Unlike eco-tourism, which focuses on scientific and intimate interactions with wilderness, this broader perspective includes various industry activities such as mining and timber production, highlighting the diverse aspects of nature-based tourism.
Water
Water supply and quality has affected the RFA area Raising salinity in various river systems has precluded clearing of some areas of forest.
CALM’s multiple use strategy recognises water supply as one of a number of uses of the forest.
Wellington Dam Catchment clearing constraint
This year a ban was imposed prohibiting further alienation of Crown land in the Wellington Dam Catchment to prevent further increases in salinity (Havel, 1989).
The General Working Plan No 85, adopted by the Forests Department, established the principle of multiple-use forest management, which remains central to public forest management in Western Australia under the Conservation and Land Management Act (1984) This approach recognizes the diverse purposes forests serve and advocates for the designation of specific areas for different uses, acknowledging that while some uses can coexist, others may conflict The plan outlines forest management strategies for the subsequent five years, integrating catchment management to support water production for the numerous dams located on the Darling Scarp as part of the multiple-use strategy.
As stated previously, legislation in 1976-1978 imposed a complete ban on clearing privately owned forests in high salinity risk catchments (Havel, 1989)
The Country Areas Water Supply Act (1947) was enhanced by the Clearing Licence Regulation (1981) to regulate the clearing of native vegetation in six southwest river catchments, aiming to safeguard water quality This regulation imposed restrictions on landowners, requiring them to obtain a licence for clearing activities in designated catchment areas The government allocated millions of dollars in compensation to support this initiative (Commissioner for Soil and Land Conservation et al., 1997).
Soil and Land Conservation Regulations
As stated previously, Soil and Land Conservation Regulations (1985), under the Soil and Land Conservation Act (1945), were introduced.
Catchment Coordinating Groups and Integrated Catchment Management
Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) was introduced in response to concerns over declining waterway quality and land care practices ICM considers a catchment as a unified system that includes biophysical, economic, and social elements, emphasizing the necessity of integrating all components to restore the health of waterways and catchments The Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) region features significant catchments, including the Blackwood, Geographe Bay, and Avon.
Reform in the Water Industry
During this period, significant reforms were implemented in the water industry, which involved separating the Western Australian Water Authority's functions into two entities: the Water and Rivers Commission for water resource management and the privatization of the water delivery sector, now known as the Water Corporation.
Recent changes have led to the privatization of irrigation schemes and a review of the Rights in Water and Irrigation Act, which now incorporates environmental values in water allocation and waterway management This ongoing process is set to continue into the future.
As stated previously, the State Government’s Salinity Action Plan was announced
A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) has been established among key government agencies, including AgWA, EPA, CALM, WRC, and the Commissioner for Soil and Land Conservation, to streamline the assessment process for Notices of Intent to Clear This agreement affects all privately owned, rural-zoned land in the southwest region of the State and emphasizes the integration of biodiversity conservation and other environmental considerations into clearing proposals.
Attitudinal Shifts
In the last three decades, the community's perception of the environment has evolved significantly, shifting from a purely economic viewpoint to an appreciation of its intrinsic ecological value This transformation, coupled with robust community-driven initiatives, has played a crucial role in shaping government policies, leading to the designation of substantial areas for conservation and forest management.
Until the 1990s, changes in community attitudes towards conservation were primarily driven by the public's environmental concerns However, during the 1990s, timber industry workers formed grassroots action groups in response to perceived threats to their jobs, stemming from the insecurity of timber resources and a decline in resource availability.
In the last three decades, awareness of human impact on the environment has grown significantly, shifting community values from economic exploitation to an ethic of care and respect for nature This transformation in public attitudes has profoundly affected government policies, prompting political parties to address environmental concerns and leading to changes in reserve areas and forest management practices.
The 1970s marked a significant turning point in public engagement with environmental issues in Australia Early in the decade, opinion polls began to highlight environmental concerns, with The Age newspaper ranking it as the ninth most pressing national issue in 1971 By 1974, the environment had surged to become the second most important issue for Australians, reflecting a growing awareness and urgency regarding ecological matters (Lothian, 1994).
In Western Australia, growing community concern for the environment led to vigorous public campaigns against whaling, bauxite mining, and the introduction of the woodchip industry This environmental awareness was primarily an urban phenomenon, as residents engaged with global environmental issues and adapted them to their local context.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, community expressions of environmental concern were significantly influenced by public policy, particularly through the CTRC Green and Red Book reviews, which played a crucial role in directing public attention towards the preservation of forests and the allocation of reserves for conservation.
Throughout the 1980s, public awareness and concern for environmental issues surged, exemplified by significant events such as the 1983 protests against the Franklin River dam in Tasmania, the publication of the pivotal report "Our Common Future" in 1987, and the establishment of the Shannon National Park.
