INTRODUCTION
Electricity has become an essential part of our daily lives, comparable to food and water, making the idea of living without it daunting We often overlook the massive amounts of coal burned each day to meet the high electricity demands in the US, resulting in harmful environmental by-products To address this issue, there has been a recent exploration of clean energy sources to reduce our reliance on finite fossil fuels While renewable energy presents a promising solution for power generation, transitioning to these alternatives will require significant time and effort.
Local governments play a crucial role in the development of renewable energy sources, particularly wind energy, with support from state and federal organizations Cities like Worcester are positioned to lead in this initiative, as many have already started establishing their own wind farms to promote national renewable energy goals While integrating wind power into the electrical infrastructure is economically viable, the transition from coal to large-scale wind energy presents significant challenges Nonetheless, each advancement made moves us closer to reducing reliance on coal, the dirtiest energy source available.
Wind power development in the country is currently limited, with only a few projects in Massachusetts These wind farms significantly contribute clean, renewable energy to the communities that establish them The challenge remains in generating sufficient interest from both local citizens and government officials to advance these initiatives.
The Mayor of Worcester has committed to promoting environmentally friendly initiatives, yet there have been limited projects to demonstrate this commitment The North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation highlights the importance of completing such projects to enhance community support for sustainability.
The lack of initiative in developing wind power in Worcester stems from insufficient information rather than unwillingness to act Developers, both public and private, face challenges in understanding the fundamentals of wind energy and the local geography, political landscape, and economic factors To promote local development, it is essential to establish laws and a permitting process for wind turbines, necessitating that lawmakers and city planners have access to resources that clarify key aspects of wind power development.
The absence of local due process can be a significant barrier for potential developers in the Worcester area, making the prospect of pioneering projects less appealing This report aims to alleviate the knowledge gap surrounding wind power by offering a comprehensive analysis of suitable sites Our goal is to serve as a valuable resource for local lawmakers and developers, thereby promoting the advancement of wind energy in Worcester Furthermore, we aspire to equip the City of Worcester with the necessary tools to lead in renewable energy initiatives by establishing its own municipal wind farm, setting a precedent for other cities across the nation.
Chapter 2 introduces the concept of "Suitability," which serves as the foundation for our analytical system This chapter outlines key siting criteria essential for assessing the appropriateness of a site for wind power development Factors considered include the land's physical characteristics, technological requirements, regulatory frameworks, economic viability, and aesthetic impacts.
Understanding the attributes of a good wind power site is the first step to understanding the entire process With this knowledge, lawmakers and
2 Cities for Climate Protection, http://www.iclei.org/co2/ developers can better assess Worcester’s wind resources and start an effective process for developing them.
In the chapter titled “A Case Study in Worcester, MA,” we apply suitability criteria to evaluate a specific site in Worcester, offering a comprehensive model for assessing wind potential This detailed process aims to furnish local insights that will aid in developing a permitting framework for future wind projects Additionally, we outline a methodology for selecting the appropriate turbine model for each site, dividing the analysis into two key components: turbine analysis and final analysis, both of which consider the site's characteristics, economic factors, and intended use.
While this case study was straightforward, many sites around the world exhibit more complicated problems commonly associated with larger sites
In Appendix A: Site Comparisons, we present a series of site comparisons that shed light on wind projects globally These comparisons offer valuable insights into the challenges faced during development and construction, as well as the strategies employed for successful project execution By examining these cases, readers will gain a deeper understanding of the wind development process and appreciate how varying site conditions can significantly influence planning and construction efforts.
The appendices offer valuable information that supports the report, including a technological primer that explains turbine functionality and essential wind energy concepts Most appendices are cited within the text, while the last two provide references and additional insights gathered during our research on the topic.
Wind energy serves as a viable alternative to fossil fuels, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change Every cent invested in wind technology contributes to reducing carbon dioxide emissions, which are a major driver of global warming The consequences of pollution, such as smog, acid rain, respiratory issues, and premature deaths, highlight the urgent need for cleaner energy solutions Ignoring pollution in favor of cheaper energy sources could lead to the depletion of natural resources and exacerbate long-term environmental problems.
Coal remains the dominant resource for electricity generation, accounting for more than half of the energy market Despite being the dirtiest energy source available, its abundance and availability domestically ensure its continued use as the primary fuel for power production.
