The effectiveness of social business plan competitions in developing social and civic awareness and participation

The effectiveness of social business plan competitions in developing social and civic awareness and participation Caleb Kwong, University of Essex Piers Thompson, Nottingham Trent University Cherry Cheung, London South Bank University To cite: Kwong, C.C., Thompson, P and Cheung, C.W., 2012 The effectiveness of social business plan competitions in developing social and civic awareness participation Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), pp.324-348 and Abstract More and more universities are now delivering courses and programmes to develop social awareness but the literature on the effectiveness of these courses is currently very limited With the introduction of “social entrepreneurship” as a new discipline within the wider social, ethics and third sector education banner, this pedagogic study explores the effectiveness of social business plan (SBP) teaching in inducing social and civil awareness and intentionality amongst business school students This is compared with the case study approach that is traditionally used within the classroom environment Our study found that both approaches can be successful in raising awareness and improving the attitudes of participating students, increasing the probability that they will support socially-orientated initiatives immediately or in the future Interestingly, students who participated in SBP teaching are more likely to develop a local awareness of social and civic matters whilst those who participated in case study learning are more likely to develop a wider national and international perspective In addition, it is found that those who participated in SBP development are more likely to develop a deeper managerial and technical understanding of managing third sector organisations Introduction Consistent with the increasingly widely-held belief that universities have a moral obligation to produce civically aware and socially responsible citizens (McDonald and Donleavy, 1995; Steiner and Watson, 2006), the number of social and third sector education programmes has grown steadily in developed nations in the past two decades (O’Neil, 2005; Paton, 2008; Mirabella et al., 2007) From something that was relatively unheard of in the 1980s, by 2006, there were 426 of such programmes offered by 238 US institutions (Mirabella, 2007), and no fewer than 20 in the UK by 2007 (Palmer and Bogdanova, 2008) However, some of these programmes using the traditional case study formats have received heavy criticism (McDonald and Donleavy, 1995) Students, educators and employers have generally failed to recognise the value of such courses, which often conflict with the principles expounded in the rest of the curriculum, lack personal relevance and may not transfer to the reality of the workplace (Furman, 1990; McDonald and Donleavy, 1995) The rise of the more commercially-orientated concept of social entrepreneurship has resulted in many business schools devoting more staff and resources into teaching these and related topics (Olszak and Sidorick, 2003), and, encouraged by work on experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984), has led to a shift to more interactive methods of teaching, particularly those used commonly in business and management courses, including the use of business plan writing (Honig, 2004) However, there is little work on the effectiveness of adopting such a social business plan (SBP) teaching approach in third sector education Our study examines the learning outcomes for a group of students enrolled on business and management courses within a UK higher education institution undertaking a module of study on social enterprise The class was split into different seminar groups with one group taught using the traditional case study approach and the other through an approach based around the development and writing of a SBP We analyse the data derived from interviews with these two groups of students to evaluate the use of SBP in changing students’ attitudes, understanding, intentions and behaviours relating to social and moral issues within a business context through experiential learning We structure the remainder of the paper as follows In the first section, we summarise existing literature on third sector education and the increasing emphasis of experiential learning We categorise different types of third sector education programmes and assess their roles and effectiveness We then assess the effectiveness of the commercial business plan as an experiential learning method in a business school context, before connecting business plan teaching with third sector education This is followed by a discussion of the research methodology adopted in this study The implications of these interviews in terms of the conceptual, pedagogical, and empirical (such as employability) are then discussed In doing so, this paper not only enhances existing research, but also should inform practice in the teaching of social issues in a business school context Finally, our conclusion section integrates the theoretical, empirical and pedagogical findings in order to develop a pedagogic model for the implementation of SBP The Development of Third Sector Education within Tertiary Institutions Traditionally there are two types of third sector education programmes targeting very different audiences (Table 1) – those aimed at enhancing the managerial and administrative skills of those who are already engaged in the third sector (Mirabella and Wish, 2000, O’Neil, 2005), and those, which are the focus of this study, more generic awareness-based programmes targeting a much wider non-specialist audience within the university The rationale for the development of the second group of courses originates from the belief that the higher education sector has a socio-political function and cannot exist independently of the society within which it operates (Giroux and Penna, 1979) Part of the purpose of higher education is therefore