INTERPRETER MODIFICATION OF DISCOURSE FEATURES IN THE MEDIA A STUDY OF THE BROADCAST TRIAL OF SADDAM HUSSEIN

General outline

This thesis explores the topic of interpreting in the media, an area that, despite growing interest, still requires extensive research due to the infrequent nature of media interpreting and the limited availability of relevant data However, recent technological advancements have made more data accessible, significantly transforming mass media Innovations in satellite and internet communication, including video and audio links, have created new avenues for reporting global events Yet, these advancements also present challenges, particularly when events need to be reported across different languages and cultures, necessitating the use of interpreters and introducing additional complexities worthy of examination.

Media interpreting varies based on the interpreters' proximity to the event In interviews with foreign guests, interpreters facilitate communication between the interviewer and the guest Alternatively, in news coverage, interpreters may be present in a studio, either visibly or in the background, serving as observers to convey the event to the audience In the context of this thesis, the interpreters are not visible, which is crucial for their safety Revealing their identity could expose them to risks, particularly in sensitive cases like the broadcast trial of Saddam Hussein, where opposition could threaten their lives.

Previous research

Previous research on media interpreting primarily emphasizes its contextual characteristics (Kurz 1990, 2002; Mack 2002; Russo 1995; Snelling 1997) However, scholars have also examined the quality of interpreter output, with Kurz (1996, 2001) using employer expectations as a key indicator Despite this focus on quality, Kurz's study lacked insights into audience feedback, as he did not have access to the users of the interpreters' output.

The diverse settings for interpreting in media present various research opportunities For instance, interpreters in talk shows serve as vital communication links between participants, as highlighted by Sergio (1999), who notes that these interpreters must abandon neutrality and actively engage in the interaction Additionally, Mason and Stewart (2001) examined televised interpreted events, emphasizing the interpreter's role in managing pragmatic elements and face-threatening acts among interlocutors present on set Conversely, there are instances where interpreters focus on news coverage, showcasing a different aspect of their role in media interpretation.

Pửchhacker (2007) explores the strategies employed by media interpreters to navigate challenges unique to media environments, particularly in handling culture-specific references Similarly, Kwak (2007) examines an interpreted monologue and suggests improvements for interpreter performance While both studies provide valuable insights into media interpreting, they do not address the scenario where interpreters are interpreting live from within the broadcast setting, which is the primary focus of this research.

2 Usually in such a case the interpreter works between a foreign guest and a presenter

3 Kwak analyses USA presidential rhetoric made during the first and second Gulf Wars.

This thesis explores the interpretation of the USA Presidential Debate into German, addressing the limited research on media interpreting It aims to contribute to existing studies by examining how the media context influences interpreters' outputs, potentially altering the original messages The research highlights the need for diverse methodological approaches to further investigate various aspects of media interpreting.

Background

This thesis examines a pivotal event in Iraq's history, specifically the 2002 invasion by allied forces, which led to the capture and trial of ousted president Saddam Hussein for war crimes The establishment of a war crimes tribunal aimed to symbolize the transition from Saddam's regime to a new era of democracy and freedom for Iraqis Additionally, the trial served to highlight the atrocities committed under Hussein, providing further justification for the invasion Notably, this analysis does not delve into the political implications of these events.

On December 9, 2003, the Coalition Provisional Authority established the Iraqi Special Tribunal (IST) to prosecute Saddam Hussein and his associates for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide To ensure global media access to the trial, the Authority arranged for Arabic-to-English interpretation, with interpreters positioned in booths at the back of the courtroom Media outlets could access the courtroom via video and the interpreters’ audio links, facilitating extensive coverage of the proceedings starting from December.

From 2005 to December 2006, all courtroom participants communicated in Arabic, except for one defense lawyer who spoke English and utilized a personal Arabic interpreter While the interpreters had audio and visual access to the proceedings, they were prohibited from directly engaging with trial participants or interacting with the global audience.

5 The 2003 invasion of Iraq (from March 20 to May 1, 2003) was led by the United States, alongside the United Kingdom and smaller contingents from Australia and Poland.

The courtroom atmosphere was marked by extreme tension and chaos, primarily due to the defendants' refusal to acknowledge the court's authority, leading to confrontations among witnesses, lawyers, and even the public This tension extended beyond the courtroom, igniting political debates internationally regarding the trial of the Iraqi president The court's legal status also sparked heated discussions in the West, complicating the interpreters' tasks significantly Given the immense global interest in the trial, the role of interpreters became crucial in bridging linguistic and cultural divides As Baker notes, translators and interpreters are vital in reframing political conflicts and shaping social and political realities, making their interpretations profoundly influential in such high-stakes environments.

The thesis

This thesis explores the nature of interpreting within a complex international political context, emphasizing that interpreters are not responsible for facilitating communication between main participants The involvement of the media may influence interpreters' decision-making, resulting in outputs that resemble media reports The interpreters are tasked with conveying messages intended for a court audience that shares the same language and culture as the speakers, aligning with Nord's (1997) definition of documentary translation While Kurz (1993) identifies cognitive overload as a key factor in interpreters' strategy choices in media contexts, Pửchhacker (2007) challenges this notion, advocating for further research to better understand the strategies employed in media interpreting This thesis addresses Pửchhacker's call by investigating how the media context shapes the use of reporting techniques in the interpretations during Saddam Hussein's trial, focusing on the relationship between the purpose of interpreting and the resulting output.

1 What techniques are the interpreters in our data using?

2 Could the use of these techniques be a result of the media context?

3 What is the resulting role of the interpreters in our data?

This thesis explores critical questions through discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and pragmatics, utilizing linguistic tools to evaluate interpreters' performance at both the word and utterance levels It aims to identify the strategies employed by interpreters, comparing them with those typically used by journalists and reporters This comparative analysis highlights similarities and provides a clearer understanding of the role and purpose of interpreters within the examined data.

Thesis structure

Chapter Two examines the theoretical framework and key literature related to oral discourse, offering a foundational overview It addresses discourse variables such as field, mode, and tenor, providing just enough detail to contextualize the data analyzed in this thesis Section 2.1.7 delves into conversational analysis, emphasizing the oral nature of courtroom interactions and exploring how participants may hinder effective communication The chapter further investigates theories of politeness, connecting them to Gricean maxims, which serve as analytical tools for comparing source utterances with interpreters' outputs Importantly, the thesis does not aim to critique the applicability of these maxims within the data context.

Chapter Two provides an in-depth examination of pragmatic aspects of discourse, focusing on types of utterances, presupposition, entailment, speech acts, and implicatures, with a particular emphasis on Gricean maxims for analysis Section 2.2 addresses dialogue interpreting, utilizing Wadensjử’s model of renditions (1989) to categorize interpreter outputs The chapter specifically explores courtroom settings, analyzing language used in legal contexts and the ethics of courtroom interpreting Additionally, it discusses critical issues affecting both theorists and practitioners, including information loss during interpretation, the visibility and participation of interpreters, influencing factors on their roles, and the extent of their involvement and personal voice in their interpretations.

Chapter Two delves into the relationship between media reporting and the interpretation process, focusing on the strategies reporters employ when covering events It examines techniques such as omission and paraphrasing, highlighting the potential influence reporters have on the narrative The chapter further explores various scenarios involving media and interpreting, emphasizing key elements that define both fields A crucial indicator of interpreters' performance is their handling of cultural differences and specific Arabic terms, particularly social and religious expressions Therefore, it is essential to provide foundational knowledge regarding the translation of the Quran and its expressions.

6 The Qu’ran might be considered one the main sources of religious expressions in Arabic.

Chapter Three is divided into two main sections, beginning with an overview of the background of the corpus related to Saddam Hussein's trial It details the trial's setup, the participants involved, the role of interpreters, and the methods of data collection and transcription Before presenting the analysis framework, the chapter addresses the limitations of the study, clarifying that the chosen analytical tools are not the only options available and do not encompass all relevant aspects of the corpus The focus of the research is narrowed to examine the potential influence of the media context on interpreters' handling of pragmatic and linguistic elements during the trial proceedings, aiming to determine if the media environment led to reporting shifts in their interpretations.

This section outlines the analytical framework employed in the thesis to examine interpreter behavior in a novel interpreting context The research utilizes two primary analytical tools: Wadensjử’s (1989) model of renditions, which elucidates interpreter strategies, and the translation strategies proposed by Chesterman (1997) and Dimitriu (2004), highlighting commonalities in interpreter performance during trials Together, these tools illustrate the connection between interpreting practices and media reporting, reinforcing insights discussed in earlier sections of the thesis.

Chapter Four presents a comprehensive analysis of the data, organized into three key phases The first phase utilizes Wadensjử’s (1989) categories of renditions to classify data examples based on the type of renditions The second phase examines the translation strategies employed in each rendition type, referencing Chesterman's (1997) translation strategies and Dimitriu's (2004) omission strategies Finally, the third phase analyzes the data at the utterance and word level, employing linguistic and pragmatic indicators outlined in the theoretical framework, including discourse variables, conversational analysis, and pragmatic aspects.

In the conclusion of Chapter Four, the thesis evaluates interpreters' performance and decision-making processes, drawing insights from the analysis It highlights both theoretical and practical implications, providing a comprehensive understanding of interpreter expectations in similar contexts The discussion includes a presentation of the analysis findings and details the specific type of interpreting employed in the study Additionally, it offers recommendations for future research on interpreting in media settings.

Chapter Five provides a conclusion, discusses the limitations of the research, and draws together the main findings of the thesis and general implications for interpreting.

Discourse Processes

According to Johnstone (2002), people's positions in society are influenced by socially related factors such as power, solidarity, and community Power and solidarity are often conveyed through discourse, as individuals seek belonging within social groups that shape their identities Within these groups, members hold varying social statuses, with higher status conferring greater power, which in turn affects communication and behavior Solidarity serves as a counterbalance to power, reinforcing group cohesion while also allowing for the negotiation of power dynamics In the context of Saddam Hussein's trial, Johnstone's analysis reveals the interplay of solidarity and power among three primary groups: the defense, prosecution, and judges The defense consists of subgroups, including the defendants, who collectively support Saddam, while the prosecution group, made up of prosecutors and witnesses, demonstrates loyalty due to their roles in the trial.

2.1.2 Social roles and discourse roles

Social positions significantly impact discourse roles, as individuals navigate their power dynamics through various discourse strategies One key indicator of these roles is the form of address used in communication For instance, in a courtroom setting, the hierarchy typically places the judge, prosecution, and defence above the defendant However, in the context of this particular trial, the main defendant challenges this norm by employing assertive discourse, addressing the judge and prosecution with the authority reminiscent of his former status as president of Iraq, thereby asserting a sense of superiority despite his actual position.

Goffman (1981) emphasizes the significant impact of footing on our social roles, as it serves as the foundation for how we express ourselves in conversation and behavior When an individual discusses a past experience, it inherently differs from their discourse about the present or future, leading to varying "voices" and mental states, which ultimately shape distinct roles Distinguishing between different footings in discourse can be challenging In written communication, there are three primary footings to consider.