1988 Issues such as deforestation, global warming, biodiversity loss, ozone depletion and land degradation were high on the public agenda.
In the 1980s, a significant number of urban residents with a strong commitment to conservation moved to rural areas in the southwest, transforming the demographic makeup of rural communities in the RFA region This shift expanded environmental concerns, transitioning from a primarily urban focus to a more widespread rural and regional support network.
The 1990s marked significant international efforts to address environmental issues, highlighted by the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, the establishment of Agenda 21 to promote sustainable development, and the signing of key treaties aimed at protecting the ozone layer and combating global warming.
A study by Lothian from 1975 to 1994 revealed a significant rise in environmental concern, peaking in the early 1990s and surpassing economic worries While recent years have shown a slight decline in this concern, it has consistently remained strong in opinion polls and has fluctuated less than other national issues over the past two decades Lothian concluded that this stability indicates a deep-rooted public commitment to environmental issues.
Over the past two decades, heightened public concern for the environment has significantly influenced land use decisions in Australia Particularly during the late 1980s and early 1990s, politicians recognized the importance of environmental issues to voters, leading to commitments that transformed land use practices in various regions These changes have often yielded immediate economic benefits, as seen with the World Heritage Listings of the Queensland Wet Tropics and Shark Bay, which have positively impacted both the environment and the tourism sector, despite causing some disruption to previously established land-based activities.
The increasing public concern for environmental issues has significantly influenced business practices, particularly in the case of Alcoa, which became a leader in minesite rehabilitation and energy efficiency due to community opposition to bauxite mining on the Darling Scarp Before 1988, environmental policies were scarce among Australian companies; however, by 1994, almost 70 percent had adopted such policies This shift highlights the growing integration of environmental objectives within business operations, as evidenced by the findings of the State of the Environment Advisory Council in 1996.
In Western Australia there are several examples of community concern and action leading to changes in land use in the south west of the State:
In the 1970s and early 1980s, the Campaign to Save Native Forests (CSNF) successfully advocated for the protection of significant portions of the northern jarrah forest, leading to their removal from bauxite mining leases This initiative was achieved with the agreement of the leaseholders, resulting in these areas being designated as conservation reserves.
• Public concern about agricultural land clearing and associated degradation forcing changes to clearing regulations in the mid 1990s; and
In the early 1990s, growing concerns over the eutrophication of the Peel Harvey Estuary led to the construction of the Dawesville Channel, alongside the implementation of restrictions on land clearing and the excessive use of fertilizers in the surrounding catchment areas.
From the 1970s to the early 1990s, the debate over forest protection was primarily driven by conservationists However, in the early 1990s, timber industry workers, alarmed by the potential job losses due to timber resource removals in reserves, began to mobilize They launched national campaigns and established organizations like the Forest Protection Society Notably, their direct actions, including the blockade of Parliament House in Canberra, effectively communicated to politicians the urgent need for resource security and long-term employment for forest workers.
The Forest Protection Society seeks to “promote the balanced use of forests through scientifically based forest policies and practices” The Society has seven broad objectives, and these are :
• ensure the balanced multiple use of the forests;
• raise the public’s understanding of forest issues;
• provide a grass roots voice for people in the forest based industries;
• ensure government is aware of facts relating to forest issues;
• ensure ecologically unique areas are properly managed;
• provide information of forest environment and management;
• support hardwood and softwood plantations (Forest Protection Society, 1996).
Demographics
In the last thirty years, the coastal population has more than doubled, while the Core RFA Shires have maintained stable populations and the Eastern RFA Shires have seen a slight decline Despite significant investments in high technology, the forest products industry is unlikely to impact these demographic trends unless there is a substantial increase in downstream manufacturing within the Core and Eastern Shires.
In the last three decades, the population distribution within the RFA area has undergone significant changes Figure 1 illustrates the population statistics of Shires located in or associated with the RFA area, excluding those within the Perth metropolitan region, such as Armadale and Mundaring.
Collie Donnybrook Boyup Brook Bridgetown- Greenbushes Manjimup Nannup Boddington
Cranbrook Plantagenet Brookton West Arthur Williams Wandering
Figure 1 Population of Shires and major towns over time (ABS)
Since 1961, coastal towns have more than doubled in size, while the populations of the Core RFA Shires have remained relatively stable, with the Eastern Shires experiencing a slight decline During this time, Mandurah's population has increased at a rate comparable to that of the Coastal Shires, whereas Bunbury has seen growth at a slower pace.
Anecdotal evidence from this study and Figure 1 suggests that the future for residents in the Core and Eastern RFA Shires may involve a concentration of the population in a limited number of major centers, potentially leading to a stable or declining population overall.