to create responsible, moral, and productive citizens who will make a great contribution to their community (Tyler, 1949; HEFCE, 2007; Hoskin et al., 2008; Einfeld and Collins, 2008; Cate, 1990) The increasingly apparent disengagement of young people from social and civic matters (Sloam, 2008) has strengthened this viewpoint, and has led to a healthy increase in the number of such programmes since the 1980s Likewise, recent scandals surrounding Enron, WorldCom, Parmalet, BP and News International, and in turn has led to a renewed interest in business ethics, corporate social responsibilities (CSR) and other social initiatives within business schools (Kochan, 2002; Steiner and Watson, 2006; Neubaum et al., 2009) However, a major criticism of many of the existing initiatives is the adoption of a superficial, case-driven approach that prioritises the memorising of information, rather than taking a more complex analytical-driven approach (Rossi, 1995; McDonald and Donleavy, 1995) Such an approach leads to a lack of transferability to activities in the workplace and therefore little value for future careers (Schug et al., 1984; Furman, 1990; McDonald and Donleavy, 1995) Students also report that studying about civic and social matters is boring, repeats coverage of other courses, is too detailed, and unrelated to existing knowledge (Schug et al., 1984) The above arguments suggest the need to acknowledge the complexity of understanding social phenomenon beyond the superficial view of students merely as passive recipients of knowledge (Jones, 2002) Kolb’s (1984; 2005) formulation of the experiential learning theory has received widespread attention in the education literature and is particular relevant to this study (Kayes, 2002; Yamazaki and Kayes, 2004, 2007; Ng et al., 2009) According to the theory, understanding and sustained commitment can be attained through the process of ‘experiencing’, ‘reflecting’, ‘thinking’ and ‘acting’ (Kolb, 1984, 2005) By doing so, a student becomes involved in the learning experience and is engaged in addressing their own needs, which ensures the new understanding is retained and memorised better Students are also more prepared for the knowledge to be scrutinised by society at large upon graduation On a more holistic level, such experiential learning is also about creating a ‘total person’ (Yorks and Kasl, 2002) and to understand the nature of the social environment and the global view which fits issues around an individual’s needs, interests, skills and future career aspirations The use of some of the tried and tested active experiential teaching methods should enable more in-depth and interesting social learning, resulting in a personal understanding of civic and social issues, by deliberately challenging their norms and to make students struggle with unfamiliar information (Jones, 2002; Rossi, 1996) However, such in-depth learning requires an “inquiry-orientated” teaching approach as well as innovative curriculum materials that are complicated to administer and time-consuming to develop (Kon, 1995; Rossi, 1996) It requires staff to act as coaches rather than teachers to provide extensive guidance, and to direct students without revealing the answer (or one version of it), in other words facilitating the learning process rather than traditional transmission based teaching (Rossi, 1996; Löbler, 2006) Many of these methods require students to actively participate in discussion of issues or questions containing ambiguities, doubts, and controversies (Rossi, 1996), which necessitates thorough preparation prior to classes (Kim et al., 1996) and can be a struggle if students fail to see the value of the subject (Rossi, 1996) The challenge of classroom-based third sector education is therefore to balance academic intensity and rigour of content containing rich and diverse knowledge, as well as to making it relevant and interesting for students in order to achieve a spirit of inquiry allowing interpretation of the full and lasting meaning of the subject (Rossi, 1996; Jones, 2002) However, teaching social and ethics issues in business schools poses a few difficult challenges on all practical, pedagogical and ideological levels Business students often feel they are there primarily to learn about for-profit rather than not-for-profit activities and other civic and social matters, and such disengagement from the subject represents a serious obstacle to overcome For business teachers, the contradiction and even incompatibility with the commercial emphasis of the rest of the curriculum, provides a considerable obstacle to overcome Further, pedagogically social and civic sector courses are widely-criticised for their empirical ‘softness’, ambiguity, and normative and subjective natures, which clashes with the positivist, technocratic and dehumanised emphasises of the ‘old-school’ business and management teaching (McDonald and Donleavy, 1995; McPhail, 2001; Porter and McKibbin, 1998; Ghosal, 2005; Steiner and Watson, 2006) The Potential Use of the SBP as part of the Third Sector Education Curriculum The rise of social entrepreneurship in the UK during the past 15 years, partly due to its ability to link the third sector and market (Dart, 2004; Sepulveda, 2009) and partly due to policy pressures for greater hybridisation of the third sector (Harris, 2010), has brought the business schools to the forefront of the delivery of third sector education (Olszak and Sidorick, 2003) The concept of social entrepreneurship emphasises both the processes of entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and exploitation in these courses (Paton, 2008), as well as the generation of ‘earned income’, resulting in a double bottom line from the pursuit of both social outcomes and commercial sustainability (Tracey and Phillips, 2007) Such commercial-social interchange of the social entrepreneurship concept opens doors to the use of successful pedagogic methods from within the business schools for the delivery of third sector education The business plan is widely