In communication, Goffman's participation framework identifies three key roles: the 'principal', who decides what to say; the 'author', who formulates the speech; and the 'animator', who produces the spoken content However, Wadensjử critiques this framework for overlooking the complexities of listening and introduces the 'reception format', which categorizes listeners into three roles The first role, the reporter, involves the listener being able to repeat the speaker's words to others The second role, the responder, requires the listener to engage further by contributing their own content or signaling understanding through non-verbal cues Lastly, the recapitulator is expected to summarize the speaker's message using an 'authorized voice', ensuring accurate representation of the original utterance.

The roles of 'principal', 'author', and 'animator' can often be fulfilled by a single individual, such as a novelist who decides the narrative, writes the content, and presents it to the audience However, these roles can also be distinct, as seen in a politician's speech, where the politician serves as the 'principal', an assistant acts as the 'author' by drafting the speech, and a spokesperson takes on the role of 'animator' by delivering it Analysis indicates that interpreters in our data assume dual roles throughout the interpreting process, highlighting the complexity of these functions.

In interpreting, the term 'principal' refers to someone other than the interpreter, as seen in phrases like "Saddam says," "the judge says," or "Barzan says." However, interpreters often assume the role of 'author' by editing, omitting, or paraphrasing the original statements.

‘animator’ by reproducing the speakers’ utterances in a different language (English).

Listeners play a crucial role in shaping the discourse of a speech, influencing how speakers structure and deliver their ideas They can be passive, requiring analysis of their emotions and beliefs to foster identification with the speaker, or active participants in creating meaning This dynamic is evident in how interpreters adjust their output based on audience perceptions, with omissions often linked to politeness, particularly regarding the use of vocatives Understanding these roles is essential for effective communication.

Context plays a crucial role in categorizing community members and shaping the identities and attitudes of those involved in communication It significantly impacts the effectiveness of interpreters, particularly in a courtroom setting in Iraq, where the context and trial environment influence interpreters' decision-making and output Context encompasses two key elements: context of culture, which involves the traditions and conventions of a society, and context of situation, which pertains to the specific event at hand.

7 Text is understood as referring to all spoken and written messages in an interaction.

2.1.3 Context of culture and context of situation

Context encompasses the circumstances surrounding a text, which contribute to its background knowledge This background knowledge has two key dimensions: the culture of the source text and the situational factors influencing its creation Both dimensions are crucial to this thesis Chapter Four's analysis (examples 4-5) illustrates how cultural and historical elements emerged during interactions, presenting challenges for interpreters.

The analysis reveals that Arabic and Islamic cultural values significantly shape participant discourse, presenting unique challenges for interpreters during the trial Additionally, the situational context, marked by Saddam as the primary defendant alongside key figures from the Iraqi regime, further influenced trial procedures The presence of foreign soldiers, Western media, and video coverage of the courtroom proceedings added a distinct political dimension to the trial.

Halliday emphasizes the connection between language and its cultural and situational contexts, noting that texts can convey multiple messages, some of which may be implicit To accurately interpret a text, listeners or readers must narrow down their understanding to grasp the intended meaning, as a text represents "what is meant" from a range of possibilities Challenges arise when an utterance has too many interpretations, making it difficult for the interpreter to focus on the correct meaning, but context can aid in resolving these issues Halliday describes the semantic system as a bridge between the linguistic system and a higher-order symbolic system, which encompasses the social system, including cultural and situational factors.

Hornby accounts for the relationship between culture and language in the following way:

Language is deeply intertwined with culture, as it reflects the collective cultural background shared by members of a society This context of culture encompasses the entire semantic system of language, where lexical items gain cultural significance and may reference specific events, anecdotes, or historical moments unique to a nation Consequently, referring to a particular era in one nation's history can evoke different responses compared to referencing the same period in another nation's context.

Language serves varied functions across different communities, as highlighted by Hymes (1979:116), indicating that its role can significantly differ For instance, discussing the Second World War in a meeting between French and Syrian delegations may evoke memories of the French occupation and perceived betrayals, while the same topic could heighten tensions in German-European relations by suggesting Germany as an adversary A notable example is when Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi sparked a diplomatic crisis with Germany by suggesting that a German MEP was suited for the role of a Nazi camp guard in an upcoming film, illustrating how language can lead to diplomatic misunderstandings and conflicts (BBC, 2003).

Mr Berlusconi's comments regarding Nazi guards have sparked a political crisis between Italy and Germany While it's challenging to determine the interpreter's role in such scenarios, it's clear that interpreters are not responsible for filtering the statements of those they interpret based on potential repercussions Nonetheless, interpreters should strive to ensure accurate transmission of the original messages to the intended audience.

Hornby (1988: 42) asserts that translation issues arise not from the source text itself, but from its relevance to readers within a specific culture or sub-group, shaped by their unique knowledge and perceptions This principle is pertinent in interpreting, where cultural differences can hinder understanding due to interpreters' limited cultural knowledge of the foreign context As Hornby notes, interpreters must be both bilingual and bicultural, feeling at home in two cultures (ibid 1988:42) Chapter Four's data analysis (examples 4-5) will demonstrate how certain Arabic/Islamic expressions were omitted during a trial interaction, likely due to interpreters' challenges in finding suitable cultural equivalents in English.

Modelling interpreting

2.2.1 Hatim and Mason’s model of translating

Hatim and Mason proposed a model for study and analysis of the work of the translator

(1990), in which each component is linked directly or indirectly to another The model is outlined in the following diagram.

Figure 2: Adapted from Hatim and Mason’s model of translating

This model could potentially be adapted for the interpreting profession, serving as a foundational framework for interpreting practices However, its application may vary based on key factors such as the preparation time available to the interpreter before the assignment, the extent of job preparation, and the opportunities for receiving feedback.

Translators typically have more time to contemplate and refine their work, allowing for thoughtful decision-making In contrast, interpreters operate under time constraints that limit their ability to deliberate, often requiring immediate responses without the luxury of reflection.

Interpreters often receive preparation documents before assignments, but additional background materials can enhance their decision-making regarding the interpretation of source utterances They frequently face the challenge of making quick decisions based on their immediate environment The data setting for this thesis illustrates the significant pressure interpreters endure during assignments, particularly due to time constraints inherent in the organization of the setting, which complicates their work further.

Feedback accessibility for translators varies based on the target audience, as they may or may not receive feedback, but corrections are feasible if both source and target texts are available In contrast, dialogue interpreters benefit from immediate feedback through direct interaction with their audience However, in our case, feedback is not attainable due to the audience's inability to communicate with interpreters, as the interaction occurs solely through a one-way media channel The next section delves into the crucial role of dialogue interpreters in communication, examining their performance and addressing key questions related to their effectiveness in the data.

10 What we refer to by feedback here is the target audience feedback and not the publisher’s or the editor’s feedback before the translation is published.

2.2.2 The role of the dialogue interpreter in the interpreted exchange

This section examines the critical role of dialogue interpreters in accurately conveying messages between interlocutors while ensuring that all implications are fully understood Building on Wadensjử’s (1998) concept of sense-making, the thesis explores its application in various dialogue interpreting contexts, particularly in court settings Additionally, it addresses the significant issue of information loss, highlighting the use of omission strategies in data analysis and the potential reasons interpreters may have for excluding specific information.

This thesis explores the multifaceted role of interpreters, examining their visibility in interactions and the factors influencing their efficiency and authority Drawing on Angelelli’s (2004a) insights, it highlights that interpreters must often be visible in their output rather than in their interactions with interlocutors, a dynamic shaped by the trial setting Additionally, Anderson’s (2002) perspectives on interpreters' roles and Mason’s (2009) analysis of their power in managing conversation dynamics—such as turn-taking and contextualization—further elucidate their influence in interpreted exchanges This comprehensive examination not only sheds light on the evolving role of interpreters in Saddam’s broadcast trial but also underscores the complexities of interpreted communication, which transcends mere linguistic elements to encompass discourse analysis, pragmatics, and semiotics.

2.2.3 Talk as text and as interaction

Roy (1989) utilizes conversational and discourse analysis to examine interaction characteristics, particularly highlighting turn-taking, which emphasizes the interpreter's active role in conversations (2000: 122) Wadensjử (1998) supports these findings by demonstrating that interpreters do more than translate; they facilitate interaction among participants (1998: 105) She proposes a dual perspective on talk: as text, which involves processing similar to text production, and as interaction, which considers the dynamic relationship between spoken communication and its resultant actions (2004) This concept aligns with speech act theory, particularly illocutionary acts, as discussed by Hatim and Mason (1990) Wadensjử further elaborates that utterances function as activities within specific contexts, influenced by situational factors, participant dynamics, and their collaborative engagement (1998).

Wadensjử's concept emphasizes the importance of understanding spoken language over the syntactic structure of sentences, highlighting its relevance in interpreting studies (1998: 32) While her theory has applications in various interpreting fields, this thesis specifically analyzes how Wadensjử’s categories of renditions enhance our comprehension of interpreter performance The significance of sense-making theory is particularly evident in dialogue interpreting, with a strong focus on court interpreting due to its alignment with the analyzed data.

When analyzing an interpreter's output in a courtroom, linguistic precision is crucial, as highlighted by Tiersma (1999) The defense and prosecution often base their strategies on any contradictions in a witness or defendant's statements, which can increase pressure on interpreters to provide literal and precise translations with minimal intervention, even when the original statements may not make sense Key factors affecting this process include language, participants, evidence, and courtroom ethics Interpreters are expected to maintain impartiality, remain detached from the case, and acknowledge any errors Although the interpreters in this study did not influence court decisions or facilitate communication among participants, their translations served as the primary access point for the global audience to understand the trial's content.

Linguistic vagueness significantly contributes to legal debates, even in monolingual courtrooms, where misunderstandings can arise Tiersma (1999) emphasizes the importance of precision and clarity in legal language, while Solan (1993) highlights that seemingly clear terminology can still lead to legal disputes Defendants may exploit vagueness to evade legal consequences, complicating interpreters' tasks when faced with ambiguous statements In such scenarios, adhering to social interaction principles, as outlined by Stott, Young, and Bryan (2001), along with politeness theories (Leech 1983; Brown and Levinson 1987; Lakoff 1990), becomes challenging, affecting interpreters' performance Furthermore, unique trial circumstances, such as interpreters' inability to clarify vague expressions and heightened tension, exacerbate these difficulties.

In a courtroom, various participants play crucial roles, with the judge serving as the highest authority The two primary parties are the prosecution, which builds a case against the defendants based on evidence, and the defence, which aims to establish the defendants' innocence When interpretation is necessary, at least two interpreters are present to enhance accuracy and quality by alternating in their roles Additionally, audio technology and headsets facilitate simultaneous interpretation, allowing all courtroom participants to receive consistent messages, as demonstrated in trials where interpreters are situated in booths connected via audio links.

Edwards (1995) emphasizes the importance of interpreters viewing courtroom evidence to enhance their linguistic preparation and psychological resilience, particularly in cases involving murder and war crimes, where prior exposure to distressing images can help mitigate emotional impact However, during the broadcast trial, interpreters faced significant challenges as they were confined to booths, lacking direct access to evidence and witnesses, many of whom testified anonymously behind closed curtains with voice-altering technology This separation compounded the difficulties for interpreters, ultimately affecting their performance in the trial.