Demographic shifts have profound social implications, particularly for towns in the Core or Eastern RFA areas with populations under two to three thousand Without strong intervention, these towns face potential decline and even extinction (Middleton, 1997) Contributing factors include a decrease in agricultural employment, the migration of young people to larger cities for job opportunities, and the reduction of essential services, including schools and medical facilities.
The shift in population distribution can be attributed to several factors Coastal areas are increasingly viewed as desirable living locations, particularly for retirees, leading to a migration of farmers and residents from rural inland towns Additionally, the agricultural and forest industries are evolving to depend more on capital investment rather than labor, which affects job availability Without the establishment of significant employment-generating industries in the Core or Eastern RFA regions, these areas are likely to experience stagnant or declining populations.
The forest-related industries are expected to see only moderate employment growth, primarily in major wood processing centers like Manjimup and Pemberton While employment in forest management and milling may experience a slight decline, this could be balanced by an increase in downstream manufacturing activities, predominantly in Perth and coastal towns The transportation costs favor the movement of raw products to coastal areas, where a skilled labor force and better infrastructure are available for processing.
While hardwood and softwood plantations are an employment creation opportunity
The establishment phase of plantations, as noted by the National Plantations Advisory Committee (1991), is characterized by high mechanization and the use of seasonal contractors who can easily relocate, often residing in major urban or coastal areas As a result, this phase is unlikely to generate substantial employment opportunities in regions outside the primary centers of the Core or Eastern RFA areas.
Economic Structure of the Region
Historically, the forest product industry was the primary driver of economic wealth and employment in the Core RFA area Today, it has evolved into one of several key industries in the region, alongside mining and tourism Nevertheless, towns like Nannup, Manjimup, and Yarloop continue to rely heavily on fluctuations within the forest product sector.
The region's economic growth is largely fueled by several key centers that serve as employment hubs Communities located within convenient travel distances to these centers are likely to thrive alongside their prosperity In contrast, towns that are situated farther away from these vital areas face significant risks to their development.
The increasing sophistication in the forest products industry has meant that the workforce has to be more skilled.
The evaluation of employment and economic prospects within the forest products industry is addressed in other segments of the RFA process, and therefore, will not be discussed here Nonetheless, it is possible to draw some general conclusions regarding the economic activity in the region.
The regional trend is shifting towards the centralization of economic activities around several key towns, each driven by its unique economic engine These towns are primarily situated along the coast or within major centers in the Core RFA Shires.
• the coast eg Perth, Mandurah, Busselton, Bunbury, Walpole, Denmark and
• forest production and agriculture centres eg Manjimup, Pemberton, Donnybrook;
• mining eg the Alcoa mines and refineries, Collie;
• tourism eg Margaret River, Pemberton, Bridgetown;
Economic hubs attract individuals and services from surrounding areas When communities are within a convenient 10-15 minute drive of these centers and the services they offer, residents are more likely to stay in their communities Conversely, communities located beyond this travel range risk losing their essential services and support systems.
Historically, the forest product industry was the dominant employer and economic force in the RFA area; however, its significance has diminished regionally, with industries like mining rising in importance Despite this shift, towns such as Manjimup and Nannup still rely heavily on the forest product industry for both production and employment Local operational changes, such as the opening of a new processing plant or the closure of a shift, can greatly impact local job markets The economic foundations of towns across the region are currently being evaluated in other SAU projects.
As the forest product and related industries evolve, there is an increasing demand for a skilled workforce, which may pose employment challenges for those traditionally employed in these sectors A study by the Department of Primary Industries and Energy (DPIE) highlighted that a significant portion of award workers—about thirty percent—lacked adequate literacy skills necessary to perform their current jobs or pursue further training opportunities.
3 Social Impact Assessments - Native Forests
Limited social impact assessments have been conducted in Western Australia's native forests To better understand how the social implications of changes in the native forest industry have been managed, we present the findings from significant inquiries into these forests.
Recent inquiries, especially by the Federal Government, highlight the social impacts of various issues and indicate a need for mitigation While some mitigation efforts have progressed to the implementation stage nationally, most remain at the recognition phase, grappling with uncertainty about the next steps to take.
This section explores the social impact assessments related to changes in the forest product industries within the RFA area, building on previously identified factors that have historically driven social change Despite the significance of these changes, there has been a lack of formal assessments regarding their social impacts Below, we present a chronological selection of available social assessments to highlight the effects on the community.
Forest Products Industries Advisory Council
The Commonwealth Government established this Council to facilitate ongoing dialogue regarding the development of the industry sector among stakeholders with a direct interest Section 6.7 of the report specifically addresses issues related to social impact, highlighting the importance of these discussions.
Progress in the FPI sector, like in other industries, inevitably leads to changes in employment patterns, a trend that has become increasingly evident in recent years.