utilised as a unique part of entrepreneurship teaching ever since it became a popular tool to aid business start-up activities in the 1970s (Hill, 1998; Karlsson and Honig, 2009) Of 100 top universities in the US, 78 had at least one course on business plan development; and 10 of the top 12 universities conducted business plan competitions (Honig, 2004) Interestingly, even though these competitions are primarily there to encourage students to start up their own businesses, interest in business plan competitions does not always lead to subsequent business start-ups (Koch, 2003; Edwards and Muir, 2002), but are seen as having value added for employers (Bell, 2010) In the social entrepreneurship context, the use of the SBP is also becoming increasingly popular (Olszak and Sidorick, 2003) In the US, SBP competitions can be found in a number of universities, either as a standalone competition such as the social business plan impact competition held by the Duke University (Duke University, 2009), or as part of a generic business plan competition, such as the social business stream of the business plan contest in Harvard (Harvard University, 2011) Most of these competitions target the general student population rather than those who attended a specific course, with some even attracting entries from the wider public and from third sector practitioners (Olszak and Sidorick, 2003) These are people who have already expressed interest in third sector issues and therefore such courses may not offer much appeal to business students who may be more profit-orientated It is not difficult to see that SBP teaching is in effect a branch of experiential learning outlined in the previous section Through SBP teaching, students observe the problems in the world (experiencing), think of a possible solution (reflecting and thinking) and come up with their own business plan to solve this problem (acting) Consistent with Gibb’s (2002) notion of an active learning environment, it has been suggested that a business plan competition produces a very real business situation, allowing students to pull together different facets of commercial skills required to start a new venture, including marketing, finance, and human resource management (Gibb, 2002; Honig, 2004) Through the process participants confront challenges which might go beyond their prior knowledge and experiences (Bell, 2010, p.20) The advice and support that the students received from the educators are likely to trigger future learning loops by reshaping the students’ ideas and thoughts (Race, 2007) The business plan model provides a personalised project-orientated output that assists with student evaluation, rather than following a closed-ended pedagogical structure (Honig, 2004) Students can therefore develop specific knowledge determined by their areas of interest to concentrate on a specific business context (Gibb, 2002), allowing different interpretations of the experience based on their prior knowledge (Piaget, 1950; Steffe and Gale, 1995; Löbler, 2006) This encourages independent and divergent thinking (Sternberg and Lubart, 1999) Students are also provided with an analytical platform to analyse both internally how strategies and tactics affect business operations, and also externally through the situational and stakeholder contexts (Timmons et al., 1987) This provides a “focus and structure to a field that is, by definition, without conventional borders” (Honig, 2004, p.260) Koch (2003) found business plan preparation is seen by 80% of entrepreneurship majors as the most important component of their academic programme, 50% found it an authentic simulation of real life, and 30% of the business plans actually lead to the foundation of company Nevertheless, support for the business plan approach is far from universal Many argue that the business plan is merely a tool for venture capitalists and bankers to assess business proposals without reflecting one’s true capability to start and run a business (Wan, 1989; Gibb, 2002) It has also been argued that the over-reliance on the business plan inhibits entrepreneurial responses to subsequent changes in the environment (Gibb, 2002) In the teaching context, it is contended that assessed business plans often become too studious, with students often fixated on a particular idea which can then quickly become outdated (Honig, 2004), or a risk averse less innovative attitude is taken to ensure the assessment is passed (Kwong and Mitra, 2010) Thus it may be unrealistic to expect to change students’ entrepreneurial intentions through the development of a single business plan Whilst the advantages and limitations of using business plans in raising entrepreneurial intentions and participation through increasing perceived feasibility have been heavily discussed, the use of the business plan to increase perceived desirability in an educational setting is a less heavily explored topic In the business school and social education context understanding of this issue is particularly important as respondents were not actively seeking social business opportunities, thus have no intention to realise their business plan Nevertheless, this paper argues that the additional focus on entrepreneurship emphasised by a SBP is potentially an important one Depending on personal preferences, some students will develop a non- profit paradigm whilst some others will develop a social justice paradigm (Einfeld and Collins, 2008) Research Methodology Our research is based on interviews with postgraduate business students attending a mandatory core module on “social enterprise” According to the module handbook, the aim of this module is to enable students: “to acquire a critical understanding of theories and practice of how social entrepreneurs use a range of entrepreneurial and management skills to address social issues such as exclusion, collaboration, networking and environmental concerns” The course has two contact hours per week, consisting of a lecture followed by a seminar, with each lasting an hour The lectures, which