Edwards (1995) outlines essential ethical codes that interpreters must follow in courtroom settings, which include impartiality, refraining from involvement in the case, and the readiness to acknowledge mistakes These ethical standards are crucial not only in trials but also in other interpreted events, as demonstrated in high-profile cases like Saddam’s trial Although the interpreters’ work did not directly affect the trial's outcome, it played a significant role in shaping public perception and reactions, highlighting the importance of maintaining ethical integrity in all interpreting situations.

Interpreters must maintain impartiality, refraining from siding with any party, which allows them to focus solely on language and meaning rather than the implications of the content for the case This principle is crucial, as interpreters are not expected to provide opinions—this responsibility lies with the professionals involved Impartiality is a significant concern across various contexts, including police interviews, highlighting its importance in ethical guidelines Consequently, the emphasis on impartiality is a fundamental aspect of most professional codes of ethics, underscoring the vital role interpreters play in ensuring fair communication.

According to Edwards (1995: 66), it is essential for interpreters to "maintain their distance" from cases, emphasizing that they should have no personal connections or vested interests in the outcomes The Crown Office in Scotland reinforces this principle in its 2008 code of conduct, stating that interpreters must promptly disclose any prior involvement with the case or relationships with the accused or witnesses.

Interpreting and the media

2.3.1 The relationship between media interpreting and media reporting

Media reporting and interpreting share several key aspects, particularly in the context of journalism This section explores how interpreters might adopt strategies akin to those employed by media reporters While it does not conduct an in-depth analysis of journalistic techniques, it highlights relevant strategies in relation to the interpreting process during the trial of Saddam Hussein.

2.3.2 Mass media as a means of communication

Modern technology has revolutionized the news landscape, enabling a constant, global competition among media organizations to provide the latest updates around the clock With most outlets delivering news directly to mobile devices, journalists now leverage media reports to share their experiences with audiences more effectively This rapid technological advancement has led to an ongoing evolution in media reporting, influencing both the objectives of news coverage and the strategies employed by reporters.

Media reports serve various purposes based on their type, context, source organization, and target audience, with the primary aim often being to inform the public about significant events (BBC, 2005) This objective is evident in both the interpreters involved in Saddam's trial and reporters in general Unlike the trial of Slobodan Milosevic, where interpretation aimed to facilitate the proceedings, the interpretation in Saddam's trial focused on keeping global audiences informed about the trial's progress The subsequent data analysis explores how the interpreters' awareness of this purpose influenced their decision-making process.

Reporters utilize various editorial strategies tailored to the purpose of their reports, highlighting the ethical responsibility to assess the significance of details based on the story's context and the subject's perspective (Craig, 2006: 73) To adhere to ethical standards, reporters may adopt different approaches, such as paraphrasing, explaining information, or omitting less critical details The choice of these strategies is influenced by the report's purpose and the media event's context Consequently, Chapter Four explores how interpreters in this media setting employed similar strategies to those used by reporters.

The article explores the parallels between a reporter covering a media event and an interpreter conveying information to a global audience about a trial that is being perceived as a significant media event.

Reporters often face challenging decisions regarding the inclusion or exclusion of information based on its relevance to the story's theme, as noted by Craig (2006: 71) Journalists may need to omit details due to constraints like time or length of a speech, prompting them to paraphrase for coherence (ibid, 88) This thesis explores whether interpreters encountered similar challenges during a trial characterized by a rapid flow of utterances from multiple speakers, which was also broadcast live Chapter Four specifically examines the use of omission strategies by interpreters in this context.

Reporters and editors often need to paraphrase complex information from their sources to make it more accessible to their audience, as noted by Craig, who emphasizes that "paraphrasing is a staple of journalistic practice" and an ethical concern that helps clarify the truth in stories (2006: 91) Similar to journalists, reporters may employ strategies like paraphrasing when covering challenging subjects such as science, medicine, and legal jargon (Craig, 2006: 74) Additionally, reporters can incorporate cultural aspects from foreign countries, for instance, translating from Arabic to English Interpreters face comparable challenges, particularly in media contexts, prompting an analysis of whether they also use paraphrasing to bridge cultural gaps.

This section discusses the interpreting choices faced by interpreters during Saddam Hussein's trial when communicating to an English-speaking audience The interpreters' decisions may impact their output through the use of 'reporting' strategies such as omission, paraphrasing, and explanation The following section of the thesis aims to clarify the objectives and strategies employed by interpreters, providing insights into their roles and allowing for comparisons with media reporters' work.

Reporters play an active role in their work by making informed decisions about what to omit or paraphrase in their reports These choices are not made randomly; rather, journalists are aware of the objectives of their reporting and structure their narratives accordingly For instance, a crime report may prioritize statistical data over victim names, whereas a focused report on a specific crime would emphasize the victims themselves The type of report significantly influences the strategies employed by reporters, highlighting their level of involvement in the storytelling process Additionally, Chapter Four explores the involvement of interpreters in Saddam's broadcast trial, suggesting that their engagement may vary based on the nature of their interpretation and their influence over the communication flow.

Interpreters play a crucial role in media contexts, such as TV and radio, when facilitating communication between foreign speakers and presenters who do not share a common language Their responsibilities extend beyond linguistic and cultural knowledge, requiring familiarity with media technology like cameras and microphones This technological awareness influences interpreters' decision-making, particularly in situations where audience access is restricted, as seen in courtroom broadcasts where interpreters must navigate various linguistic challenges.

In the realm of translation, certain strategies may be more effective, particularly when dealing with complex, culture-specific expressions This preference arises from a shift in translation's purpose, moving from an "instrumental" approach to a "documentary" one, as noted by Nord (1997: 47).

2.3.5 The role of technology in media interpreting

In the realm of media, communication is significantly influenced by technology, a concept referred to as "techno-communication" by Berger In a television environment, for instance, the interaction occurs between the studio host and guests, while the audience engages from their homes via television or radio This unique setup highlights the distinct communication channel that connects the studio participants with their viewers.

It can arguably be described as a virtual channel rather than a physical one as there is no

Direct face-to-face interaction is often replaced by technology, such as TV cameras and video links, which create a shared space for communication (Sergio, 1999; Morse, 1986) This virtual channel allows for interaction across various media settings For instance, during Saddam's trial, it established a one-way communication channel.

The studio group engages with the audience, who can see and hear the presentation but are unable to provide real-time feedback.

Figure 4: Role of Technology in media interpreting

The limitations of a media context, such as the lack of immediate audience feedback, can significantly impact interpreter output In the trial setting analyzed, interpreters may have exhibited similarities to reporters due to their restricted access to a global audience, potentially affecting the quality and nature of their interpretations.

Corpus

This study analyzes approximately 5 hours of the trial of Saddam Hussein, the former Iraqi president, which was aired in Arabic on Al-Jazeera TV To ensure international accessibility, interpreters were utilized during the broadcast The data for this analysis was obtained by subscribing to the Courttve website.

3.1.1 Brief history of the data

3.1.1.1 The relationship between Iraq and the USA

The United States' relationship with Iraq has been crucial to its strategic interests in the Middle East Recent events surrounding this relationship offer valuable context for analyzing media interpretations of Saddam Hussein's trial, as many of these events are referenced by Saddam and other participants during the proceedings.

The 2003 invasion of Iraq by allied forces, led by the USA and UK, can be traced back to the 1990 invasion of Kuwait, which marked a significant deterioration in US-Iraq relations following the Irangate scandal of 1985 According to Brands (2011), this scandal represented a pivotal shift in Saddam Hussein's interactions with the United States Kuwait's financial support for Iraq during its war with Iran resulted in substantial debt, which Iraq was unable to repay, leading to escalating tensions between the two nations.

Iraq sought to reduce oil production as an OPEC member to boost prices and alleviate its war debt from the conflict with Iran However, Kuwait's decision to increase its oil output exacerbated tensions between the two nations Additionally, a dispute over the Rumaila oil field further strained Iraq-Kuwait relations.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, which lasted approximately seven months, prompted direct military intervention from allied forces led by the United States, ultimately bringing an end to the invasion.

The American-led intervention in Iraq in 1990 to liberate Kuwait was driven by motives beyond humanitarian concerns, particularly the strategic control of Gulf oil fields by Saddam Hussein Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak suggested that Saddam's initial conflict with Iran in 1980 was part of a broader plan to dominate the region's oil resources, with Kuwait as the next target The prolonged war with Iran delayed Saddam's ambitions, but his invasion of Kuwait was a significant step towards establishing control over the Gulf states, positioning him as a national hero capable of influencing other Arab nations regarding the Palestinian cause This perspective likely resonated with the United States and its allies, explaining their alarm over the implications of Saddam's actions on regional oil stability.

3.1.1.2 Background to the invasion of Iraq

Following the September 2001 attacks in the United States, the White House concentrated on Iraq and Afghanistan, blaming Al-Qaeda and Osama Bin Laden for the assaults on the World Trade Center This led to the emergence of the term "war on terror" and a rationale for invading Iraq, with claims that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction and could deploy them in just 45 minutes Despite significant international opposition regarding the legality of the invasion, the U.S.-led coalition, primarily supported by the United Kingdom, Australia, and Poland, invaded Iraq in 2003, successfully overthrowing Saddam Hussein's regime After the invasion, Saddam Hussein and many of his cabinet members fled, but U.S forces eventually captured him, leading to preparations for his trial.

The Iraqi Special Tribunal, established by the coalition authority, comprised five Iraqi judges to prosecute Saddam Hussein and his co-defendants for crimes against humanity committed during his presidency The trial commenced to hold accountable those responsible for these serious offenses.

On October 19, 2005, the Iraqi Special Tribunal began the trial of Saddam Hussein and seven co-defendants, who were charged with crimes against humanity during his regime The trial primarily examined the Dujail events, a Shiite town where, in 1982, Saddam's regime allegedly retaliated against residents following a failed assassination attempt on his life In response to the July 8, 1980 attack on his motorcade, Saddam reportedly punished the entire town, resulting in the arrest and interrogation of approximately 1,500 residents, including women, children, and the elderly While some were released, many faced lengthy prison sentences, and 143 individuals were executed.

The key figures (defendants) in the trial included:

• Saddam Hussein the former Iraqi president

• Barzan Al-Takreety, Saddam’s half brother and the former head of Iraqi Intelligence Services.

• Taha Yaseen Ramadan, the vice president

• Awad Hamad Al-Bandar, the head of the revolutionary court which tried the suspects from the town of Dujail.

• Abdallah Kathem Rowayed, and his son Mezher Abdullah Kathem Rowayed, both senior officials at Al-Baath party in Dujail at the time of the accident.

• Ali Dayeh Ali, a senior official in Al-Baath party in Dujail

• Mohammad Azam, a senior official in Al-Baalth party in Dujail

The primary figures in the trial included head judge Rizgar Mohammed Amin, assisted by two secondary judges, while the defense team was led by Mr Khalil al-Duleimi, the sole member based in Iraq, alongside former U.S Attorney General Ramsey Clark.

Saddam and his defense team challenged the legitimacy of the court, claiming it was established by occupying forces lacking jurisdiction over Iraq There were signs of external interference in the proceedings, with witnesses facing intimidation; some provided testimony from behind curtains using technology to mask their identities The situation was exacerbated by the chief judge's resignation in protest against the new Iraqi authority's meddling Overall, the courtroom was rife with chaos, marked by ongoing disputes among various parties.

