Ten Strategies that Improve Learning

Warning: your search results may be incomplete - there were some problems with the database Please inform HW Wilson technical support if this problem persists AUTHOR: Susan J Paik TITLE: Ten Strategies That Improve Learning SOURCE: Educational Horizons 81 no2 83-5 Wint 2003 The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited To contact the publisher: http://www.pilambda.org/ For decades policymakers, researchers, and teachers have sought long and hard for ways to improve achievement in our schools The practices outlined in this article are general strategies that can be applied widely to the academic subject matter for kindergarten through twelfth grade Although other techniques work well, these practices have survived the test of time, supported by research spanning more than a century Several major references used are studies funded by the U.S Department of Education and the National Science Foundation Some of these studies compile the results of several hundred investigations synthesized by many scholars They show powerful and consistent effects on elementary and secondary students in widely varying circumstances Following each strategy are recommendations for further reading (Walberg and Paik 2000) Parental Involvement and Partnerships Schools should encourage parents and develop cooperative partnerships with the home to stimulate their children's intellectual development Teachers and parents can work together in developing strong curriculum in the home The home curriculum refers to engagement of parentchild activities and conversations about school and everyday events; encouragement of reading; monitoring of television viewing and peer activities; and expression of affection and interest in the child's academic and other developmental areas A family-school partnership provides strong support for parents who wish to develop a strong academic environment for their children's learning Recommendations: Epstein (1995); Graue, Weinstein, and Walberg (1983); Iverson and Walberg (1982); Paik (2001); Redding (2000); Walberg (1984); Walberg and Paik (1997) Homework and Feedback Homework that is graded, commented upon, and discussed holds more learning value for students Extending homework time is a proven way to lengthen study time and improve learning and achievement Among developed countries, the United States has the fewest school days, due to longer summer vacations U.S students also spend less time, on average, doing homework Schools with daily quotas for minutes of homework help to improve learning In addition, teachers can employ strategies in which students grade their own and their peers' work Consequently, they learn cooperative social skills and evaluation of their own work Recommendations: Paik, Wang, and Walberg (2002); Paschal, Weinstein, and Walberg (1984); Walberg (1984, 1994); Walberg and Haertel (1997) Goal-Setting and Time on Task Students with focused educational goals are more likely to obtain mastery over the subject matter Learning results from concentrating one's time and energy Adequate time to complete tasks and appropriate goal-setting should be reinforced by parents and teachers Teachers have the most direct role in ensuring that this emphasis is carried into the classroom through skillful classroom management, evaluation of student progress, and effective teaching strategies Students who are focused and actively engaged make more progress toward their goals Recommendations: Anderson and Walberg (1994); Paik (2001); Paik, Wang, and Walberg (2002); Stigler, Lee, and Stevenson (1986); Waxman and Walberg (1999) Direct Teaching Good-old-fashioned, effective teaching can be traced to the turn of the century Effective direct instruction, which is still expected in the modern classroom, should consist of: 1) clear teaching, daily review, and homework checks; 2) presentation of new content and skills; 3) teacher monitoring and guided student practice; 4) corrective feedback and instructional reinforcement; 5) independent practice in school and at home with a 90 percent success rate; and 6) weekly and monthly evaluations The skills and attributes of teachers employing effective direct instruction should include organization, clarity, task orientation, enthusiasm, and of course, flexibility Recommendations: Brophy (1999); Gage and Needles (1989); Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1993a, 1993b); Waxman and Walberg (1999) Advance Organizers Advance organizers show students the relationships between past and present learning Effective use of graphic advance organizers such as maps, timetables, and flow charts may be an excellent