The urgent need for alternative energy production methods arises from the pollution generated by coal Historically, coal has not always dominated the energy market; oil was the first fossil fuel to raise public awareness about environmental issues Although oil is currently not a major player in the power sector, its impact during the energy crisis played a significant role in shaping energy reform.
“extermal factor” that has impacted wind power over time.
The Path to Wind Power
The concept of wind energy utilization has existed for centuries, originally used to power grist mills In the 1930s, American farmers with unproductive land turned to windmills to generate electricity, providing an alternative income and supplying power to homes beyond the reach of the centralized electric grid However, as the grid expanded to include more households, the use of windmills declined.
3 World Energy Assessment: Energy and the challenge of sustainability, http://www.undp.kz/library_of_publications/center_view.html?id1
1970s when wind energy technologies again advanced during the OPEC- triggered energy crisis.
The reliance on foreign oil and a decline in domestic production led to a significant petroleum shortage, causing panic and escalating energy costs, which contributed to a national and global economic recession During this period, oil constituted a larger share of fossil fuels used for electricity generation Concurrently, environmentalists highlighted the importance of energy management in the U.S., prompting a search for alternative energy sources This shortage spurred interest in renewable energy options as a viable solution to the growing energy concerns.
SUITABILITY CRITERIA
This report analyzes the suitability criteria for developing wind turbines in the Worcester area, focusing on essential factors such as physical characteristics, technological considerations, regulatory requirements, economic feasibility, and societal impacts These criteria aim to assist stakeholders in evaluating potential sites for wind energy development, ensuring a comprehensive approach to sustainable energy solutions.
The suitability of wind turbines in Worcester primarily hinges on the land's physical characteristics, with wind strength being the most critical factor for power generation For efficient electricity production, the wind speed at the proposed site must range between 7.6 and 8.9 mph to reach the "cut-in" velocity necessary for turbine operation Ideally, to achieve maximum output, wind speeds should be around 26.8 mph.
The consistency of wind, measured as the annual average velocity, plays a crucial role in energy production, ideally reaching 26.8 mph However, wind speeds can vary significantly, peaking at around 56 mph, which is the threshold at which most turbines stop operating, known as the "cut-off" speed Efficient power generation is highly dependent on stable wind conditions.
12 GE 1.5MW series service manual, http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_turbines/en/15mw/index.htm
13 GE 1.5MW series service manual, http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_turbines/en/15mw/index.htm
14 GE 1.5MW series service manual, http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_turbines/en/15mw/index.htm
Here, basic criteria of siting a turbine are reinforced The turbines were located on state land on the face of
Mt Wachusett This is an excellent source of clean, strong wind Bird migration and community support were other factors that played a large role in this project. Site Attributes:
Clean Wind when it is constant throughout the year Periods of less wind strength, regardless of the yearly average velocity, can cause low power output
Fluctuations in wind velocity can cause unnecessary strain or even damage to a turbine.
An additional variable of wind is turbulence Non-turbulent or “clean” air is necessary to develop an effective wind turbine Lower areas induce a
The "puddling" effect occurs at night or during winter when cool, heavy air sinks, leading to stagnant conditions that hinder wind turbine performance To optimize energy generation and maintain clean wind, it is essential to position turbines away from buildings that can impede wind flow and cause turbulence.
To effectively address this issue, it is advisable to install the turbine in a remote area with significant elevation, as higher altitudes typically experience increased wind velocity The optimal placement rule suggests positioning the wind turbine at least 30 feet above any obstruction within a 300-foot radius, emphasizing that greater heights yield better wind conditions.
Location such as mountains and hills are popular places for wind turbines as they exploit this trait A potential site may be aided by examining topographical data of Worcester.
Evaluating wind conditions in a specific area can be challenging, requiring nearly a year or more of data collection for precise analysis This meticulous approach is crucial for large-scale projects involving multiple turbines In contrast, smaller residential turbines can rely on the area's "wind class" and visible local characteristics for a general estimate of wind speed.
15 Siting Your Tower, http://www.renewableenergyworks.com/wind/TowerSiting.html
16 Wind System Sitting, http://www.renewableenergyworks.com/wind/WindSiting.html
Figure 1: Local wind class regions.