During the controversial Dujail trial, defense lawyers expressed concerns over their safety, claiming they faced insecurity and threats to their lives, particularly in comparison to the protection afforded to prosecutors Tragically, two defense lawyers, Adel Al-Zubeidi and Saadoun Al-Janabi, were killed, while a third, Thamir Al-Khuzaie, was injured and subsequently fled the country The trial was overseen by five judges, with the identities of all but Chief Judge Rizgar Mohammed Amin kept confidential to ensure their safety However, Judge Amin faced criticism for being too lenient towards the defendants and was eventually replaced by Judge Raouf Abdel Rahman.

Chapter Four highlights the significant impact of various factors on interpreters' decisions, emphasizing the severe threats to their lives that necessitated keeping their identities confidential Some interpreters who assisted the British army sought asylum in the UK in August 2007 due to these dangers Additionally, threats extended to Saddam's lawyers, as demonstrated in an incident where an audience member insulted and threatened the defense lawyers in the courtroom, leading to chaos during proceedings (refer to Chapter Four, example 7).

On November 5, 2006, Saddam Hussein was sentenced to death, concluding the trial against him Although his defense team filed an appeal, it was ultimately rejected, leading to the execution of the sentence 30 days later.

The trial sparked global controversy, with many countries, political entities, and human rights advocates labeling it a kangaroo court Amnesty International criticized the proceedings as "deeply flawed and unfair," a sentiment echoed by Human Rights Watch, which highlighted "serious administrative, procedural, and substantive legal defects." To grasp the context of the interpreters' work environment, it is essential to explore the typical daily operations of the trial.

Methodology

The analysis aims to descriptively highlight features of a new type of interpreting, utilizing a qualitative approach with a limited number of examples For additional instances, readers can refer to the appendix containing full session transcriptions This practice of limiting source material is not uncommon; Setton (1999) notes that varying lengths of data have been analyzed in simultaneous interpreting studies For instance, Roy (1993) examined the work of a single interpreter during an interview, while Petit (2004) focused on 10-minute interpreting samples from each subject Similarly, Barik (1973, 1975) analyzed excerpts of 3-5 minutes from a larger corpus Consequently, while the size of the corpus is significant, it is the quality and richness of the data that ultimately underpins the validity of the analysis.

The analysis features 16 examples of courtroom interpreting, each lasting between 2 to 4 minutes, drawn from a total of approximately 5 hours and 20 minutes of recorded data The selection criteria focused on the clarity and audibility of both the interpreting and the source utterances, ensuring that the data is representative of the overall broadcast Notably, the courtroom setup and interpreter arrangements remained consistent throughout the trial, reinforcing the reliability of the findings This study delves into a relatively new and distinctive form of interpreting in the media, specifically within the context of courtroom proceedings.

The analysis of the data utilized a combination of interpreting and translation tools, reflecting the strong connections between these two processes Chapter Two provided a comprehensive overview of translation literature, with a particular emphasis on dialogue interpreting Despite the distinct nature of interpreting, it is essential to incorporate translation theories into the analysis Consequently, a model was developed by merging various sets of tools, organized in chronological order, to effectively analyze the data.

The selected methods in this study were carefully chosen due to the richness of the data, making them ideal for addressing the research questions The data revealed various activities, including conversations among defendants and interactions with judges, prosecutors, and lawyers Additionally, Chapter Four illustrates how interpreters employed both interpreting and translation strategies Consequently, applying these tools will facilitate the development of a comprehensive model to analyze the diverse aspects of the data effectively.

Scholars such as Berk-Seligson, Hatim and Mason, and Wadensjử have developed various models for analyzing data in this field Given the specific nature of the data in this thesis, Wadensjử’s framework was chosen as the most suitable for structuring the analysis Additionally, the translation strategies proposed by Chesterman and Dimitriu will be utilized to identify the interpreters' techniques The Gricean maxims were thoroughly reviewed in Chapter Two and will not be revisited in this section.

Wadensjö highlights the dual nature of a dialogue interpreter's output, emphasizing that they both relay and coordinate information during interpretation This thesis examines each interpreting activity in detail for clarity, but it is important to note that relaying and coordinating are not mutually exclusive; they coexist in the interpreter's output What may appear as relaying in one context can simultaneously be viewed as coordinating in another (1996, 1998).

Wadensjử differentiates between two types of output in interpretation: renditions and non-renditions Renditions are closely linked to the source utterance, while non-renditions occur when the interpreter takes the initiative in their contributions, functioning more as a form of coordination In his 1998 classification, Wadensjử categorizes renditions by analyzing the dialogue interpreter's output in relation to the source utterances.

1 Close renditions: in this type of rendition the interpreter’s output is equivalent to the source utterance ‘informationally and interactionally’ and has

2 Expanded renditions: ‘the renditions include more information than is explicitly expressed in the original’

3 Reduced renditions: ‘the renditions include less information than is explicitly expressed in the original’

4 Substituting renditions (substitutions): the renditions constitute a combination of expansion and reduction.

Wadensjử identifies two additional types of renditions where the interpreter's output can correlate with multiple source utterances, unlike the previous four types that align with a single source utterance.

5 Summarizing renditions: when one rendition ‘contains constituents assembled from’ a sequence of two or more prior source utterances.

6 Lack of renditions: when source utterances have no ‘counterparts’ in the output of the interpreter

Dialogue interpreters often encounter vague exchanges due to linguistic or cultural differences, prompting them to elaborate beyond the original content This additional information, which lacks a direct counterpart in the source utterance, can be classified as non-renditions Consequently, this elaboration intertwines the processes of relaying and coordinating, highlighting the multifaceted role of dialogue interpreters.

Wadensjử (1998) classifies dialogue interpreters' contributions along two dimensions: whether they serve as a 'response' to a previous utterance or act as an 'initiative' to prompt a response from the other party, and whether these contributions are implicit or explicit Implicit contributions, which involve coordinating or gate-keeping, are essential to the interpreter's role and are executed through rendering activities Additionally, Wadensjử outlines explicit contributions, including responses directed at the prior speaker.

In interpreting dialogues, comments on the substance or form of a previous speaker's contribution play a crucial role Initiatives directed toward the immediate interlocutor typically aim to furnish them with essential information from the other main participant Additionally, meta-comments are often employed by the interpreter to clarify ambiguous statements, particularly when cultural differences between Arabic and English may create misunderstandings This bridging of cultural gaps ensures effective communication and enhances mutual understanding.

Wadensjử’s model constitutes the general framework for the data analysis However, some modifications are required before it can be fully applied

Applying Wadensjử’s model reveals that the activities of relaying and coordinating align with interpreting and reporting, respectively The interpreters' roles in the interaction resemble those of translators, who, like the interpreters in this study, do not anticipate immediate feedback Consequently, translation strategies were deemed beneficial for addressing scenarios that Wadensjử’s model, which focuses solely on dialogue interpreting, does not cover To provide context, a brief overview of the various translation approaches will precede the discussion of Chesterman and Dimitriu’s (2004) translation strategies, illustrating their origins and influence on how scholars and translators perceive the translation process.

20 We are not likely to experience this type of contribution in our data because the interpreters do not have access to the interlocutors.

Translation studies encompass various approaches that highlight different aspects of language, including text linguistics, discourse analysis, and pragmatics These methodologies typically begin with an examination of the text as a whole before dissecting it into smaller units Catford (1965) views translation as a linguistic process centered on textual analysis, distinguishing between 'textual equivalents' and formal correspondents He defines a textual translation equivalent as any target language form that corresponds to a specific source language form, emphasizing the importance of textual analysis in understanding translation.

Translation studies explore the relationship between source language (SL) and target language (TL) categories, aiming for equivalence in their economic roles Scholars like Newmark (1988) advocate for communicative translation, emphasizing the importance of conveying the exact contextual meaning of the original text while striving to evoke a similar response from target text (TT) readers as the source text (ST) does with its audience Additionally, semantic translation focuses on maintaining fidelity to the semantic and syntactic structures of the original language.

Hatim and Mason (1990) present an analytical approach to translation that emphasizes the cultural context of the text through discourse analysis Complementing this, descriptive approaches to translation, such as those by Chesterman (1997) and Dimitriu (2004), focus on actual translations and the techniques employed by translators Chesterman categorizes these translation procedures, while Dimitriu examines the role of omission in the translation process Both frameworks are relevant to interpreting and will serve as foundational elements in our analysis of the data collected for this research.

Model of media interpreting

Figure 5 showed the model according to which the interpreters in the broadcast trial work.

A comparison between broadcast interpreters and dialogue interpreters reveals key differences in their roles Broadcast interpreters operate from a distinct position, serving a wider audience, while dialogue interpreters engage directly with the main interlocutors in Arabic In courtroom settings, the dialogue interpreter facilitates two-way communication, effectively conveying interactions to English-speaking audiences outside the courtroom.

The data analyzed in this study involves unique dynamics between two distinct groups of interlocutors in a courtroom setting The first group, primarily Arabic speakers present in the courtroom, largely operates independently of interpreters, while the second group, an English-speaking global audience, relies entirely on interpreters for understanding the trial proceedings This creates two main barriers for the English-speaking audience: language and visual access Consequently, these factors influence the interpreters' decision-making, leading them to adopt two primary interpreting styles: a verbatim style and a reporting style Although both styles share certain characteristics, they employ different techniques and strategies tailored to the needs of their respective audiences.

This chapter describes these two styles and shows features that distinguish them from

This article explores typical dialogue interpreting settings, comparing and contrasting them to determine which best meets the needs of audiences and users of interpreting services It emphasizes that the distinctions between interpreting styles are often blurred, influenced by the interpreters' choices during specific incidents or utterances The analysis focuses solely on the interpreters involved in the study, identifying two primary groups based on their interpreting styles A key factor in determining the style and nature of interpreting is the degree of fidelity between the interpreters' output and the original message, with specific examples provided to illustrate these points.

General features of media interpreting

Media interpreting serves a distinct purpose compared to other interpreting styles, as its primary goal is to document proceedings for a broader audience Interpreters in broadcast settings are often acutely aware of this objective, allowing them some flexibility in processing source utterances, which do not influence the trial's outcome Given the trial's setup, interpreters may encounter various challenges, such as an inability to control the flow of exchanges Consequently, they must prioritize their output, focusing on what they deem most relevant for their audience.

4.2.1 Wadensjử’s model of renditions applied to the verbatim style

The verbatim style of interpretation can be categorized into three types: close renditions, reduced renditions, and no renditions at all Close renditions involve output utterances that closely match the original in both informational and interactional aspects (Wadensjử, 1990) Even in chaotic environments, interpreters can effectively communicate the meaning of the source utterance, particularly when dealing with formulaic or brief expressions, resulting in a conveyed message that mirrors the structure of the original.

Reduced renditions in interpretation often convey less information than what is explicitly stated in the original utterance This reduction may occur when certain elements, such as religious, social, or cultural references, pose challenges for the interpreter in translating them accurately into the target language The strategies employed in this context align with Chesterman’s pragmatic strategies, highlighting the complexities involved in effective interpretation.

In 1997, various styles of interpretation, such as paraphrasing, summarising, information change, illocutionary change, and partial translation, were identified It is common for some parts of an original utterance to lack counterparts in the interpreter’s output due to factors like divided attention among multiple interlocutors, which can result in the omission of certain statements By applying Wadensjử’s framework, these distinct styles of renditions can be effectively categorized within the verbatim style, and each style is examined individually.