Industries must undergo rationalisation and restructuring at a careful pace to minimize community disruption, especially regarding unemployment and plant relocations This is particularly crucial in regions that have historically relied on these industries for substantial employment.
The Council endorses the proposal that governments develop regional adjustment policies as outlined in the Crawford Report These policies aim to mitigate the impacts of economic changes, especially in regions reliant on a limited industrial base for job opportunities and overall economic well-being.
Where possible, retraining programs should be developed by the industries in cooperation with Trade Unions, to reduce or avoid redundancies of workers
Governments must implement additional retraining programs to reduce the unemployment duration for workers impacted by restructuring and to prepare them for new job opportunities It is essential to provide suitable adjustment assistance for individuals who are disadvantaged due to job loss, retraining needs, or relocation challenges.
Communities and a Sense of Place
Community members across the region express a deep emotional connection to their towns, highlighting a strong sentimental attachment regardless of their duration of residence Many acknowledge that achieving the status of a "local" can take a lifetime, emphasizing the importance of community life, familiarity, and interpersonal relationships Additionally, the comfortable population size is frequently mentioned as a positive aspect of their living experience.
Residents frequently highlighted the 'lifestyle' and 'natural environment' as key factors that contribute to their town's appeal They emphasized the beauty of the natural surroundings, particularly noting the forests, clean air, and pristine water, which they often described as 'beautiful' attributes of their community.
Tourism is viewed as a vital component of community development, with towns like Walpole and Nannup successfully capitalizing on this industry, while others have yet to explore its potential The advantages of cultivating a tourism sector include enhanced employment opportunities, a more sustainable approach to natural resource use, and improved services in the area However, effective management is essential to ensure the industry's success and sustainability.
Addressing the quality and accessibility of public services is a top priority for most individuals Compared to cities like Perth, Albany, and Bunbury, there is a notable need for improvement in telecommunications, education, transportation, banking, and healthcare services.
Enhancing employment opportunities and diversifying job options is essential for towns, especially in fostering youth employment To support local economies, there is a recognized need to reduce dependence on timber harvesting and mining Establishing small business ventures is viewed as a highly beneficial strategy for each community's growth and sustainability.
Towns like Walpole and Jarrahdale are witnessing a gradual decline in the timber industry, impacting both their economies and social structures Residents acknowledge this change as inevitable, citing reduced employment in mills, shortened shifts, and the eventual elimination of jobs The decline is attributed to a decrease in log quality and quantity, along with a shift towards industry centralization Additionally, advancements in machinery have led to increased efficiency but reduced the need for labor The most significant consequence of this decline is the loss of employment opportunities However, the community remains optimistic about the future, focusing on developing new industries and improving their towns, with many believing that the initial fear and uncertainty surrounding these changes will soon pass.
In the long term however, people believed that assistance was needed in four main areas:
• recognition of a vision for the town;
• development of alternative employment prospects.
Issues of Local Importance
This section summarizes prevalent issues and themes identified in the literature, while other sections of the RFA process provide detailed insights into regional attitudes based on social survey results The following information encapsulates the key issues discovered.
Proximity to the coast enhances a town's appeal, while being a major center offers better access to services, goods, and employment opportunities However, small communities near larger towns face challenges, as residents may be drawn away by lower shopping costs and a wider range of services and entertainment options.
Many towns expressed general satisfaction with their north-south transport routes, but there is a clear demand for enhanced east-west access Notable projects like the upgrades to Coronation Road and Mowen Road are essential for improving connectivity between the towns of Margaret River, Nannup, and Manjimup.
Many towns face significant challenges due to their heavy dependence on private cars, which limits mobility for residents and visitors, especially younger individuals There is a strong call for increased public transportation options, such as buses, light rail, and trains, to enhance accessibility and improve overall transport systems.
The location of a town along a major transport route was seen as beneficial Being located off a major transport route eg Collie and Boyup Brook was seen as a distinct disadvantage.
Many residents of small towns appreciate their community's charm and anticipate future growth, yet they express concerns about the potential downsides of becoming "too big," fearing negative social consequences It is commonly believed that a specific population size is crucial for fostering prosperity, as it supports development and economic activity; however, there remains uncertainty regarding the exact size of this critical mass necessary for thriving communities.
Towns in the southwest are facing an aging population, prompting a need to reassess community funding and the availability of services like aged care facilities This demographic shift is attributed to young individuals migrating to larger cities in search of better employment, social, and recreational opportunities.
People generally desire economic growth, but it is essential that this growth is regulated Local communities want to have a voice in the economic development process, emphasizing the importance of their involvement in planning mechanisms.
A significant economic driver located within or nearby a town enhances both the local economy and the community's character and identity Furthermore, having a diverse range of industries and employment opportunities is crucial for mitigating the impact of fluctuations in any single industry.