The number or class associated with each region is associated to a range of wind conditions using the table below: 17
17 Wind Classes for US-DOE Wind Maps, http://www.bergey.com/
By analyzing available data alongside a realistic assessment of the site's surroundings, a group can preliminarily evaluate a smaller project without extensive wind data collection Although this analysis cannot substitute for long-term, site-specific wind data, it serves as a foundation for initial assessments By combining this information with the power output of proposed turbines, one can estimate the potential power production at the site For instance, Worcester, Massachusetts, falls within a wind class of 2-3, indicating it is a marginal yet feasible location for wind turbine energy production.
Once the turbines are constructed and operational, they need to be connected to the electrical grid Additionally, gaining access to transmission lines is crucial, as the installation of new lines for a wind farm can significantly raise overall costs.
Placing a wind turbine site within 10 miles of existing transmission lines is crucial to minimize costs and practical challenges, as extending the power grid beyond this range can lead to significant traffic and noise pollution In rural areas, community opposition may arise due to the disruptive construction needed for interconnection Furthermore, the environmental impact from heavy machinery and increased traffic could negatively influence public perception.
To connect a generating source like a wind turbine to the grid, formalities must be observed The Independent System Operator (ISO-New England) is responsible for monitoring the electricity output For smaller projects, the local distributor manages the service for onsite generating facilities (OSGFs) It is essential for OSGFs to reach out to their local electricity distributor to set up the required procedures for grid interconnection.
The OSGF must ensure that the electricity generated is suitable for integration into the local grid If the production involves direct-current (DC) power, it is essential to convert it to alternating-current (AC) power This conversion process is facilitated by grid-tied inverters and turbines equipped with synchronous inverters or induced generators.
18 Overview of Wind Technologies, http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumerinfo/pdfs/wind_overview.pdf
20Renewable Energy & Distributed Generation Guidebook, Pg 74
This site provided ease of integration as the project was developed through the Princeton Municipal Light District (PMLD) The electrical integration was established from the inception of the project.
The OSGF may need to implement a manual disconnect switch to ensure safety during grid failures Additionally, it is crucial to address several technical issues, including harmonics, power factor, DC injection, and voltage flicker, to maintain system integrity and performance.
The interconnection process may appear complex, but it primarily involves reaching out to the local distribution company to determine the necessary steps According to DTE regulations, the company has 45 days to conduct a complimentary initial site inspection, which assesses the requirements for installation and generates an estimate To proceed with the interconnection, the OSGF must submit a written request to the distributor For detailed guidance on this written request, refer to page 77 of the "Renewable Energy" document.
& Distributed Generation Guidebook” The interconnection will be performed within 90 days, according to DTE’s regulations 22
The OSGF is responsible for covering interconnection costs, with the option to amortize these expenses over three years, although interest will apply Interconnection choices available to the OSGF include net metering for facilities under 60 kW, metering for those under 1 MW, and connections with ISO-New England for facilities exceeding 1 MW If a large facility is selected, a System Impact Study (SIS) is required For additional details, please consult pages 79-83 of “Renewable Energy & Distributed Generation.”
Guidebook” and contact ISO-New England (http://www.iso-ne.com/).
Interconnection requires that an Interconnection Service Agreement be completed with the local electricity provider This can proceed by one of three options, all interconnection applications There is the Simplified
The Interconnection Application and Service Agreement for facilities with inverter capacities of 10kW and under is relevant for our case study, which involves installing a small turbine exceeding 10kW on the roof of a house Additionally, the Expedited/Standard Process Interconnection Application is also available for consideration.
21Renewable Energy & Distributed Generation Guidebook, Pg 75
22 Renewable Energy & Distributed Generation Guidebook, Pg 75-76
23 Renewable Energy & Distributed Generation Guidebook, Pg 77-78
CASE STUDY IN WORCESTER, MA
This case study reflects the suitability factors for siting a wind turbine in Worcester, MA, utilizing the methodology from a prior report to demonstrate practical application of the criteria Its dual purpose is to offer a guideline for groups interested in installing wind turbines and to furnish the City of Worcester with insights to promote and effectively regulate wind power development.
This report presents a practical site suitability analysis for a potential wind turbine development in downtown Worcester, requested by a prospective investor The case study outlines a comprehensive methodology that can be adapted to various scenarios, ensuring a thorough evaluation of all possible pathways for wind turbine implementation.
The installation of a wind turbine in downtown Worcester represents a significant step towards pioneering renewable energy in urban areas This initiative aims to promote clean energy solutions, potentially inspiring further renewable energy projects in the city If successful, the wind turbine will offer numerous benefits to the community, enhancing the overall quality of life for its residents.