In this style of rendition the interpreter’s output is equivalent “informationally” and

Interpreter output during trials often features close renditions when exchanges between interlocutors are brief and formulaic This phenomenon can be attributed to two main factors: short utterances require less time for interpretation compared to longer, complex statements, and their predictable nature allows interpreters to anticipate the content For instance, during the initial court proceedings, such as confirming the defendant's identity or administering the oath to a witness, interpreters are typically well-prepared This preparation enables them to accurately predict the source utterances and effectively structure their output to closely mirror the original statements.

In a recent witness hearing session, Mr Ahmed Hassan Mohammed Adujaily, a key figure in the Shia Dawa party, recounted the horrific torture and mass killings of his family and neighbors in Dujail in 1982, carried out by Iraqi security forces following an assassination attempt on Saddam Hussein An essential part of the trial process involves collecting personal information from witnesses, even if it is already on record The interpreter, Imad, strives to maintain accuracy and match the pace of dialogue between the judge and the witness.

The analysis section employs reported speech, such as "he says," "describes," or "claims." It is important to note that this usage does not represent the researcher's personal views or beliefs regarding the trial incidents; rather, it reflects the perspectives of the speakers involved.

No Data source Speaker of utterance Utterance Comments

1 SU The Judge دمحم نسح دمحأ بتكا ؟يليجدلا 2.

Gloss The Judge Write down Ahmad

Ahmad to confirm his name)

Int Imad Write down Ahmad

SU The judge ؟كرمع يضاقلا :

Gloss ?Your age Addressing Ahmad

Gloss Ahmad Was born in the year1967

SU The judge ةسلجلاب للخا هربتعن اذه ةسلجلاب للخا هربتعن ذاتسا

اكيرمأ يف مكاحملا همهف ؟لبقت 13.

13 Gloss The judge We consider this a violation of the session

Mr lawyer explain to him, would courts in

The judge addresses Saddam’s main Iraqi lawyer and commenting on Saddam’s American Lawyer’s behaviour which we cannot see due to restricted visual access

Int Imad This is a violation of the session please understand, would courts in America accept such behaviour?

The judge ؟كرمع The judge repeats the question again to the witness because of the

No Data source Speaker of utterance Utterance Comments interruption caused by the American lawyer 16.

Gloss The judge ?Your age Addresses Ahmad

In this analysis, interpreter Imad effectively mirrors the judge's questioning style, particularly in asking Ahmad about his name and age, demonstrating a literal translation approach By adopting the same structure and tone as the judge, Imad maintains a high level of similarity between the original and interpreted statements However, a notable aspect of this verbatim interpreting style is the omission of speaker identification, which may be attributed to the limited time between utterances For instance, when translating the judge's question followed by Ahmad's response, Imad merges both into a single output, potentially obscuring who is speaking Despite this, the audience is likely to discern the interaction between the judge and witness, as the context indicates a clear question-and-answer dynamic.

The extract illustrates how interpreters handle formulaic exchanges; however, our data reveals that heated and unexpected interruptions are more common This dynamic forces interpreters to split their attention among multiple interlocutors, leading to the omission of critical information Consequently, audiences dependent on the interpreter receive a distorted account of events from witnesses, defendants, or prosecutors As a result, an English-speaking jury relying on this interpretation may issue an unfair verdict.

The unique nature of the data in this thesis suggests that interpreters cannot rely solely on one specific theory of interpreting—be it literal, equivalence, or functionalist approaches Instead, they often employ a combination of these methods to effectively convey meaning, especially in non-traditional settings like media interpreting, which differ from typical courtroom environments This data could serve as a valuable model for training interpreters in similar contexts, such as courtroom or television programs Key factors contributing to the uniqueness of Saddam's trial include the extensive use of technology, which creates a shared space as described by Mors (1986), and the significant physical distance between the interpreters and their audience, which hinders feedback and limits communication channels, ultimately affecting the quality of the interpretation (cf Hatim and Mason 1990).

Interpreter output often contains less information than what is explicitly expressed in the original utterances, as noted by Wadensjử (1992) Interpreters face significant pressure, particularly when dealing with cultural and religious references in court settings, which can lead to omissions in their translations Arabic Islamic speeches frequently include a blend of historical, religious, and cultural references that serve various political, social, and cultural purposes This aligns with Hornby’s assertion that language is inherently connected to culture and cannot be viewed in isolation (Hornby, 1988).

Muslim speakers often begin their speeches by praising God with phrases like "In the name of God Most Merciful Most Compassionate" and "Peace be upon you." These expressions, deeply rooted in Arab culture, carry significant social and linguistic values, particularly politeness For instance, when discussing sensitive topics such as dirt or toilets, using phrases like "God raise your status" serves as a polite gesture to protect the listener's dignity The absence of such expressions in these contexts can be perceived as a threat to the audience's face While these phrases have religious origins, they have evolved to embody additional linguistic and pragmatic significance over time.

Arabic/English interpreters often find it straightforward to translate well-established Islamic expressions, such as [نمحرلا هللا مسب ميحرلا] as [In the name of God Most Merciful Most Compassionate] and [مكيلع ملسلا] as [Peace be upon you] However, challenges arise when encountering less familiar phrases like [هللا مكلجأ] [God raise your status], which lack direct English equivalents Additionally, terms like [موحرملا] [the late], which conveys a high register and respectful tone, pose difficulties since the English counterpart is neutral and lacks cultural significance This discrepancy can lead to misunderstandings or perceived disrespect To navigate these challenges, interpreters often employ techniques such as cultural filtering, literal translation, and omission, as outlined by Chesterman and Dimitriu, to better accommodate the linguistic and cultural nuances in their translations.

4.2.1.2.1 Omission of form-related parts of the utterance

The following extract was taken from the witness hearing session 22 after the witness has taken the oath

No. كنم اهعمسن ىتح كاوكشلضفت

Please your complaint so we can hear it from you

Give us your complaint so that we can hear Imad

In this instance, the judge politely requests the witness, Ahmad, to begin his testimony by using the respectful Arabic term [لضفت], akin to saying "please." This approach highlights the judge's adherence to the formal and courteous norms of courtroom proceedings when addressing witnesses.

The omission of the term "please" in the interpreter's output indicates a prioritization of factual meaning over the original form, thus violating Grice's maxim of manner This alteration creates a different implicature than intended by the judge, potentially threatening the witness's face By prioritizing information through omission, the interpreter may inadvertently generate various implicatures and face-threatening acts, disregarding the Gricean maxims of quantity and quality If the witness were part of an English-speaking audience, this could lead to discomfort and reluctance in sharing sensitive information This example underscores that violations of cooperative and politeness principles may not be intentional but can still result in unintended implicatures and face threats in verbatim interpreting.

Media Interpreting – reporting style

Interpreters who utilize the reporting style often employ techniques similar to those of reporters, allowing them greater visibility and control over their output compared to the verbatim style To analyze the strategies employed by interpreters in this style, we can refer to Chesterman's (1997) translation strategies, particularly focusing on pragmatic strategies, as well as Dimitriu’s omission strategies These pragmatic and omission strategies significantly influence the interpreter's decisions This article will illustrate the application of various reporting techniques by interpreters, including summarizing, providing additional explanations, enhancing explicitness, and employing omission.

During a witness hearing session, Ahmed Hassan Mohammad Adujaily, a member of the Dawa party, continues his testimony against Saddam Following a break, the court reconvenes with a new interpreter, Intisar, who adopts a reporting style rather than a verbatim approach This extract highlights key characteristics of media interpreting, showcasing the nuances of interpretation in a courtroom setting.

No Data source Speaker Utterance Comments

1 SU Judge يكتشملا ىلع اودان

2 Gloss Judge Call the complainant

3 Int Intisar Judge: please call for the complainer… For the witness

4 SU Lawyer ؟دهاش مأ يكتشم وه له يديس

5 Gloss Lawyer Your honour, is he a complainant or a witness?

7 SU Judge تقولا سفن يف دهاش حبصي نيمي فلحي ام دنع اندنع يكتشملا ذاتسأ

8 Gloss Judge Mr lawyer the complainant in our court becomes a witness once he takes the oath

10 SU Lawyer ؟يكتشم و دهاش وه

11 Gloss Lawyer Is he a witness and a complainant?

13 SU Judge يكتشم و دهاش معن

14 Gloss Judge Yes a witness and a complainant

16 SU Lawyer ( عومسم ريغ ) Inaudible

19 SU Judge فلحي ام دنع يكتشملا دوجوم ةيئازجلا تامكاحملا لوصأ نوناق يف تقولا سفن يف دهاش حبصي نيمي

20 Gloss Judge It is stated in the Iraqi law of trial proceedings that a complainant becomes a witness too upon taking the oath

21 Int Intisar The judge is saying the complainer once he does the oath he becomes a witness as well this is in the Iraqi law

In the legal proceedings, the judge refers to Mr Ahmad as a "complainant" instead of a "witness," causing concern for the defense lawyer regarding the implications of Ahmad's statement The lawyer questions the judge about Ahmad's legal status, to which the judge clarifies that a complainant becomes a witness upon taking the oath Despite this clarification, the lawyer remains skeptical, as indicated by the judge's emphasis on Ahmad's status under Iraqi law The judge cites relevant sections of the Iraqi trial law, highlighting the ongoing legal debate Ultimately, the interpreter, Intisar, summarizes the judge's position in a single statement, omitting the previous exchanges, which may leave the English-speaking audience without the full context of the discussion.

The partial translation technique results in the omission of key speech acts and face-threatening acts (FTAs) found in lines 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, and 23 Notably, the lawyer's rhetorical question serves as a polite off-record FTA regarding the judge's decision to recognize Ahmad as a witness.

In the exchange between the lawyer and the judge, the lawyer's second attempt to question the judge, despite a previous answer, suggests an intention to criticize rather than seek clarification The judge's firm response reinforces his authority, while the lawyer's inaudible reply hints at further uncertainty or dissent regarding the judge's decision This interaction highlights the complexities of legal communication and the underlying tensions in courtroom dynamics.

In Example 10, Intisar emphasizes essential documentary information while omitting the exchanges between court members, often summarizing multiple interactions into a single statement that may appear to be from one speaker, like the judge This summarization process inevitably leads to the exclusion of specific details or entire utterances Intisar's editorial role is evident as she consolidates various statements through selective inclusion and exclusion This approach aligns with Craig's observation on journalism, highlighting the challenging decisions regarding what to include or exclude based on the overarching theme of the narrative (2006: 71).

This example shows the summary technique, and how details which are not perceived relevant or of use to the English audience are left out.

At the conclusion of the session, the judge invites the prosecution to proceed with questioning the witness, Ahmad After Ahmad answers a question posed by the prosecution, the judge instructs him to continue to the next question, facilitating the flow of the proceedings.

No Data source Speaker Utterance Comments

2 Gloss Judge The next question

4 SU Prosecution رقم ىلا مهب ءيج اولقتعا امدنع رخلا لاؤسلا ةيبزحلا ةقرفلا

( ) ةمكحملا نم وجرا عومسم ريغ ديدحت

… ءامسأ ديدحت دهاشلا نم اولتق نيذلا تضرع يذلا هيلع مهثثج

During the prosecution of the five individuals, an important issue arose regarding their arrest and subsequent transport to party headquarters The court has requested that the witness provide the names of the deceased individuals whose bodies he observed.