strategy Advance organizers help students by connecting ideas and giving them a mental road map Understanding continuity of subject matter can motivate students Similar effects can be accomplished by goal-setting, previewing, pretests before lessons, and pre-questions stated in textbooks and by teachers Recommendations: Brophy (1999); Walker (1987); Weinert (1989) Teaching and Learning Strategies Students who master basic learning strategies can measure their own progress toward specific goals When students use strategies to strengthen opportunities for learning, they increase their skills of self-awareness, personal control, and self-evaluation Three learning strategies are modeling (the teacher exhibits desired behavior); guided practice (students perform with support from the teacher); and application (students perform independently) Perhaps that is why "To learn something well, one must teach it." Recommendations: Haller, Child, and Walberg (1988); Palincsar and Brown (1984); Walberg and Haertel (1997) Peer Tutoring Peer tutoring appears to work nearly as well as teacher tutoring Tutoring promotes effective learning in tutors as well as their students Tutors learn to organize their thoughts to teach, budget time, and learn managerial and social skills that come with the territory of teaching Positive experiences and self-esteem can blossom even for slower-learning students and those with disabilities Recommendations: Cohen, Kulik, and Kulik (1982); Medway (1991); Topping (2000) Mastery Learning Research shows that thorough mastery of each step can provide optimal learning Mastery learning allows learners to save time by monitoring their own progress Mastery learning allows more time and remediation for slower learners and enables faster learners to skip material they already know Mastery learning programs require knowledgeable teachers to develop assessment strategies for appropriate student placement, and to provide reinforcement and corrective feedback, while continuously engaging students in lessons Recommendations: Bloom (1988); Kulik, Kulik, and Bangert-Drowns (1990); Waxman and Walberg (1999) Cooperative Learning By working in small groups, students learn teamwork: how to plan, monitor, and evaluate their activities as well as to receive and give constructive criticism Not only can cooperative learning increase academic achievement, it can also enhance students' interpersonal skills Teachers must carefully design and prepare for small groups and play the roles of facilitator and evaluator to properly assess individual and group progress Although cooperative learning has become widespread and effective in American schools, researchers not recommend that cooperative learning take up the entire school day Multiple teaching strategies are considered more productive than overreliance on any single method, even cooperative learning Recommendations: Aronson and Patnoe (1997); Hertz-Lazarowitz and Miller (1992); Walberg and Haertel (1997) 10 Adaptive Education Instructional strategies adapted to individual students and small groups raise achievement Adaptive education requires careful planning and implementation by a master teacher Barriers to learning are first diagnosed, and some may require a specially designed plan for students' needs Planning, time allocation, task delegation to aides and students, and quality control are important strategies Consequently, central-office staff, principals, and teachers need more than standard training to integrate and maintain adaptive programs As goals become more clear and uniform, teachers should be more capable of developing and employing systemic approaches such as adaptive education Recommendations: Wang (1992); Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1998); Wang, Oates, and Whiteshew (1995); Wang and Zollers (1990) ADDED MATERIAL Susan J Paik is an assistant professor in the Learning and Instruction Department at the University of San Francisco School of Education REFERENCES Anderson, L W., and H J Walberg 1994 Time Piece: Extending and Enhancing Learning Time Reston, Va.: National Association of Secondary School Principals Aronson, E., and S Patnoe 1997 The Jigsaw Classroom New York: Addison-Wesley Bloom, B S 1988 "Helping All Children Learn Well in Elementary School and Beyond." Principal 67 (4): 12-17 Brophy, J 1999 Teaching UNESCO Publications Cohen, P A., J A Kulik, and C L Kulik 1982 "Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-Analysis of Findings." American Educational Research Journal 19 (2): 237-248 Epstein, J L 1995 "School-Family-Community Partnerships: Caring for the Children We Share." Phi Delta Kappan 76: 701-712 Gage, N L., and