all students attended together, provided students with the critical and theoretical underpinning of social entrepreneurship, as well as the practical application of management issues and functions, for social enterprises For seminar sessions, students were divided into two groups For the first group (the SBP stream) the seminar session took the form of an hour of business plan discussion based on the lecture’s topic At the end of the module, a business plan competition was held whereby all students presented their business ideas in front of a panel of judges consisting of academics, third sector participants and a venture capitalist (see Part of Figure 1) For the second group (the Case Study (CS) stream) the seminar session used a mixture of conventional classroom-based teaching approaches including case studies, simulations and role play, quiz, videos and podcasts In total there were 29 students enrolled on the module The majority (N=24) were assigned to the SBP stream but a small number (N=5) were assigned to the case study stream to act as the “control group” for the study The SBP stream can be further divided into two groups: 10 Godfrey, P., Illes, L., & Berry, G 2005 Creating breadth in business education through service learning Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4: 309-323 Greenberg, J., & Eskew, D E 1993 The role of role-playing in organizational research Journal of Management, 19: 221–241 Gribbin, D 2005 How to conduct a successful accounting field trip Management Accounting Quarterly, 7(1): 44-50 Guda, D 2006 Impact of NGO institutional capacity on coverage and quality of ESP services in NSDP supported NGO clinics Dhaka: MBA Thesis, Ibais University Gumpert, D 2002 Burn your business plan Needham, MA: Lauson Hang, C., Ang, M., Wong, P., & Subramanian, A 2009 Technology management education initiatives in Asia: A case study from the National University of Singapore Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8: 444-456 Harris, M 2010 Third sector organizations in a contradictory policy environment In D Billis, (Ed.) Hybrid organizations and the third sector: Challenges for practice, theory and policy 25-45 Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Hart, M 1996a Case Study: Eric Wood A Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press Hart, M 1996b Case Study: Eric Wood B Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press Harvard University 2011 Business Plan Contest Accessed from: http://www.hbs.edu/entrepreneurship/bplan/ Accessed on: Aug, 20, 2011 Hepburn, M 1997 Service learning in civic education: A concept with long, sturdy roots, Theory into Practice, 36: 136-142 Herkert, J 2000 Engineering ethics education in the USA: Content, pedagogy and curriculum European Journal of Engineering Education, 25: 303-313 Herzberg, F 1959 The motivation to work, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons HEFCE 2007 HEFCE strategic plan 2006-2011 London: HEFCE Hill, G 1988 Variations in university entrepreneurship education: An empirical study of an evolving field Journal of Business Venturing, 3: 109-122 Hindle, K 2002 A grounded theory for teaching entrepreneurship using simulation games Simulation & Gaming, 33: 236–242 Holt, D 2003 The role and impact of the business school curriculum in shaping environmental education at Middlesex University International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 4: 324–343 Honig, B 2004 Entrepreneurship education: Towards a model of contingency based planning Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3: 258-273 Hosmer, L 1985 Teaching business ethics – the use of films and videos Journal of Business Ethics, 10: 341-347 Hoskins, B., d’Hombres, B., & Campbell, J 2008 Does Formal Education have an Impact on Active Citizenship Behaviour? Brussels: JRC Scientific and Technical Report, European Commission Jacoby, B 1996 Service learning in higher education New York, NY: Jossey Bass Jiang, Q., & Xu, G 2005 Project-based curriculum research of vocational education based on task Vocational and Technical Education, 22: 1-20 Johannisson, B 1991 University training for entrepreneurship: Swedish approaches Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 3: 67-82 Johnson, E 2003 Service learning stimulates the brain The World & I, 18: 146–154 Jones, S 2002 The underside of service learning About Campus, 7(4): 10-15 26 Joy, P A., & Kuehn, R 2002 Conflict of interest and competency issues in law clinic practice Clinical Law Review, 9: 493-520 Karlson, T., & Honig, B 2009 Judging a business by its cover: an institutional perspective on new venture and the business plan Journal of Business Venturing, 24: 27-45 Kayes, D 2002 Experiential learning and its critics: preserving the role of experience in management learning and education Academy of Management Learning & Education, 1: 137-149 Keegan, D 1995 Distance Education Technology for the New Millennium: Compressed Video Teaching Hagen: FernUniversität Keys, B J 1997 Strategic management games: A review Simulation & Gaming, 28: 395–423 Keys, B., & Wolfe, J 1990 The role of management games and simulations in education and research Journal of Management, 16: 307-336 Kezar, A., & Rhoads, R 2001 The dynamic tensions of service learning in higher education: a philosophical perspective The Journal of Higher Education, 72: 148-171 Kim, S, Parks, S., & Beckerman, M 1996 Effects of participatory learning programmes in middle and high school education Social Studies, 87: 171180 Kirkpatrick, D L 1959a Techniques for evaluating training programs Journal of American Society for Training and Development, 13(11): 3-9 Kirkpatrick, D L 1959b Techniques for evaluating training programs: Part learning Journal of American Society for Training and Development, 13(12): 21-26 Klofsten, M 2000 Training entrepreneurship at universities: a Swedish case, Journal of European Industrial Training, 24: 337–344 Koch, L 2003 Theory and practice of German education – a German view, International Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 