During the court proceedings, I requested that the witness provide the exact names of those who were subjected to torture when they were taken to the detention center.

8 Gloss Judge Who are they?

10 SU Ahmad عومسم ريغ ءامسلا يضاقلا يديس وفعلا

11 Gloss Ahmad Forgive me your honour the names…

14 Gloss Judge On the day of the accident?

16 SU Ahmad ( عومسم غ ةعمجلا موي حابصم اولتق مهنم ءلؤه )

17 Gloss Ahmad Of those some were killed on Friday morning

19 SU Judge نكمم اذا انلددح

20 Gloss Judge Please be specific if possible

22 SU Ahmad يدوسلا رفعجلا يدهم دامع يضاقلا يديس وفعلا

23 Gloss Ahmad Forgive me your honour Imad Mahdi El

No Data source Speaker Utterance Comments

25 SU Judge ؟شيا دامع ىتح كفيك ىلع يضاقلا :

26 Gloss Judge Take your time… Imad what? The judge is clarifying the surname of one of the killed on the date in discussion

Bài viết này đề cập đến 28 SU Ahmad và những lợi ích của việc massage, bao gồm việc giảm căng thẳng và cải thiện sức khỏe Massage không chỉ giúp thư giãn mà còn hỗ trợ quá trình phục hồi cơ bắp và giảm đau Những người đã trải nghiệm massage thường cảm thấy thoải mái hơn và có thể cải thiện chất lượng giấc ngủ Việc chăm sóc bản thân qua massage là một phương pháp hiệu quả để nâng cao sức khỏe tinh thần và thể chất.

The group consists of 29 individuals, including Ahmad Imad Hasan Muhdi El Jaafar El Aswadi, Kareem Kazem Jaafar, Mohammad Abde, Jawad Alzobaydi, Abas Jasem, Mohammad Ramadan, Sattar Tawfeeq, Yahya Alkhafaji, Sadeq Majeed Hameed, Hashem Adnan Jasem, and Mahroz Hadi How many members are currently present?

30 Int Intisar He is telling names now of the people who had been tortured on Friday morning

34 SU Ahmad هفرعا ام هوبأ امأ دعر همسا يئلبرك ناك عساتلا و رارك وبأ هونكي

35 Gloss Ahmad And the ninth was from Karbalaa his name was raaed but I donot know his father’s name but he was nicknamed Abo Kerar

37 SU Ahmad تاذلاب ةعمجلا موي مهوباج مهلا ةبسنلاب ءلؤه موي يناث ينعي

38 Gloss Ahmad Those were brought on Friday which was the following day

39 Int Intisar The witness is saying those people have been killed on Saturday morning

In the courtroom proceedings, the prosecution requests Ahmad to identify the deceased victims from a specific date However, Intisar, the translator, opts to summarize rather than directly translate the prosecutor's words, leading to a shift in the information conveyed Notably, the prosecutor refers to the Baath party headquarters instead of a detention center and asks for the names of the dead victims rather than those who were tortured This indicates Intisar's tendency to focus on broader points rather than specific details The judge seeks detailed information from Ahmad about the victims' names and execution dates, which Ahmad begins to provide in subsequent exchanges While Ahmad may not view these details as crucial for the English-speaking audience, Intisar recognizes their significance.

Intisar demonstrates a more engaged interpreting style than a traditional verbatim interpreter, initially striving to closely mirror the source utterance while gradually shifting towards a reporting style as the exchanges quicken Her interpretations often summarize key ideas, such as transforming "dead victims" into "tortured victims," indicating a change in information Additionally, she opts to inform her audience that Ahmad is listing names without actually providing them, suggesting that she deems the details unnecessary for comprehension This summary technique is also evident when witnesses deviate from the main topic, as seen when one witness discusses a dream despite being prompted to stay on point.

In Saddam's trial, a witness's statement reveals a tendency to stray from the judge's inquiries, as highlighted by multiple instances where the judge urges the witness to remain focused on the relevant topics.

Line no Data source Speaker Utterance Comments

Line no Data source Speaker Utterance Comments

3 Int Ihsan The judge asked the witness to continue

The article discusses the significance of the four witnesses in Islamic law, highlighting their roles in ensuring justice and truthfulness It emphasizes the importance of reliable testimony in legal matters, as well as the moral responsibility of witnesses to uphold integrity The text also addresses the implications of false testimony and the need for a fair judicial process Ultimately, it underscores the value of accountability and transparency in legal proceedings within the framework of Islamic teachings.

Discussion

This thesis builds on previous research, particularly the insights of Kurz (1993), who emphasizes that high delivery speed in TV interpreting significantly influences interpreters' decision-making and strategy application, including the frequent use of omission, compression, and summary In contrast, Pửchhacker (2007) argues that reductive strategies like omission are not solely due to cognitive overload but may also aim to enhance comprehensibility He highlights the need for further research to better understand the strategies interpreters employ in media contexts, expressing concern over the scarcity of studies in this area This thesis aligns with Pửchhacker's efforts to explore media interpreting, specifically investigating how the purpose of interpreters in interactions is reflected in their output, focusing on the media context's impact on reporting techniques during the broadcast of Saddam Hussein’s trial.

1 What techniques are the interpreters in our data using?

2 Could the use of these techniques be a result of the media context?

3 What is the resulting role of the interpreters in our data?

This section examines the various factors influencing each question and their impact on the role of interpreters While the research focuses on a single event, it does not seek to generalize the findings; instead, it aims to illustrate the functioning of interpreters within specific media contexts.

The analysis of Saddam's trial reveals a notable similarity between the interpreting conducted and Nord's definition of documentary translation, as both involved participants sharing the same language and culture (Arabic) Interpreters primarily translated Arabic utterances for an Arabic-speaking audience, leading to strategic choices such as compression, summary, or omission, particularly with cultural references Kurz attributes these behaviors to cognitive factors, specifically 'high-speed delivery,' while Pửchhacker argues that interpreters consciously aim to create a more comprehensible and meaningful output.

This thesis posits that the use of interpreters in trials serves a crucial function, influencing both the decision-making process and the interpretive approach adopted by legal professionals.

Factors the interpreters faced

The factors the interpreters faced in the broadcast trial can be divided into two groups The first group is related to the participants and the second is setting-related.

The following participants’ behaviours seem to have influenced the interpreters’ decision- making process.

4.5.1.1 Participants deviating from the subject matter

Numerous instances were observed where participants strayed from the main topic of their witness statements, highlighting the impact of courtroom setup and trial participants on communication This deviation contributes to the disorder experienced during the trial and poses significant linguistic challenges for interpreters The unpredictability of exchanges complicates the situation further, making it essential to address these issues for effective courtroom communication.

According to Gregory and Carroll (1978), utterances serve a "purposive" role, but they may fail to reflect social activity or topic relevance, as noted by House (2001) Deviating from the subject matter can hinder the clarity of communication, making it difficult for listeners to follow This suggests a violation of key conversational principles, including the need to maintain conversational flow and clarity in utterances (Scott et al., 2001).

This article explores how violations of theoretical indicators, including register variables, politeness theory, and Grice’s maxims, reveal the complexities of interaction in specific events.

4.5.1.2 Participants not observing the prescribed formal tenor

The courtroom behavior of participants, as illustrated in examples 7 and 8, significantly disrupted trial proceedings, leading to procedural and linguistic breaches Arguments between the public and defendants included offensive language and threats, challenging interpreters who struggled to manage the interruptions While previous studies utilized tenor and conversational principles to analyze courtroom dynamics, adjustments are necessary for interpreting outcomes in this context Unlike earlier research by Namy, Berk-Seligson, and González et al., which emphasized interpreters' roles in maintaining register variables, Saddam’s trial demonstrates that interpreters are affected by participants’ tenor without influencing it themselves.

4.5.1.3 Participants not acknowledging limitations in the channels of communication with the interpreters

Participants were able to communicate effectively without the need for interpreters, indicating that language differences did not impede their interactions This autonomy in communication eliminated the necessity for translation time, suggesting that interpreters were not deemed essential for effective dialogue Consequently, this situation posed additional challenges for the interpreters involved This observation aligns with the theory of Brown and Levinson regarding communication dynamics.

In Saddam's trial, the interpreters focused on reporting the proceedings rather than facilitating direct communication among participants, as the exchanged face-threatening acts (FTAs) were primarily directed at those present in the courtroom rather than a global audience This context suggests that FTAs held minimal relevance for the interpreters, as participants were able to communicate directly, allowing them to concentrate on the key aspects of the case.

4.5.1.4 Participants obstructing of the flow of exchanges and breaching the politeness principle

The article highlights several violations of conversational principles within courtroom interactions, where participants frequently disrupted the flow of dialogue Accusations among defendants, the prosecution, and witnesses, along with contradictory and unclear statements, indicate that truth and clarity were often compromised This scenario appears to be a common characteristic of courtroom dynamics Additionally, numerous instances demonstrate breaches of the politeness principle, as face-threatening acts (FTAs) were prevalent throughout the trial.

The courtroom atmosphere presented significant challenges for interpreters, as incidents of interruptions and simultaneous contributions disrupted the usual order of proceedings Typically, questioning requires permission from the judge, and defendants are not expected to interrupt or engage with witnesses However, in the observed trials, defendants frequently interrupted witnesses, contributing to a chaotic environment This disorder not only affected the trial's dynamics but also had a clear impact on the interpreters' performance, shaping their techniques and strategies Additionally, various setting-related factors played a crucial role in this context.

The courtroom setting significantly impacted interpreter performance, as they were situated in booths at the back, limiting their communication with trial participants Furthermore, the intended role of the interpreters in the trial appeared to affect their decision-making processes.

4.5.2.1 Position of the interpreters in the interaction

In the broadcast trial, interpreters were situated in booths within the courtroom, allowing them to observe the interaction without participating, as most participants communicated in Arabic Consequently, the interpreters were not involved in the courtroom dynamics, but they served as a crucial one-way communication channel for English-speaking media audiences worldwide, who depended entirely on the interpreters for access to the trial proceedings This setup created a situation where audiences could not interact with the participants, nor could the interpreters communicate with them, limiting feedback and engagement This raises questions about the interpreters' role in the courtroom, as their typical function of facilitating communication was not fulfilled in this context.

4.5.2.2 Purpose and role of the interpreters

The previous section highlighted the role of interpreters in trials, raising the question of their purpose in such settings While trials share characteristics with interpreted monologue events, like foreign-language TV programs, they differ significantly in intent, with the trial focusing on prosecuting the former president Both contexts require interpreters to communicate events to non-speaking audiences, yet the trial interpreters seemed to lack specific guidelines and ethical standards, likely due to the unprecedented nature of the situation This underscores the need for integrating such unique scenarios into interpreter training programs, preparing future interpreters for similar high-stakes environments.