Potential wind investors will have an established method of developing a wind turbine
Worcester lawmakers will have a resource to use while establishing informed regulations to deal with wind energy
Advocates of renewable energy will have an example to base future projects on
Worcester will be able to further proclaim its support of environmentally friendly policies
The public will gain some understanding of renewable energy that will allow them to form an educated and informed opinion
This case study will explore the siting process; compile information available for development of wind turbines and make suggestions as to how the process can be simplified in Worcester.
The project site is situated in downtown Worcester, positioned between the Worcester Common Outlets to the south and I-290 to the north Our first site visit occurred on November 22, 2004, where we received a comprehensive tour of the property and engaged in discussions with the owner, highlighting key aspects of the site.
The owner’s preference was to place the turbine on the roof, but other possibilities should be considered
The site has an anecdotally high average wind speed.
Interest was expressed in making use of local businesses to provide a wind turbine
A vertical axis wind turbine was mentioned as a possible design.
The energy needs of the house are around 1000 kWh monthly
We were to perform an analysis on the site and recommend a specific wind turbine that would fulfill the above criteria.
This project aimed to raise awareness of renewable energy in Worcester by pioneering residential wind energy solutions Our analysis prioritized ease of installation and minimizing disruption, rather than focusing solely on power production and economic feasibility.
This site analysis adheres to the suitability criteria established in Chapter 2: Suitability Criteria We examine each issue presented in our report and clarify the rationale behind our decisions While this process can serve as a guideline for potential developers, it should be customized to address specific restrictions, concerns, and unique site attributes.
The average wind speed is a crucial factor in determining a site’s suitability for wind energy production Comprehensive data collection for the specific location is essential, as the economic viability of the project relies on the energy output of the turbine Understanding the average wind speed enables a realistic economic analysis, utilizing the power output data supplied by the turbine manufacturer.
For effective data collection, a duration of 14 months is recommended The Renewable Energy Resource Lab (RERL) supports this initiative through its anemometer loan program, which is designed for individuals and organizations interested in wind power development This program significantly reduces the expenses associated with gathering wind data.
Due to time constraints in our analysis, we were unable to collect the recommended data volume To establish a baseline wind speed for our estimates, we consulted four key sources: NOAA, state wind resource maps, MTC community wind resource maps, and NREL wind maps.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) serves as a primary source of data for numerous National Climate Data Centers (NCDCs) However, users often find the data challenging to utilize due to its format, which consists of unbroken strings of numbers without any accompanying descriptions.
76 Renewable Energy Resource Lab, http://www.ceere.org/rerl/projects/support/weps.html
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration provides access to state wind resource maps, which can be found online through the US Department of Energy Additionally, corresponding wind data tables for specific regions are also available.
Figure 6: New England Wind Velocity and Worcester Area Wind Velocity
Another source of wind data maps is the Massachusetts Technology
Collaborative maps for Massachusetts provide localized wind speed data, with Worcester's average wind speed ranging from 12.3 to 15.7 mph, varying by specific locations within the county.
The National Energy Resource Lab (NREL) offers user-friendly wind maps that provide a broad overview of wind regimes, extending beyond just Massachusetts or New England As illustrated in the accompanying wind map (Figure 7), these resources effectively summarize wind patterns across a wider region.
78 US Dept of Energy State Wind Maps, http://www.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/windpoweringamerica/wind_maps.asp
79 Worcester wind data, http://truewind.teamcamelot.com/bin/TrueWind.dll?
DetailSheet?Area=NE&X%0&YF50&Z0&Map=?258,239
80 MTC Community Wind Maps, http://www.masstech.org/RenewableEnergy/Community_Wind/atlas.htm
81 MTC Worcester Wind Map, http://www.masstech.org/RenewableEnergy/Community_Wind/maps/Wind
The NREL maps indicate that the area falls within a class 3 wind region, with average wind speeds of 11.5 mph to 12.5 mph at 10 meters above ground level, and 14.3 mph to 15.7 mph at 50 meters For more detailed information, visit the NREL website at http://rredc.nrel.gov/wind/pubs/atlas/maps.html#3-21.
Figure 7: Wind regions of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
This project combines educational and practical elements, utilizing wind speed data from the NREL wind map The installation will feature a turbine designed specifically for the site's wind conditions.