Philosophical dialogues as path to a more positive psychology journal of community applied social psychology

Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) Published online July 2007 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/casp.909 Philosophical Dialogues as Paths to a More ‘Positive Psychology’ SOFIA TRILIVA* and MANOLIS DAFERMOS University of Crete, Department of Psychology, University Campus at Gallos, Rethymno, Crete Greece 74 100 ABSTRACT Although family support programmes have been in place for several decades in Greece very little attention has been paid to evaluating the effectiveness of such endeavours, the techniques that influence their outcomes and the receptiveness to their messages The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of research findings collected during the first qualitative research phase of a community mental health promotion project The research was conducted in order to delineate programme outcomes and the characteristics that had an impact on the participants’ lives The 3-month family support programme intended to introduce ‘philosophical dialogues’ as means to developing personal and communal understandings of what makes life worth living The programme was developed and implemented on Crete under the auspices of a non-profit community organization appropriately named ‘The Lyceum for Women’ The features of the programme that contributed and enhanced the participants’ tendencies to become not passive targets but active partners and stakeholders in the process will be clarified, as will the conceptualization and approach Of the 45 evaluation protocols that were analysed the following themes were most important for the participants: ‘Group as-a-whole process’—the sense of sharing and development understandings in a ‘parea’ (in-group); ‘relational outcomes’—feeling of belonging, ‘reciprocated kindness’, and giving of self to others; personal and emotional outcomes-self-efficacy and empowerment; knowledge outcomes-learning about positive emotions and enjoying the simple things in life; and group facilitator outcomes-sharing stories, ‘gives of self to the community’ Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Key words: philosophical dialogues; positive psychology; community family support program; Greece BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Philosophical dialogues were part of the community traditions in ancient Greece and many of the teachings, accounts, and works of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were dialogues or narratives Moreover, philosophical understandings and ideas were meant to be applied in everyday life As Plato stated, words can be a ‘pharmaca or pharmaki’, that is medicine or * Correspondence to: Sofia Triliva, University of Crete, Department of Psychology, University Campus at Gallos, Rethymno, Crete Greece 74 100 E-mail: triliva@psy.soc.uoc.gr Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Accepted October 2006 18 S Triliva and M Dafermos poison and in today’s world of therapeutic dialogue, philosophy has become a therapeutic medium through such movements as ‘Emotional Intelligence’, ‘Positive Psychology’, and ‘Philosophical Counseling’ These latest trends in psychology have become somewhat of a Zeitgeist and have impacted upon research and practice all over the world, including Greece Publications such as Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence (1995) and Lou Marinoff’s Plato not Prozac! Applying philosophy to every day problems (1999) have been translated into the Greek language and read widely It was a convoluted path that was taken, in that the traditions of Greece’s ancient world faded away from everyday use and application and were relegated to the realm of academic study and endeavour without having the practical impact on the everyday cultural practices and ways of being for centuries, to make a ‘comeback’ when mainstream psychology embraced them and made them popular again In order to develop some understanding on what constituted philosophical dialogues and to follow this convoluted path, we will begin our paper with a brief background on ‘philosophical dialogues in Ancient Greece’ and later tie these historical underpinnings to the community programme that was developed, implemented and evaluated Historical context: Ancient Greek epistemological and practical underpinnings The appearance of philosophical reflection and particularly philosophical dialogue was indelibly tied to the development of the Greek city-state (Vernant, 1989) Democracy as a political system, along with the development of ‘free or democratic’ citizens were important aspects of the ancient Greek social context and they, in turn, aided the development of philosophical dialogue In the Ancient Greek city states a large spectrum of dialogue forms developed, some of which were: the theatrical (tragedy and comedy), political, judicial, and philosophical It is important to mention the dialogical character of theatrical performances, the political disputes in the meetings of the congregations of the demos, every day discourse within the marketplace, and the symposium Citizens took part in social life by partaking in these various forms of dialogue According to Aristotle (1992b), a person is a ‘political animal’ The person who is unable to live within the social network because he is autarchic or self-sufficient is either a god or wild beast (Politica, VII, 138a) Hence, the continuous communication of the citizens within their city-state is an essential prerequisite for their eudaimonia Philosophical dialogue was a form of discussion, conversation between two or more people, a particular type of oral interchange of ideas on a specific topic, a