The interpreters’ reactions to the situation

The first part of this chapter discussed some of the main factors that interpreters in Saddam Hussein’s trial had to deal with (see sections 4.5.1 and 4.5.2) The application of Dimitriu

The decision-making process of interpreters during trials is influenced by various factors, as highlighted by Chesterman (1997) and Dimitriu (2004) Interpreters often utilized literal translation and loan translation, while also paraphrasing, culturally filtering their output, and occasionally altering the illocutionary force or providing partial translations These strategies resulted in noticeable changes in the visibility of their output In some instances, interpreters opted for concise summaries, emphasizing essential information and minimizing cultural misunderstandings The subsequent sections will explore the interpreters' choices and responses to the influencing factors within the trial setting.

4.6.1 The interpreter omitted non-established specific cultural expressions

The cultural differences between Arabic and English present significant challenges for interpreters, often leading to the omission of cultural, religious, and historical Arabic references in English interpretations While interpreters effectively conveyed straightforward Arabic expressions with established English equivalents, they frequently struggled with more complex, culture-specific terms, resulting in omissions This difficulty stems from the various factors interpreters encounter during the interpretation process.

4.6.2 The interpreter paraphrased and summarised source utterances

In the courtroom, interpreters lacked control over the flow of exchanges, as participants often interacted without their assistance, viewing interpreters as part of the audience To effectively convey information, interpreters employed strategies like paraphrasing and summarizing, sometimes omitting details they deemed non-essential (Dimitriu, 2004) This led to the exclusion of utterances that did not directly contribute to the trial proceedings, particularly during heated exchanges among participants Consequently, various exchanges were omitted from the interpreter's output, reflecting a reporting style that served as a coping mechanism for managing simultaneous dialogues.

4.6.3 Repeated utterances were not interpreted

In the courtroom, interpreters often omitted repeated utterances to prioritize essential information and save time, indicating their active role in the interpreting process This selective translation suggests a level of visibility and involvement that may contradict courtroom ethical codes, such as impartiality and maintaining a neutral stance, as outlined by Edwards (1995).

4.6.4 Basic personal details of victims not interpreted

Interpreters were primarily utilized to broadcast the trial proceedings to a global audience rather than to enhance communication Consequently, this focus often led to the prioritization of specific courtroom events and details over crucial personal information about the victims and other participants involved.

4.6.5 The interpreter provision of stage directions

Interpreters play a crucial role in courtroom settings, providing both audio and visual access to their audience, especially given the limited visual access available to them This additional responsibility includes interpreting and describing the movements of participants, highlighting the need for a broader understanding of the interpreter's role beyond traditional linguistic focuses The complexity of trials necessitates a modification of existing theoretical frameworks, such as Wadensjử’s (1998) model of renditions, to accommodate these unique challenges Ultimately, interpreters serve as vital gatekeepers, facilitating communication between participants and the audience, as emphasized by Mason (2006).

4.6.6 The interpreter flouting of Gricean and politeness maxims

Linguistic indicators, including Gricean maxims and politeness principles, were utilized to analyze interpreters' output in relation to source utterances Strategies such as omission, paraphrasing, summarizing, and prioritizing were more easily identified through these maxims, revealing instances of lost face-threatening acts (FTAs) or alterations in their strength Interpreters frequently employed the omission strategy when faced with complex cultural and pragmatic references, likely reflecting the intended purpose of their output The use of omission and the deliberate flouting of maxims shed light on the interpreters' evaluations of the source material, facilitating a better understanding of their decision-making processes It can be argued that the interpreters acted cooperatively in flouting these maxims, considering the trial's context and their awareness of audience needs.

Theoretical Implications

Interpreters in the broadcast trial not only conveyed exchanges but also edited and summarized them for their audiences The analysis of their output was conducted in two phases: the first phase utilized linguistic indicators, including discourse variables, conversational principles, Grice’s maxims, and politeness theory, to assess the interpreters' performance at the utterance level The second phase categorized the overall interpreting strategies employed, using Wadensjử’s framework of renditions alongside Chesterman’s translation strategies and Dimitriu’s omission strategies The findings confirmed several anticipated characteristics of the interpreting style used in the trial.

The primary characteristic observed is the interpreters' lack of control over the communication flow during exchanges In optimal interpreted interactions, interpreters manage the dialogue, leveraging their skills to facilitate understanding However, in this case, the interpreters had no influence as the main participants communicated directly in Arabic, eliminating their reliance on interpretation services This situation heightened the pressure on interpreters, as their audiences were entirely dependent on their output, given the restricted access to trial proceedings through courtroom cameras installed by the American administration.

The constant influx of input significantly impacted interpreters' decision-making, leading to a reduced time frame for prioritisation Consequently, interpreters often sacrificed or omitted various linguistic and pragmatic elements from the source utterance, which adversely affected the quality of their output To manage the time constraints present in courtroom and media environments, interpreters frequently employed strategies such as omission, prioritisation, summarising, and paraphrasing In Saddam's trial, interpreters primarily prioritised their output based on the relevance of the source utterance to the trial proceedings and their ability to find established equivalents in the target language.

The interpreters in the trial prioritized factual information, viewing it as directly relevant to the proceedings, while personal exchanges, such as insults or irony, were deemed less significant However, the trial's progress was often obstructed by arguments, interruptions, and public interference, which forced interpreters to adapt their focus This emphasis on factual exchanges over personal, cultural, or social implications was evident in their use of two interpreting styles: verbatim and reporting.

The trial showcased two media styles of interpreting—verbatim and reporting—both characterized by a lack of control over information flow and prioritization of factual content However, interpreters employed different techniques and strategies, leading to varying levels of visibility in their output Verbatim interpreters focused more on pragmatic and linguistic values, often resulting in a literal interpretation that diminished their visibility compared to the reporting style, which involved more editing and summarizing While both styles aimed for fidelity to the original utterance, the verbatim approach aligns closely with Wadensjử's concept of the interpreter's relaying activity (1992) Verbatim interpreting encompasses three main exchange types: formulaic, religious/cultural, and personal, each requiring distinct strategies and renditions—close, reduced, or absent—which ultimately influence the quality of the output.

In Saddam's trial, interpreters faced significant time constraints, limiting their ability to fully accommodate the linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural nuances of the original Arabic utterances Unlike dialogue interpreters who can interact with speakers to clarify or request repetitions, the trial interpreters lacked direct communication with the interlocutors This disconnect led to inconsistencies in their interpretations, as they often resorted to literal translations, explanations, or omitted key linguistic elements specific to Arabic.

Interpreters frequently handled specific elements differently across various exchanges, suggesting a learning and evaluative process in their interpreting experience This inconsistency may stem from insufficient training to navigate complex linguistic and cultural contexts To analyze these variations, Wadensjür’s model of renditions was utilized as a framework for categorizing different verbatim styles Additionally, the techniques and strategies employed by the interpreters were examined in relation to the research of Chesterman (1997) and Dimitriu (2004).

The trial of Saddam Hussein was marked by chaos due to frequent interruptions and heated debates, leading to incoherent and incomplete interpretations by the interpreters This disruption often resulted in meaningless or irrelevant output, as source utterances were abruptly cut off Consequently, applying Wadensjử’s model of renditions required an adaptation to this chaotic environment, focusing on 'chunks' of input and output rather than complete utterances, which were often unavailable.

The reporting style of interpreting employs various techniques utilized by interpreters, showcasing their diverse methods and approaches Key techniques prominently featured in this style enhance the clarity and effectiveness of interpretation.

This technique involves summarizing multiple source utterances into a single output, allowing interpreters to prioritize and convey information deemed relevant to the trial proceedings This approach aligns with Chesterman’s translation strategy of partial translation, which may sometimes result in changes to the information presented in the interpreter's summary.

Interpreters may occasionally enhance their output by adding information for clarity, which can increase their visibility in the interpretation process This shift from animator to principal footing, as described by Goffman (1981), alters the illocutionary force since the interpreter's intent to clarify differs from the original speaker's intent, such as defending or accusing This technique aligns with Chesterman’s (1997) strategies, which emphasize adjustments in the interpreter's visibility and the conveyance of illocutionary force.

Media interpreters prioritize essential information relevant to their topic, often omitting personal exchanges, figures of speech, and implicatures In broadcast trials, interpreters using a reporting style produced even more concise outputs, resulting in clear and explicit communication This approach not only saved time but also ensured that the main points of the source utterances were easily understood by the audience.

Omission is a key technique in the reporting style, where interpreters prioritize conveying essential information while leaving out non-essential details Although there are four distinct techniques utilized by interpreters, it's important to note that these methods are not mutually exclusive and can be employed simultaneously to enhance clarity and focus.

The reactions of interpreters to the circumstances during Saddam's trial highlight their use of reporting techniques, as discussed in section 4.3 The documentary style of interpreting, along with the editorial methods employed by interpreters to navigate the trial's challenges, aligns more closely with journalistic practices than traditional interpreting roles (see section 2.3.2) Ultimately, the function of interpreters in this context mirrors that of reporters, emphasizing the unique demands of the trial setting.

In contrast to previous studies by Parkinson, Berk-Seligson, and Wadensjử, the interpreters analyzed in our data experienced greater autonomy and reduced accountability in managing face-threatening acts (FTAs) Their interpretations did not directly affect the interaction, allowing for the omission or modification of FTAs without significant consequences This differs from scenarios where interpreters are positioned between primary participants, as highlighted by Berk-Seligson's observations on jury influence and Davidson's emphasis on the interpreter's responsibility to manage participant dialogue However, in the trial of Saddam Hussein, the interpreters' roles were distinct; they were not tasked with facilitating interaction but rather with interpreting and conveying the proceedings to their audience.

Implications for the professional aspect of interpreting

This thesis redefines the role of media interpreters, presenting them as authors of their own output, which challenges earlier models, including Wadensjử’s perspective on interpreter functions.

The findings of this thesis highlight the need to reassess the expectations placed on interpreters, particularly in politically significant contexts, where their role extends beyond mere neutrality to that of a powerful gatekeeper between participants and audiences Current codes of ethics, such as the IOL, emphasize the importance of neutrality and literal interpretation, yet this research suggests that a new code of ethics may be necessary to address the unique challenges faced in specific interpreting scenarios By drawing on Pührchhacker’s (2007) work in media interpreting, it becomes evident that interpreter training programs should evolve to prepare interpreters for high-stakes environments, like the trial of Saddam Hussein, which, although not common, could become more prevalent due to ongoing global political conflicts.

This thesis highlights the critical importance of context in interpreting significant events, such as Saddam Hussein's trial While the interpreters' translations did not directly impact the court's verdict, they were the sole means through which the global English-speaking audience accessed the trial This landmark trial not only shaped the future of Iraq but also influenced perceptions of the invading forces, whose justification for the invasion remains contentious, as evidenced by ongoing political debates and the UK Iraq Inquiry of 2010.

The role of interpreters in media settings significantly differs from Mason's (1999) concept of power in interpreting, although there are similarities While Mason views interpreters as intercultural mediators influencing the main participants, this thesis focuses on the interpreters' output and their authority in the courtroom Despite lacking direct influence over participants, interpreters often adopt an authoritative stance, sometimes shifting from a neutral role to that of an author Their prioritization of information and frequent use of omission strategies, particularly regarding sensitive personal details and culturally specific expressions, highlight their significant role Notably, in Saddam Hussein’s trial, the specific purpose of interpreting heavily impacted the decision-making processes of the interpreters.