Commuting from one's town to work can hinder the formation of strong community bonds, as lengthy travel times reduce opportunities for spontaneous interactions among workers outside of their professional environment.
Small towns foster close relationships among residents, as community projects showcase a commitment to both the town and its people Strong, community-minded leaders play a crucial role in maintaining the town's vision for the future and effectively communicating it to fellow residents.
Creative initiatives in various sectors, including industry and employment, showcase a town's ability to adapt and progress effectively Economic creativity fosters diversity and enhances productivity, playing a crucial role in promoting a positive development cycle.
The quality of services available in towns, such as schools, banks, medical facilities, CES offices, and retail outlets, significantly impacts their appeal to visitors and potential residents Many people feel powerless regarding the retention of these services, leading to concerns among residents about losing them, which often results in longer travel times to access essential facilities in larger centers.
Contribution of the Forest Product Industries
The perception in the region suggests a decline in the forest logging industry, marked by a long-term decrease in employment and concerns over the quality and quantity of forest resources The industry's history, especially regarding mills, is characterized by numerous closures and a significant reduction in the workforce.
Concerns have been raised regarding the local benefits of forest activities, particularly when the harvesting of nearby forests is conducted for processing at distant locations This practice places the environmental burden on the town while providing little to no economic advantage to the local community.
Eucalypt plantations are recognized as a sustainable resource option, yet a clear distinction exists between converting agricultural land into 'whole farm' plantations and implementing agroforestry or timber belts Many community members express a preference for preserving the agricultural character of their areas, rather than transforming them entirely into plantations.
What is a community?
Sarkissian and Walsh (1994) define the community in several ways, including:
• the patterns of interaction among friends;
• perceptions of commonality or common interest; or
• geographical definitions, ie., the adjoining houses, street, neighbourhood, school, etc.
The authors also point out that communities may encompass a variety of ‘publics’ whose needs and attitudes may vary greatly.
Can Community Wellbeing be measured?
Community wellbeing, often referred to as quality of life or community vitality, is a complex concept that varies significantly between different communities The unique character of each community is shaped by a multitude of factors, such as climate, physical environment, religion, ethnic diversity, wealth, and literacy levels.
This project utilizes emerging definitions of community wellbeing to identify the traits of thriving communities Armour (1993) established a set of indicators for 'community vitality' to assess a community's resilience to changes, such as the placement of waste disposal facilities or fluctuations in resource extraction industries Key indicators include community event participation, commitment levels, social isolation, organizational capacity in response to threats, conflict resolution abilities, and involvement in local governance.
Seattle has a strong commitment to sustainable development, utilizing community consultation to identify key indicators of community wellbeing This approach highlights the importance of considering environmental, economic, resource use, and cultural factors in assessing community health Key indicators include juvenile crime rates, local government involvement, wild salmon runs, library usage, arts participation, water and energy consumption, neighbor recognition, and real unemployment rates (Sustainable Seattle, 1993).
Writers such as Albery (1992), Mercer (1994), Landry (1994), and Compton (1994) highlight the importance of both measurable indicators and subjective perceptions in assessing community well-being They emphasize the distinction between individuals' experiences and the characteristics of their living environment, which is crucial for understanding the overall quality of life in a community.
6‘Person-Centred Quality of Life Evaluation’ in Urban and Regional Quality of Life Indicators (C Mercer Ed),
Across all these references there are some common themes that describe good communities These are listed below:
• life supporting, and hope creating, inner values and beliefs;
• a sense of purpose in life;
• work and family life that is enjoyable;
• an expectation of good physical health and longevity;
• a balance between work, recreation, family, society and spirituality;
• adequate food, shelter and clothes;
• security of income and sustenance;
• opportunity to experience and enjoy nature.
A place where groups of people have -
• openness to take opportunities and resilience to change;
• community linkages and support networks in place;
• a sense of identity and pride in a group of people and a geographic location;
• work places, homes and recreation areas are in close proximity;
• opportunities for recreation and celebration of the community through activities, festivals etc;
• the group supporting the individual and the individual is committed to the community’s wellbeing;
• allows opportunity for individual expression;
• maximising economic activity in the local community;
• maximising the material needs of the community from local production;
• high surrounding environmental quality, low impact on the surrounding environment;
• wide distribution and interactions between ages of people in the community.
Social Impact Assessment
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) encompasses a wide array of activities aimed at evaluating the effects of projects on communities The Central Highlands' Community Risk Assessment (CRA) follows Burdge and Vanclay's three-phase framework, which includes assessment and prediction, mitigation and monitoring, and audit and analysis Additionally, Wolf outlines ten distinct stages of SIA, as referenced by Taylor, Bryan, and Goodrich (1990), which are summarized in a comprehensive table.
3 below Most SIA projects only proceed as far as the Assessment and Prediction phases described below.