1: 633–660 Kochan, T 2002 Addressing the crisis in confidence in corporations: root causes, victims, and strategies for reform Academy of Management Executive, 16(3): 139-141 Kofoed, L., & Rosenorm, T 2003 A game in the game In J Riis, R Smeds, & A Nicholson (Eds.), Experimental interactive learning in industrial management Aalborg: Aalborg University Kolb, D 1984 Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Kolb, A., & Kolb, D 2005 Learning styles and learning spaces: enhancing experiential learning in higher education Academy Management Learning & Education, 4: 193-212 Kon, J 1995 Teachers' curricular decision making in response to a new social studies textbook Theory and Research in Social Education, 23: 121-146 Kwong, C & Mitra, J 2010 The Role of Entrepreneurial Learning: Is Entrepreneurship Boot Camp an Effective Tool in Teaching the Art Form of Entrepreneurship? paper presented at the International Council of Small Businesses Conference, June Lambert, C., Parker, A., & Neary, M 2007 Entrepreneurialism and critical pedagogy: reinventing the higher education curriculum Teaching in Higher Education, 12: 525-537 27 Lane, M., & Schaupp, D 1992 Teaching business ethics: bringing reality to the classroom Journal of Business Ethics, 7: 223-229 Lau, C., Hulpke, J To, M., & Kelly, A 2007 Can ethical decision making be taught? The JUSTICE approach Social Responsibility Journal, 3(2): 3–10 LeClair, D., Ferrell, L., Montuori, L., & Willems, C 1999 The use of a behavioral simulation to teach business ethics Teaching Business Ethics, 3: 283-296 Link, D 1989 The pervasive method of teaching ethics Journal of Legal Education, 39: 485-499 Liu, Y., Xu, J., & Barton, W 2011 The role of emotional expression and mentoring in internship learning Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10: 94110 Löbler, H 2006 Learning entrepreneurship from a constructivist perspective Technology Analysis and Strategic Management 18: 19-38 Love, T., & Hildebrand, D 2002 Statistics education and the making statistics more effective in schools of business conferences The American Statistician, 56: 107-112 Lumpkin, G., Shrader, R., & Hills, G 1998 Does formal business planning enhance the performance of new ventures? In P Reynolds, W Bygrave, N Carter, S Manigart, C Mason, G Meyer, and K Shaver, (Eds.) Frontiers of entrepreneurial research 180-189 Babson Park, MA: Babson College Luppino, A 2007 Minding more than our own business: Educating entrepreneurial lawyers through law school-business school collaborations Western New England Law Review, 30, 151-220 Mabry, J 1998 Pedagogical variations in service learning and student outcomes: how time, contact and reflection matter Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 5, 32-47 Marks, M., Mathieu, J., & Zaccaro, S 2001 A temporally based framework and taxonomy of team processes Academy of Management Review 26: 356–376 Markus, G., Howard, J., & King, D 1993 Integrating community service and classroom instruction enhances learning: results from an experiment Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15: 410-419 Marlin–Bennett, R 2003 Linking Experiential and Classroom Education: Lessons Learned from The American University–Amnesty International USA Summer Institute on Human Rights International Studies Perspectives, 3: 384–395 Marshall, H 2005 Developing the global gaze in citizenship education: Exploring the perspectives of global education NGO workers in England The International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, (2), pp 76-92 Maslow, A 1999 Towards the psychology of being New York: J Wiley & Sons McDonald, G., & Donleavy, G 1995 Objections to the Teaching of Business Ethics, Journal of Business Ethics, 14: 839-853 McNeil, L 1986 Contradictions of control New York: Routledge McPhail, P 2001 The other objective of ethics education – rehumanising the accounting profession Journal of Business ethics, 34: 279-298 Mercado, S A 2000 Pre-managerial business education: A role for role-plays? Journal of Further and Higher Education, 24: 117–125 Mintzberg, H., & Gosling, J 2002 Educating managers beyond borders Academy of Management Learning & Education, 1: 64-76 Miller, R 1986 Extending University Resources in Support of Volunteer Development: Evaluation of a Pilot Effort Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 15: 100-115 28 Miller-Millesen, J., & Mould, D 2004 Project-Based Learning in Nonprofit Management Education: Results from an Educational Partnership between the United States and Kyrgyzstan Journal of Public Affairs Education, 10: 247258 Mirabella, R 2007 University-Based Educational Programs in Nonprofit Management and Philanthropic Studies: A 10-Year Review and Projections of Future Trends Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 36: 11S-27S Mirabella, R., & Wish, N 2000 The best place debate: a comparison of graduate education programs for nonprofit managers Public Administration Review, 60: 219-229 Mirabella, R., Gemelli, G., Malcolm,M., & Berger, G 2007 Nonprofit and Philanthropic Studies: International Overview of the Field in Africa, Canada, Latin America, Asia, the Pacific, and Europe Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 36: 110S-135S Moely, B., McFarland, M., Miron, D., Mercer, S., & Ilustre, V 2002 Changes in college students’ attitudes and intentions for civic involvement as a function of service-learning experiences Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 8:18-26 Mula, J., & Kavanagh, M 2009 Click go the students, click-click-click: the efficacy of a student response system for engaging students to improve feedback and performance e-Journal of Business Education & Scholarship of Teaching, 3: 1-17 Monard-Weissman, K 2003 Fostering a sense of social justice through international service learning Academic Exchange Quarterly, 7: 164-169 Mosher, F 1975 American Public Administration: Past, Present, Future Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press Mustar, P 2009 Technology Management Education: Innovation and Entrepreneurship