M C Needles 1989 "Process-Product Research on Teaching." Elementary School Journal 89: 253-300 Graue, M E., T Weinstein, and H J Walberg 1983 "School-Based Home Reinforcement Programs: A Quantitative Synthesis." Journal of Educational Research 76: 351-360 Haller, E., D Child, and H J Walberg 1988 "Can Comprehension Be Taught: A Quantitative Synthesis." Educational Researcher 17 (9): 5-8 Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., and N Miller, eds 1992 Interaction in Cooperative Groups New York: Cambridge University Press Iverson, B K., and H J Walberg 1982 "Home Environment and Learning: A Quantitative Synthesis." Journal of Experimental Education 50: 144-151 Kulik, J A., C L Kulik, and R L Bangert-Drowns 1990 "Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Programs: A Meta-Analysis." Review of Educational Research 60 (2): 265-299 Lipsey, M W., and D B Wilson 1993 "The Efficacy of Psychological, Educational, and Behavioral Treatment: Confirmation from Meta-Analysis." American Psychologist 49 (December): 1181-1209 Medway, F J 1991 "A Social Psychological Analysis of Peer Tutoring." Journal of Developmental Education 15 (1): 20-26 Paik, S J 2001 "Educational Productivity in South Korea and the United States." International Journal of Educational Research 35: 535-607, Pergamon Press Elsevier Science Ltd Paik, S J., D Wang, and H J Walberg 2002 (Winter) "Timely Improvements to Learning." Educational Horizons 80: 69-71 Palincsar, A M., and A Brown 1984 "Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension Fostering and Comprehension Monitoring Activities." Cognition and Instruction 1: 117176 Paschal, R., T Weinstein, and H J Walberg 1984 "Effects of Homework: A Quantitative Synthesis." Journal of Educational Research 78: 97-104 Redding, S 2000 Parents and Learning UNESCO Publications Stigler, J., S Lee, and H Stevenson 1987 "Mathematics Classrooms in Japan, Taiwan, and the United States." Child Development 58: 1272-1285 Topping, K 2000 Tutoring UNESCO Publications Walberg, H J 1984 "Improving the Productivity of America's Schools." Educational Leadership 41 (8): 19-27 Walberg, H J 1986 "Synthesis of Research on Teaching." In Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed M C Wittrock New York: Macmillan Walberg, H J 1994 "Homework." In International Encyclopedia of Education 2d ed., eds T Husén and T N Postlethwaite Oxford, U.K.: Pergamon Walberg, H J., and W C Fredrick 1992 Extending Learning Time Washington, D.C.: U.S Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement Walberg, H J., and G D Haertel 1997 Editors Psychology and Educational Practice Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Walberg, H J., and S J Paik 1997 "Home Environments for Learning." In Herbert J Walberg and G D Haertel, eds Psychology and Educational Practice Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Walberg, H J., and S J Paik 2000 Effective Educational Practices UNESCO Walker, C H 1987 "Relative Importance of Domain Knowledge." Cognition and Instruction (1): 25-42 Wang, M C 1992 Adaptive Education Strategies: Building on Diversity Baltimore, Md.: Paul H Brookes Publishing Wang, M C., G D Haertel, and H J Walberg 1993a "Toward a Knowledge Base for School Learning." Review of Educational Research 63: 249-294 Wang, M C., G D Haertel, and H J Walberg 1993b "What Helps Students Learn?" Educational Leadership 51 (4): 74-79 Wang, M C., G D Haertel, and H J Walberg 1998 "Models of Reform: A Comparative Guide." Educational Leadership 55 (7): 66-71 Wang, M C., J Oates, and N Whiteshew 1995 "Effective School Responses to Student Diversity in Inner-City Schools: A Coordinated Approach" Education and Urban Society 27 (4): 32-43 Wang, M C., and N J Zollers 1990 "Adaptive Education: An Alternative Service Delivery Approach." Remedial and Special Education 11 (1): 7-21 Waxman, H C., and H J Walberg 1999 New Directions for Teaching Practice and Research Calif.: McCutchan Weinert, F 1989 "The Relation between Education and Development." International Journal of Educational Research 13 (8): 827-948  ... Teaching and Learning Strategies Students who master basic learning strategies can measure their own progress toward specific goals When students use strategies to strengthen opportunities for learning, ... cooperative learning has become widespread and effective in American schools, researchers not recommend that cooperative learning take up the entire school day Multiple teaching strategies are... thorough mastery of each step can provide optimal learning Mastery learning allows learners to save time by monitoring their own progress Mastery learning allows more time and remediation for slower