Table 3 Combination of Approaches to SIA
Assessment and Prediction Scoping - defining the study and its extent
Problem identification - setting goals, target audiences
Formulate alternatives - define realistic alternatives
Profiling - characterise the impacted system Projection - state assumptions, model the system, develop trends
Analysis of alternatives - sensitivity analysis, cross impact analysis, cumulative impact Evaluation - rank and weigh preferences, perform trade offs
Mitigation and Monitoring Mitigation - identify and test mitigation measures Monitoring - prepare and implement monitoring plan
Audit Analysis Management - feed back into the process and modify as required.
Assessment of Local and Australian SIA Projects
Twelve projects were evaluated based on the classifications established by Taylor and colleagues, with the findings summarized in Table 4 These projects were chosen for their readily available information and their relevance to Western Australia or the timber industry Additionally, Appendix 3 lists various international projects that could be assessed in the future to provide a more comprehensive overview.
In general some comments can be made from the assessment of these projects.
• If there are strong emotions being expressed around a project and change is happening quickly then the SIA tends to be more thorough.
• If the Federal government is involved in a forest industries SIA process it tends to be done far more comprehensively than has occurred at the State level.
In certain sectors, like the mining industry and Burnie forest industries, companies have demonstrated a strong commitment to the Social Impact Assessment (SIA) process, often exceeding their legal obligations to mitigate environmental and social impacts.
• Forest related projects, particularly at the State level, have not been well considered for their social impact with even less attention given to mitigation.
Mitigation
Section 6.3.1 examines the need for mitigation and presents a discussion of why social impact assessment and mitigation is a standard component of doing good business.
Section 6.3.2 explores various mitigation techniques applied in past projects, while Section 6.3.3 categorizes these methods into two main groups: short-term, localized, high-intensity changes, and longer-term, low-intensity changes.
Mitigation arises from the assessment and prediction of impacts, specifically identifying potential negative effects Incorporating social impact assessment and mitigation as a standard part of the planning process is essential for several practical reasons.
• ethics - in a modern society the need to assist in improving the position of community members is recognised People should not knowingly cause suffering or hardship;
• financial pragmatism - a lack of adequate consideration of the community may result in costly delays, disruptive activities, a lack of cooperation from community members, court challenges etc;
• resource access - the relationship between industry and community has important implications for resource access Access to resources is much easier where communities have confidence and understanding of industries;
Government decisions are significantly shaped by the opinions and sentiments of the community When the public has confidence in the functioning of industry, it positively impacts the likelihood of favorable decisions being made for that sector.
Investor and commercial confidence is significantly shaped by the reputation of an industry at international, national, and local levels This reputation is increasingly influenced by the actions and engagement of local communities.
Workforce attitudes and morale play a crucial role in determining employee effectiveness and commitment, as they are heavily influenced by the community's perceptions of the industry The industry's status and reputation significantly impact its appeal to potential employees, ultimately affecting their performance and operational capabilities.
Successful industries inherently embrace social responsibilities, recognizing that excellence is intertwined with social accountability This commitment to best practices not only enhances their reputation but also contributes positively to the community and environment.
Table 4 - Evaluation of SIA’s according to Wolf’s classifications
Deferred Forest Agreements • • • • four case studies of regions where there are changes in forest management practices as a result of the Deferred
Argyle Diamond Mine • • • • • • • • • • a review of the social assessment processes that were undertaken as part of the social assessment of the development of the Argyle Diamond Mine
Kemerton Industrial Park WA • • • • • • the social impacts of developing a large heavy industry park north of Bunbury
(Campbell-Hicks, 1992; Dames and Moore, 1985)
Exmouth transfer of US Navy Base WA • • • • • • • • • o
Windara Wind Down Process WA • • • • • o • • o
Closure of the Mt Windara Nickel Project WA
Closure of 399 coupes to woodchipping • • • o o case studies of the closure of woodchipping coupes in NSW, Manjimup (WA) and Tasmania
Central Highlands CRA - Social Assessment • • • • • • •
(Commonwealth Dept of Primary Industry and Energy, 1997)
Closure of Bunnings Jarrahdale Mill WA o
Beenup Mineral Sands Mine & Infrastructure WA • • • • • • • • o
Burnie Timber Industry Restructuring Tasmania • • • o • • • • • •
Industry restructuring and upgrading of technology
North Queensland World Heritage Listing • • • • • • • • • o listing of rainforest areas removed logging options
Mitigation is often perceived solely as financial compensation for community changes; however, there are numerous alternative strategies more suited to the specific conditions in the RFA area Thirteen distinct mitigation approaches have been identified from the studies reviewed, and their application should be tailored to each situation, considering the unique characteristics of the community and the nature of the changes involved The following summary outlines these mitigation approaches.