at MINES ParisTech, a Leading French Engineering School Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8: 418-425 Narayanan, V., Olk, P., & Fukami, C 2010 Academy of Management Learning & Education, 9: 61-80 Neubaum, D., Pagell, M., Drexler, J., McKee-Ryan, F., & Larson, E 2009 Business education and its relationship to student personal moral philosophies and attitudes towards profits: an empirical response to critics Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8: 9-24 Ng, K., van Dyne, L., & Ang, S 2009 From experience to experiential learning: cultural intelligence as a learning capability for global leader development Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8: 511-526 Ogden, G 1984 The Problem Method in Legal Education Journal of Legal Education, 34: 654 – 677 Olszak, L., & Sidorick, M 2003 A study of social enterprise training and support models – research report Pittsburg, PA: Olszak Management Consulting O’Neill, M 2005 Developmental contexts of nonprofit education Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 16: 5-17 O’Neill, M., & Fletcher, K 1998 Non profit management education: US and World perspectives New York: Praeger Palmer, P., & Bogdanova, M 2008 The British are not coming! Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 19: 79-99 Paton, R 2008 Comment on “the British are not coming! UK higher education and the nonprofit sector Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 19: 101-105 29 Perks, T., & Haan, M 2010 Youth Religious Involvement and Adult Community Participation: Do Levels of Youth Religious Involvement Matter? Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly: 40: 107-129 Perry, J., & Imperial, M 2001 A Decade of Service-Related Research: A Map of the Field Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 30: 462-479 Petranek, C F 2000 Written debriefing: The next vital step in learning with simulations Simulation & Gaming, 31: 108–119 Petranek, C F., & Corey, S 1992 Three levels of learning in simulations: Participating, debriefing, and journal writing Simulation & Gaming, 23: 174– 186 Piaget, J 1950 The psychology of intelligence London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Pierson, F 1959 The education of American businessmen a study of universitycollege programs in business administration New York: McGraw-Hill Pirrong, G., & Lathen, W 1990 The Use of Interactive Television in Business Education Educational Technology, 30: 49-54 Porter, L., & McKibbin, L 1988 Management education and development: drift or thrust in the 21st century New York; McGraw-Hill Race, P 2007 The lecturer’s toolkit: a practical guide to assessment, learning and teaching Abingdon: Routledge Raelin, J 2006 Does action learning promote collaborative leadership? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5: 152–168 Reddy, P 2006 Universities and NGOs Calcutta: Discovery Publishing House Rochford, K., Baxen, J., & Inal, A 2004 Student-Organised Research Conferences as a Medium, for Research Capacity Building Global Journal of Engaging Education., 8: 219-230 Roker, D., Player, K., & Coleman, J 1999 Young people’s voluntary and campaigning activities as sources of political education Oxford Review of Education, 25: 185-198 Rossi, J 1995 In-depth study in as issues-orientated social studies classroom, Theory and Research in Social Education, 23, 2, 88-120 Rossi, J 1996 Creating Strategies and Conditions for Civil Discourse about Controversial Issues Social Education, 60: 15-21 Roth, W.-M 1994 Student views of collaborative concept mapping: An emancipatory research project Science Education, 78: 1–34 Ryan, G., & Bernard, R 2003 Techniques to Identify Themes, Field Methods, 15: 85–109 Salimbeme F., Buono, A., Lafarge V., & Nurick, A 2005 Service learning and management education: the Bentley experience Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4: 336-344 Saporito, T 1996 Business-linked executive development: Coaching senior executives Consulting Psychology Practice and Research, 48: 96-103 Schlossman, S., & Sedlak, M 1988 The age of reform in American management education Los Angeles: Graduate Management Admissions Council Schrug, M., Todd, R., & Beery, R 1984 Why kids don’t like social studies? Social Education, 48, 5, 382-387 Sepulveda, L 2009 Outsider, missing link or panacea? Some reflections about the place of social enterprise (with)in and in relation to the Third Sector Birmingham: Third Sector Research Centre, Working Paper, #15 30 Sévigny, A., Dumont, S., Cohen, R., & Frappier, A 2010 Helping Them Live Until They Die: Volunteer Practices in Palliative Home Care Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 39: 734-752 Shafritz, J M., Ott, J S., & Jang, Y S 2005 Classics of organization theory (6th ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth Shepherd, D A 2004 Educating entrepreneurship students about emotion and learning from failure Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3: 274–287 Sims, R 2002 Debriefing Experiential Learning Exercises in Ethics Education Teaching Business Ethics, 6: 179-197 Sloam, J 2008 Teaching Democracy: the role of political science education British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 10: 509-524 Steiner, S., & Watson, M 2006 The service learning component in business education: the values linkage void Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5: 422-434 Steffe, L., & Gale, J (eds.) 1995 Constructivism in education Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Stephenson, M., & Christensen, R 2007 Mentoring for Doctoral Student PraxisCentered Learning: Creating a Shared Culture of Intellectual Aspiration Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 36: S64-79 Sternberg, R., & Lubart, T 1999 The concept of creativity – prospects and paradigms In R J Sternberg (Ed.) Handbook of creativity Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Stukas, A., Clary, F., & Snyder, M 1999 Service learning: who benefits and why? Social Policy Report, 13: 1-19 Swanson, D 2004 The Buck Stops