4.8.2 Visibility/involvement of the interpreter

Interpreters play a crucial role in trial settings, where their involvement and audience awareness significantly impact the interpreting process The visibility of the interpreter varies, being lowest in verbatim styles during formulaic exchanges and highest in reporting styles that incorporate summarizing and paraphrasing A key aspect of the interpreter's visibility is their selective delivery of information, often driven by the need to effectively communicate with their audience This dynamic suggests that interpreters may feel compelled to take control of the information flow, essentially 'spoon-feeding' details to ensure comprehension This analysis is grounded in a theoretical framework that supports the discussion of interpreter involvement in trial contexts.

The study examined how media context influences changes in the role of interpreters To address this, the research question was divided into two specific sub-questions.

The thesis examined media interpreters operating in high-stress environments, revealing that their role significantly impacted decision-making and reporting styles Despite not engaging in the interaction, interpreters provided the sole access point for English-speaking audiences to information about a highly publicized trial of international interest Most of these audiences were outside Iraq, leading to a ‘documentary’ quality in the interpreters’ output, as noted by Nord.

1997) as compared to functional nature, where the interpreter is needed to facilitate communication and can influence the outcome of a trial This confirms Pửchhacker’s findings:

To achieve the strategic objective of enhancing delivery speed and managing information density, the most common approach to handling culture-specific references was found to be omission (Pửchhacker, 2007: 140).

The interpreters' outputs exhibited characteristics similar to those found in media documentary reports, demonstrating a higher visibility than typically anticipated according to certain ethical codes (IOL) and previous research by scholars like Berk-Seligson (1989, 1990) and Wadensjử (1998).

This thesis underscores the critical role of interpreters in complex communication scenarios, emphasizing their unique position outside the direct interaction It explores how the interpreters' functions are influenced by the specific context and purpose of their work, particularly within the media sector By examining media contexts, the research reveals that interpreters develop distinct reporting techniques that blend their output with that of reporters, resulting in a hybrid form of interpretation This innovative approach ultimately gives rise to a documentary style of interpreting, showcasing the evolving nature of interpreter contributions in broadcast settings.

Synthesis

This thesis adopts a cross-disciplinary approach to examine the roles of interpreters within a specific context, employing tools from discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and pragmatics Chapter One outlines the theoretical framework, focusing on the register variables of field, mode, and tenor, and their relevance to interpreting By analyzing the purpose and function of interactions (field), the communication channels used (mode), and the formality of these channels, the chapter effectively characterizes the interactions present in the data Additionally, the second part of Chapter One explores conversational aspects that highlight the various challenges interpreters may encounter during interactions.

This section explored the application of conversational analysis in interpreting, highlighting the active role of interpreters in dialogue, as discussed by Berk-Seligson (1990) It emphasized turn-taking as a significant aspect that reveals the visibility of interpreters during interactions (Dimitrova 1997; Roy 2000) Analyzing the corpus from Saddam Hussein’s trial showed that while interpreters were not directly engaged with participants, their decision-making was influenced by the adherence or violation of conversational principles by those involved The examination of linguistic tools, including discourse variables and turn-taking, was crucial for this thesis, as it demonstrated the interpreters' involvement in their output and contributed to identifying key characteristics of their roles within the analyzed data.

The principles of conversation serve as indicators of disruptions in dialogue, particularly in cross-cultural interactions where politeness is crucial This article explores foundational theories of politeness, beginning with Leech (1983) and advancing to Brown and Levinson’s framework (1987), which identifies three key factors influencing politeness: relative power, social distance, and the ranking of imposition Central to this discussion is the concept of "face," which introduces speech acts and, specifically, face-threatening acts (FTAs) The analysis of FTAs is vital for understanding interpreters' outputs in relation to their inputs, highlighting the visibility of interpreters in communication.

Chapter Two explored the pragmatic aspects of interaction, beginning with the distinction between constative and performative utterances It defined presupposition and entailment to enhance our understanding of how these elements influence interpretation The discussion shifted to implicatures, particularly conversational implicatures, necessitating a thorough examination of Grice's maxims—quantity, quality, relation, and manner (1975) The application of these maxims in interpreting revealed significant implications, highlighting an omission strategy in interpreters' outputs This evidence indicated a shift in the interpreters' role within the context of the study, transitioning from facilitating communication to reporting the communication process among participants.

The third section of Chapter Two examines dialogue interpreting as distinct from translation, utilizing Translation Studies to establish foundational knowledge for the thesis It highlights Wadensjử’s (2004) concept of talk as text, which effectively connects written and spoken language The discussion then shifts to court interpreting, outlining essential elements of a courtroom environment, including language, participants, and trial evidence Additionally, it addresses the ethical responsibilities of interpreters, emphasizing the importance of impartiality, non-interference in cases, and the readiness to acknowledge mistakes.

This thesis examines court proceedings and compares them to medical and social dialogue interpreting contexts, highlighting both differences and similarities It explores how various factors influence interpreter output, focusing on decision-making processes such as information loss and interpreter visibility Additionally, it considers the impact of participants' ethnic backgrounds, gender, and race on interactions The thesis also addresses Anderson's (2001) factors related to interpreters, including "linguistic dominance" and its implications for participant identification Furthermore, it discusses the power dynamics within interpreted interactions, referencing Mason (2009), who identifies the interpreter's influential roles, such as turn distribution and gatekeeping This analysis emphasizes the extent of interpreters' involvement in oral interactions based on contextual factors.

The analysis revealed varying levels of involvement among interpreters, highlighting their roles as reporters of the interaction rather than mere facilitators This chapter explored the factors influencing the interpreting process and examined approaches to interpreting that address the cultural gap between Arabic and British cultures A key issue discussed was the suitability of a literal interpretation in sensitive contexts, such as Saddam Hussein’s trial.

Chapter Two explores the relationship between media interpreting and media reporting, highlighting the role of mass media as a communication tool and the objectives of media reports It emphasizes the similarities between reporters and interpreters by examining reporting strategies, such as omission and paraphrasing, which reflect a reporter's involvement in their work The chapter also addresses the significance of interpreting in media, including the impact of technology and various interpreted media events, which are crucial for understanding shifts in interpreters' outputs Additionally, it provides a contextual background for the thesis data and discusses the relevance of interpreting and translating Qur'anic expressions, particularly given the prevalence of Islamic terminology in the trial, to evaluate the interpreters' performance.

Chapter Three focused on two key areas: the corpus and the methodology for its analysis The corpus section examined the history, nature, participants, and technological aspects involved in data collection Meanwhile, the methodology section outlined the theoretical framework for the analysis, introducing Wadensjử’s model alongside those of Chesterman and Dimitriu, which will be integrated to evaluate various facets of the interpreters’ output in the data.

Chapter Four examined media interpreting through two main sections: an analysis of data examples and a discussion informed by the theoretical framework established in Chapter Two It began with an overview of media interpreting features, followed by an exploration of two primary styles: verbatim and reporting The analysis detailed the interpreters' performance and decision-making processes, utilizing a model derived from three key methodologies (Wadensjử 1998; Chesterman 1997; and Dimitriu 2004) The discussion highlighted the interpreters' choices within the broader theoretical context of the thesis, concluding with the research's theoretical and practical implications.

Limitations of the research

Access to the recorded trial sessions was limited, with instances where key participants were inaudible, hindering the comparison of source and target utterances Samples were selectively chosen for their relevance to the research question, as transcribing the entire corpus was deemed unnecessary due to repetitive content Additionally, the inability to interview interpreters posed a significant limitation; attempts to gather information were unsuccessful due to security concerns, preventing insights into their work environment and professional backgrounds This lack of information restricted the exploration of how interpreters' backgrounds influenced their decision-making processes Notably, the term 'regime' was used to describe Saddam Hussein’s government, reflecting language commonly employed by the allies, particularly the American forces involved in the trial Despite technical challenges that prevented capturing the full trial interpretation, a sufficient amount of data was recorded to adequately address the research question.

This research aimed to describe a new form of interpreting without critiquing or evaluating the interpreters’ quality Partial transcription was sufficient to highlight general characteristics of media interpreting, avoiding redundancy in examples The study also sought to analyze newspapers' commentary on the Saddam Hussein trial, recognizing that interpreters’ output was the primary source of English insights into the trial To enhance the research, it would be beneficial to examine two distinct groups of newspapers: one from allied countries and another from nations opposing the Iraq war This dual approach would mitigate political bias and allow for a clearer understanding of how interpreters’ output was utilized by different media outlets.

Future research

This thesis emphasizes the need for further research into various aspects of media interpreting Notably, an instance was observed where an interpreter appeared to be swayed by the employer's ideology, substituting "the Iraqi Government" with "the Iraqi Regime" in the interpretation This alteration may indicate that the interpreter was aligning with the ideology of American authorities.

2001) However, the interpreter’s choice could have been a linguistic weakness rather than a conscious decision to adopt the ideology of one of the dominant parties in the interaction.

While our specific data limits a detailed exploration of this point, it highlights the ideological impact that one party has on media interpreters.

A promising theoretical framework for future research is Relevance Theory, as proposed by Sperber and Wilson (2002), which builds on Grice's (1989) insights into human communication and the interpretation of speakers' intentions This theory could be instrumental in examining how media interpreters make decisions based on their inferences from source utterances and how these inferences correlate with their pre-assignment briefings.

The thesis highlights the need for further research on how audiences perceive the output of media interpreters, questioning whether they view it as a literal translation or a summary It suggests studying press outlets that utilize this output, as their comments provide accessible documentation of audience interpretation Collecting samples from various ideological groups can reveal differing perceptions of media interpreters' work Additionally, while the purpose of interpreters is evident in the data, more investigation is required to understand the impact of time pressure on their decision-making processes.

Implications

The documentary interpreting process discussed in this thesis reveals significant implications for media interpreting, particularly regarding the reliability of interpretations It suggests the need for an adjudicator to verify interpretations before dissemination, acknowledging the challenges interpreters face Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of specialized training and practice for interpreters to effectively navigate these contexts.

Several factors influenced the implementation of reporting techniques in the interpreters' strategies during the trial Primarily, the interpreters' role was to convey the courtroom interactions to an external audience through broadcast, rather than facilitating direct communication within the courtroom Additionally, modern technology restricted the audience's visual and audio access, which heightened the interpreters' responsibilities, including the need to provide stage directions Consequently, interpreters prioritized delivering substantive factual and procedural information over less critical details, such as the names of victims.

Media interpreters in broadcast trials serve a distinct role compared to those in previous studies, where their primary function was to facilitate communication among participants In our analysis, interpreters did not engage in interaction, demonstrating how the intended purpose of interpretation significantly influences the strategies and techniques employed This distinction underscores the unique nature of media interpreting, both in terms of output and methods used, particularly in politically charged contexts like the trial of Saddam Hussein Consequently, it emphasizes the necessity for interpreters to be adequately prepared for the challenges they may face in such environments.

Pửchhacker (2007) and Kurz (1990) highlight that media interpreters often utilize omission to navigate challenging scenarios This thesis addresses Pửchhacker's call for further exploration in the field of media interpreting, illustrating how the interpreter's role can shift based on the intended use and context of their work Specifically, during Saddam Hussein's broadcast trial, interpreters took on a reporting role, employing various reporting techniques tailored to the broadcast environment.

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