• None - no mitigation was proposed.
• Wait and see - a commitment was given to address an issue if it arose.
• Review of options - options were considered and presented to be addressed in the future if required.
• Individual assistance - this is generally assistance to individuals affected by a change and includes assistance with retraining, relocation, reemployment etc.
• Off set - providing one off payment or provision of facilities to offset the impact of a project.
• Conflict resolution - resolving conflict and mediation.
• Community liaison - providing information and answering questions.
• Using indicators - using indicators to trigger responses for mitigation.
• Structural change - modifying how administrative and bureaucratic systems respond to communities eg Agriculture WA’s Sustainable Rural Development Program, Ministry for Planning’s Leeuwin Naturaliste Statement of Planning Policy.
• Feedback planning - involving community representatives in the planning process eg design charettes
• Support for communities - seeking to develop a working relationship with a community The emphasis here is on ongoing support and involvement as one member of a wider community.
• Community control - the community drive the change process eg Integrated
The analysis of the mitigation techniques as they applied to the projects assessed in Table 4 are presented below in Table 5.
Deferred Forest Agreements • four case studies of regions where there are changes in forest management practices as a result of the Deferred
Argyle Diamond Mine • • • • • • • • o a review of the social assessment processes that were undertaken as part of the social assessment of the development of the Argyle Diamond Mine
Kemerton Industrial Park WA • • o • the social impacts of developing a large heavy industry park north of Bunbury
(Campbell-Hicks, 1992; Dames and Moore, 1985)
Exmouth transfer of US Navy Base WA • • • • • • • o (Environmental Management Services, 1992)
Windara Wind Down Process WA • • • • • •
Closure of the Mt Windara Nickel Project WA
Closure of 399 coupes to woodchipping • o • case studies of the closure of woodchipping coupes in NSW, Manjimup (WA) and Tasmania
Central Highlands CRA - Social Assessment
(Commonwealth Dept of Primary Industry and Energy, 1997)
Closure of Bunnings Jarrahdale Mill WA o
Beenup Mineral Sands Mine & Infrastructure WA • • • • o • • • o (BHP Utah, 1990)
Burnie Timber Industry Restructuring Tasmania • • • • • • • • • o Industry restructuring and upgrading of technology
North Queensland World Heritage Listing • • • • • listing of rainforest areas removed logging options
Section 6.3.2, along with Tables 4 and 5, outlines various mitigation strategies, categorized into two groups for operational clarity Group 1 techniques focus on short-term, localized, and high-intensity changes, such as the closure of a mill in a town The most commonly employed mitigation approaches in these scenarios are highlighted.
Group 2 techniques are linked to long-term, regional changes of low intensity, such as the centralization of processing in mills by forest product industries and the impact of plantation logging routes on surrounding towns The most commonly employed mitigation approaches in these scenarios include strategies that address these gradual transformations.
Different techniques can be utilized based on specific circumstances, allowing for flexibility in their application For instance, community control over the mitigation process can be particularly effective during times of rapid, short-term changes, such as when distributing relief funds following a disaster.
The Group 1-Group 2 model provides a solid foundation for addressing mitigation strategies in the RFA area Due to the factors outlined in Section 6.4.1, it is essential to prioritize long-term, regional, low-intensity changes (Group 2) for effective mitigation, as further elaborated in Section 6.4.3 on Regional Mitigation.
Localized changes in the forest product industry may lead to scenarios, such as mill closures or operational shifts, where Group 1 mitigation strategies could be applicable This topic is further explored in Section 6.4.4 on Local Mitigation.
Local and regional mitigation efforts should ideally collaborate, as evidenced by the similarities in their strategies By aligning their approaches, local and regional initiatives can effectively support one another, enhancing overall effectiveness in addressing challenges.
Mitigation and the WA RFA area
The RFA process aims to assess necessary mitigation measures related to potential industry changes It will explore scenarios involving minimal operational changes alongside those with significant industry transformations The need for mitigation will be evaluated based on these contrasting scenarios Arguments for and against both mitigation and industry changes are addressed If minimal change occurs, substantial mitigation may be impractical; however, if industry changes take place, there will be meaningful opportunities to implement effective impact mitigation strategies.
In the social assessment phase of the RFA, various mitigation opportunities have been identified and explored The RFA process will further investigate these options in greater depth.
Three case studies are presented to illustrate some of the mitigation strategies that have been employed in other circumstances These are:
• the experience of Southeast Asian forest communities;
• restructuring of the timber industry in Burnie in Tasmania;
• Agriculture Western Australia’s Sustainable Rural Development Program.
The RFA process offers a valuable chance for the entire forest product industry to acknowledge the significant advantages of mitigation, as outlined in Section 6.3.1 By broadening the concept of mitigation beyond mere offset payments for social change, and incorporating long-term strategies detailed in Section 6.3.2 and illustrated in the case studies below, the industry can enhance its sustainability efforts.