here: Why Universities Must Reclaim Business Ethics Education Journal of Academic Ethics, 2: 43-61 Sweetman, L., & Gallagher, M 2006 The Impact of Ministry Internships at Saint Louis University Journal of College & Character, 7: 1-4 Timmons, J., Muzyka, D., Stevenson, H., & Bygrave, W 1987 Opportunity recognition: the core of entrepreneurship In Churchill, N (Ed), Frontiers of entrepreneurial research, 42-49 Babson Park, MA: Babson College Tobin, L 2010 Universities lead the way to the 'big society', The Guardian, Tuesday November 2010 Tracey, P., & Phillips, N 2007 The Distinctive Challenge of Educating Social Entrepreneurs: A Postscript & Rejoinder to the Special Issue on Entrepreneurship Education Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6: 264-271 Tyler, R 1949 Basic principles of curriculum and instruction Chicago: University of Chicago Press Ullmann, A., & Brink, C 1992 Developments in business simulation & experiential exercises Use of Simulation for Ethics Education in Management, 19: 169172 Verzat, C., Byrne, J., & Fayolle, A 2009 Tangling with spaghetti: pedagogical lessons from games Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8: 356-369 Wan, V 1989 The Enterprise Workshop Programme in Australia International Small Business Journal, 7: 23 – 34 Warren, K 1998 Educating students for social justice in service learning Journal of Experimental Education, 21: 134-139 31 Winnicott, D 1975 Through paediatrics to psycho-analysis New York: Basic Books Wolfe, J 1997 The effectiveness of business games in strategic management course work Simulation & Gaming, 28: 360–376 Wolfe, J., & Bruton, G 1994 On the use of computerized simulations for entrepreneurship education Simulation & Gaming, 25: 405–418 Wolfe, J., & Fritzsche, D 1998 Teaching Business Ethics with Management and Marketing Games Simulation Gaming 29: 44-59 Yamazaki, Y., & Kayes, D 2004 An experiential approach to cross-cultural learning: a review and integration of competencies for successful expatriate adaptation Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3: 362-379 Yamazaki, Y., & Kayes, D 2007 Expatraite learning: exploring how Japanese managers adapt in the United States, International Journal of Human Resource Management 18: 1373-1395 Yorks, L., & Kasl, E 2002 Toward a Theory and Practice for Whole-Person Learning: Reconceptualizing Experience and the Role of Affect Adult Education Quarterly, 52: 176-192 Zantow, K., Knowlton, D., & Sharp, D 2005 More than fun and games: Reconsidering the virtues of strategic management simulations Academy of Management Learning &Education, 4: 451–458 32 Table Typologies of existing business/ entrepreneurship and third sector management education programmes Purpose Typologies Mediums Business studies & entrepreneurship literature Ethics and third sector literature Management Training Awareness programmes Action orientated Mentoring coaching and Saporito, 1996; Clawson, 1996; Klofsten; Stephenson and Christensen, 2007; Sévigny et 2000 al., 2010 Classroom based Generic Shafritz et al., 2005; Mustar, 2009 Mirabella and Wish, 2000; Cooney, 2011; Business/management Mirabella, 2007 skills training Sector specific skills Pierson, 1959; Schlossman and Sedlak, 1988; Balassiano and Chandler, 2010, Mirabella, training Mosher, 1975; Mustar, 2009 2007; Palmer and Bogdanova, 2008; Paton, 2008; Miller, 1986 Action orientated Service learning Godfrey et al., 2005 ; Salimbeme et al., 2005 ; Perry and Imperial, 2001; Brower, 2011; Steiner and Watson, 2006 Godfrey et al., 2005; Salimbeme et al., 2005 ; Warren, 1998; Perks and Haan, 2010; Dolch et al., 2007; Austin & Sax, 1998 ; Austin et al., 1999 ; Clark et al., 1997 ; Clague, 1995; Everett, 1998 ; Evler & Giles, 1999; Jacoby, 1996; Mabry, 1998 ; Markus et al 1993 ; Moely et al., 2002 ; Monard-Weissman, 2003 ; Roker et al.,1999 ; Stukas et al., 1999 Fieldtrips Gribbin 2005; Mustar, 2009 Duarte and Hodge, 2007; Dolch et al., 2007 Work experience/ Johannisson, 1991 ; Raelin 2006 ; Narayanan Marlin–Bennett, 2003; Reddy, Internship et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2011 ; D’Abate et al., Sweetman and Gallagher, 2006 2009 Consultancy organisations for Joy and Kuehn, 2002; Luppino, 2007 2006; Guda, 2006; Tobin, 2010 33 Research project Lambert et al., 2007; Mustar, 2009 ; Roth, Miller-Millesen and Mould, 2004; Holt, 2003 1994; Jiang and Xu, 2005; Hang et al., 2009 Hosting conferences Bailey and Guskey (2000), Rochford et al., Marshall, 2005, Bailey and Guskey (2000) and other events 2004; Love and Hildebrand, 2002 Classroom based Speaker invitation Shepherd, 2004; Mustar, 2009 Swanson, 2004; Sims, 2002 TV and Videos Alavi et al., 1995; Keegan, 1995; Pirrong and Hepburn, 1997; Bratton et al., 1999; Hosmer Lathen, 1990 and Steneck, 1989 Case studies Shepherd, 2004; Cooper et al., 2004; Hart, Herkert, 2000; Link, 1989, Cowton and 1996a; Hart, 1996b; Hang et al., 2009 Cummins, 2003; Ogden, 1984; Lane and Schaupp, 1992 Quizzes Faria, 1987; Mula and Kavanagh, 2009 Games Verzat et al., 2009; Faria, 1987; Keys and Keys and Wolfe, 1990; Wolfe and Fritzsche, Wolfe, 1990 1998; Furman, 1990 Role play Greenberg and Eskew, 1993; Craig amd Brown, 1994; McDonald and Donleavy, 1995 Amernic, 1994; Brown, 1994; Mercado, 2000; Shepherd, 2004 Simulations Hindle, 2002; Petranak, 2000; Petranak and Ullmann and Brink, 1992; LeClair et al., 1999 Corey, 1992; Keys, 1997; Wolfe, 1997; Wolfe and Bruton, 1994; Shepherd, 2004 Business plan Honig, 2004; Lumpkin et al., 1998 Lau et al., 2007 - 34 Table Descriptive details on the participated students Interviewee No Participated in SBP Strong prior interest of the third sector Good prior knowledge of the third sector Previous experience in third sector Prefer employment upon graduation Prefer self employment upon graduation Desire self employment in the long term Some interests in a social career       10                         11  12     13       14      15  16  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24  25             26     27          28       29      35    Table Existing social initiatives and other related responses mentioned by interviewees during their interviews Cast study approach SBP Scale International/ National/ Regional initiatives International/ National/ Regional initiatives • • • • Personal interest Grameen Bank (Bangladesh/ International) Big issues (UK/ International) Oxfam (UK) Ashoka (Japan/ International)* • • • • • • Grameen bank (Bangladesh/ International) Big issues (UK/ International) Cancer research (UK) Jamie Oliver’s 15 (UK) Bank Rakyat Indonesia (Indonesia) Devine chocolate (Ghana) Local initiatives Local initiatives • • • High street charity shops “cannot think of any” “There is none available” • • • • • High street charity shops A number of local elderly café in various countries* Locally-based biofuel initiative in India* Some reading club initiatives across the US* “There is none available” • helping the poor • • • A social enterprise relating to a cycling initiative* Some reading club initiatives across the US* A student movement in Cyprus* Note: * represents cases discovered during their independent research 36 Table 4: Social Business ideas from SBP students No Brief description of the social idea Idea based on: Crops for biofuel purpose (Bangladesh) 2, 4, 5, As above 8 As above As above 10 Local elderly café (UK) 5, 11 Local elderly café (Norway) 4, 5, 12 Local medical supplies (Nigeria) 1, 2, 4, 5, 13 Storage space for students (UK) 3, 14 Cookies factory to help ex-prisoners (UK) 4, 5, 15 As above 5, 16 As above 5, 17 As above 5, 18 As above 4, 5, 19 As above 5, 20 Local Recruitment and training agency (UK) 3, 4, 21 As above 3, 4, 22 As above 3, 4, 23 As above 24 As above 25 Local cycling initiative (UK) 4, 5, 26 Shelter for abused women (UK) 4, 27 Investment network development for students (UK) 3, 4, 5, 28 Local reading club (UK) 3, 4, 5, 29 Consultancy for prospective overseas students (UK) 2, 3, 4, 5, Note: = linked to future career; = linked to possible future business; = linked to personal problems, = linked to personal interests, = linked to opportunity gap, = linked to a local issue, = linked to an issue of national importance; = not contributed to the idea development process – merely participated in other’s project 37 Table Examples of participants’ narratives relating to the different aspects of skills discussed in the interviews CS stream SBP stream Strategic • I learnt about the concepts of Mission drift and double • We learnt how to conduct an enhanced SWOT analysis bottom lines This is when your initiative dwell off from analysis for our SBP (11) your social objectives as it became more commercialised I now realised that the line between social and commercial venture is blurred (4) Marketing Finance • We learnt about how some social organisations used • innovative channels to increase the profiles of their organisation (1) • Word of mouth can be a powerful and cost effective marketing tool for SEs (11) • We searched online and found a website where we could find volunteers to our website for us for free, and we will use it to advertise our social enterprise (9) • I become aware of the difference between different • sources of finance available for SEs (2) • We found that conventional funding is almost obsolete for small SEs… we found a number of funding channels online (11) I became aware of the different financial consequences arose as a result of different commercial emphasises (2) • • Because what we are doing is for good clause, we hoped to invite celebrities to attend our events without charging us any money (24) Commercial requirement for funding was too high for my commercial business However, I realise that I can apply for money from the government if there is a social spin to my idea (6) Cost is one of the major adjustments when drafting the income statement We need to put it lower than for-profit 38 businesses and provide justification (7) HRM • We learnt that different types of social organisations • adopted different HRM practices Most charity adopted the cost reduction approach when it comes to HRM, whilst more commercially oriented social organisations may adopt HRM practices that are similar to commercial organisations (3) • Volunteers can be difficult to handle because they are not there for the long term and that they are not motivated by rewards, and therefore something needed to induce their intrinsic motivation (6) Choosing appropriate board members for SEs can be a tricky task You need to find people with a mixed relevant skills but at the same time, understand the social nature of the organisation to prevent mission drift (8) 39 Figure A contingency model of social business plan training for business school students Part A: selecting an appropriate assignment A full SBP relating to a particular social idea Prior interest in initiating a social initiative? Social idea discovery Yes No Expectation to start a commercial business in the immediate future? Part B: training approach Yes No A partial SBP within an existing commercial business plan as CSR/ marketing tool A consultancy report/ cost effectiveness analysis regarding the promotion of CSR/ social initiative within an existing organisation External speakers/ advisors Other business modules Other support sessions Business plan training Peer support sessions 1-on-1 training Social network training Theories of SE Strategic orientation Marketing HRM Finance Social business plan Competition 40 ... commonly in business and management courses, including the use of business plan writing (Honig, 2004) However, there is little work on the effectiveness of adopting such a social business plan (SBP)... entrepreneurial intentions through the development of a single business plan Whilst the advantages and limitations of using business plans in raising entrepreneurial intentions and participation through increasing... environment (Interviewee 6) Given that the business plan is already an existing teaching method in business schools, the introduction of the SBP further reinforces the alignment between the social and