Forest management practices in Southeast Asian countries, particularly in Java, Indonesia, and Upland Cebu, Philippines, offer valuable insights for Western Australia's current forest management strategies Notable improvements in these regions have focused on addressing structural shortcomings within the forest industry, emphasizing increased community involvement in management processes The findings from these case studies will significantly enhance the ongoing Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) assessment in Western Australia.
Case Study 1 - Southeast Asian Forest Communities
This article synthesizes information from various reports (Ives & Pitt 1988; Poffenberger, 1990) to provide a generalized case study on the experiences of Southeast Asian countries Despite notable cultural, economic, technological, and social differences with Western Australia, there are sufficient similarities to facilitate a meaningful comparison Additionally, the article examines the primary mitigation strategies implemented in these countries.
During the colonial period, Southeast Asian states intensified their exploitation of forest resources, significantly altering traditional community management practices through legislation By the latter half of the twentieth century, it became evident that existing forest management was ineffective, leading to rampant deforestation This situation highlighted the urgent need for reform in forest management and the establishment of plantations as alternative resources Notably, challenges faced by forest communities in Southeast Asia mirror those identified in the Social Assessment process within the RFA region.
• the sustainable management of the forest resource had been repeatedly questioned by some;
Debates surrounding forest policies highlight the inadequate involvement and consideration of forest communities, leading to concerns about their well-being Additionally, there is a lack of comprehensive literature addressing how changes in the forest industry affect these communities.
• the trend towards increased centralisation of the industry is usually seen as being in conflict with the ability to increase the involvement of the local community;
• there was a need to establish collaborative management systems which bring forest managers and communities together The potential for community involvement may need to be further examined;
• Collaboration with community based groups will require facilitation, staff training and new skills
A number of the mitigation strategies employed in these countries have been summarised below:
Improving communication channels between community-based groups and government officials is essential for facilitating a two-way flow of information Effective communication of field-level situations to decision-makers is crucial, as is the need for discussions with community representatives regarding the rationale behind policies and procedures.
The inclusion of women in community-based groups has been identified as crucial for the success of environmental initiatives, as evidenced by the positive outcomes in Land Conservation District Committees in Western Australia (Goss, 1993) Although the forestry industry has traditionally been male-dominated, evolving technologies and management practices now provide opportunities to formally promote women's participation in forest management.
Research was strengthened to allow a more significant understanding of the social ramifications of a changing forest industry
• Research also examined the evolving capacities of community based groups and government bodies alike, and suggested ongoing ways in which to improve collaborative management
• Researchers spent more time in the field to understand the problems and opportunities facing forest communities and local and regional government officers
• The most appropriate makeup of any such collaborative groups formed was examined
Advisory and collaborative groups were established to enhance forest management by addressing local social and ecological needs However, this capacity has been declining over time as forest harvesting continues.
As forest management continued on its historical path and amidst conflict, opportunities were being lost to enlist the support and wisdom of the community
Collaborative groups played a crucial role in steering an existing management organization towards a new direction and evolving its structure This diverse group included key forest management staff alongside academics, social and management scientists, forest scientists, ecologists, and representatives from non-governmental organizations Their main objective was to critically analyze current forestry policies and programs, which challenged members to collaboratively produce a comprehensive appraisal of existing initiatives Through this process, group members became critical yet supportive partners, fostering a learning environment essential for the restructuring and development of the public agency.
Collaborative groups were most successful when associated with innovation trials The groups required creative experimentation which is sometimes difficult to achieve in bureaucratic structures
Community and social researchers conducted thorough documentation of the developments and processes within the collaborative groups Additionally, the group received regular updates on the impact of their decision-making, both in the field and on the group's overall functioning and progress.
The group discussions took place openly and helped to create an environment in which issues could not be ignored or suppressed, even if they created discomfort
The group's success stemmed from the dedication of senior officials to critical appraisal and effective leadership, their willingness to consider structural changes, and the strong belief among members that they were addressing a significant, longstanding issue Additionally, direct communication between senior officials and field staff, along with an open examination of pressing issues, played a crucial role in their achievements.
Regional mitigation efforts should leverage Group 2 mitigation techniques, and the following ideas can be integrated into the RFA process to enhance these efforts Case Study 2 illustrates how Agriculture Western Australia has successfully incorporated community and local economic development into its initiatives.
The government has historically provided significant support to the timber industry through CALM, fostering a strong infrastructure and relationship with the forest product sector Despite receiving royalties from this collaboration, similar levels of support are lacking in manufacturing and other forest-related industries, which hold greater potential for job creation.
Regional focus on community economic development - A number of papers presented at the