give-and-take, which was escorted with nods, gestures, and emotional discharge Dialogue was presented as a nodal strategy for probing deeply into ideas and for inquiry into the nature of ‘truth’ In this fashion, dialogue was not a form of oral expression and interchange, based on a preexisting knowledge, but a strategy for inquiring into personal and social ‘truths’ Understanding was not considered a monologue, but a form of dialogical inquiry between people (1994, Diogenis Laertios, III 48–49) This dialogical and interlocutory inquiry into gnosis is one of the most important aspects of ancient philosophical reflection and syllogism Dialogue and gnosis did not only focus upon the physical aspects of the world but, most importantly, the development of understanding of how people perceive and comprehend their world This anthropocentric focus of philosophical reflection expresses the Protagoran statement that, ‘Man is the measure of things’ (Diogenis Laertios, 1994, IX, 51) Another viewpoint on philosophical dialogue is Socrates’ perspective that dialogue is a means for Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 19 pursuing an ethical form of life According to Socrates, gnosis of what is right or wrong is a prerequisite of eudaimonia As a consequence, in order to achieve eudaimonia it is essential to examine one’s ethical stance and worldview, as Socrates states, ‘An unexamined way of life is not worthy of living’ (Plato, 1992, Apology, 38A) The pursuit of truth via philosophical dialogue was and is an open process Dialogues begin with a question and end with an unanswerable question, which leaves the interlocutors/discussants in a state of wonder, surprise or puzzlement It is this state of inspired wonder and admiration that captures the transformation, the turning point in understanding, the apocalypse ‘People begin to philosophize now and began in the beginning due to wonderment «yaumazein» (Aristotle, 1973 Metaphysics, 982B, 13) This same opinion was voiced by Socrates who believed that ‘wonderment/ marvel’ was the fundamental tenant of philosophy (Plato, Theaititos, 1993, 115d) Not only is philosophical dialogue a form of discussion it entails an ingredient that is interactive and a clash of opposing viewpoints This clashing or collision of viewpoints or worldviews is considered by the Ancient Greek philosophers as the most worthwhile means of pursuing truths ‘We are currently in conflict, not for the prevalence or domination of his over mine view, but for both of us to engage in a friendly battle for truth’ (Plato, Filibos, 1956, 14 b–c) In today’s epistemological world, this would be the process of ‘deconstructing expert knowledge’ There are two instances (or two phases) of the Socratic method of carrying out dialogues: irony and ‘maieutiki’ which has been translated into dialogistic/dialogical but which literally means ‘midwifery or of birth giving’ and is a method of extracting or wheedling out answers (Giannikopoulos, 1989) Irony refers to a figure of speech or ‘trope’ where something contrary or disparate to what is said is to be understood (Vlastos, 1991, p 21) Socrates appeared ignorant and asked of the person he was in dialogue with to explain to him that which s/he understood as expert on the matter Moreover, he methodically put forth questions that unsettled the arrogance of his interlocutor and which led him to a state of bewilderment or disconcertment This tactic was applied in order to demonstrate that knowledge that one arrogantly ‘possesses’ proves to be ‘false’ or deceitful The shaking and toppling of one’s dogmatic convictions brings about internal confusion and vacillation and opens the road for the common search for social truths Socratic irony leads to the unsettlement of entrenched viewpoints and understandings of the ‘common mind’ and makes obvious internal inconsistencies, which in turn, creates the space for ‘knowing thyself’ and for understanding the ‘other’ The starting point for the pursuit of ‘truth’ is the awareness of the problem, which is the conscious understanding of the contradictory nature of supposed knowledge Puzzlement brings about psychic tension and an urge to search, to seek knowledge and understanding (Kanakis, 1990) The Socratic denial of knowing «en oida o´ti ouden oida» one thing I know is that I not know anything) constitutes a form of refined irony, which is further reinforced when one takes into account the following utterance of the Delphic Article—‘Of all men Socrates is the most wise’ (Diogenis Laertios, 1994, II 37; Plato, The apology of Socrates, 1992, 21a) Although there appears to be an incompatibility between these two statements, one can discern that there is an underlying connection between them, knowing thyself «gno yi s’ auto´n», a self-critical stance, and the awareness of the limits and inadequacies of ‘knowledge’ is presented as the highest form of wisdom It is this ‘not-knowing stance’ together with the reflective process that allows for: (1) the development of layer upon layer of response, (2) the creation of a web of linguistic connections that link people together by making them a part of a generative or Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 20 S Triliva and M Dafermos transforming process, (3) bringing forth emotional reverberations and a moving forth of the interlocutors by the creation of joint knowledge, and (4) invites opportunities for community These ideas are echoed today in ‘social-constructionism’ and ‘poststructuralist’ systemic perspectives on therapeutic intervention which are based on the premise that our culturally accepted ways of thinking, feeling, and talking control our beliefs and ways of being There were no ‘ready answers’ in this form of interchange For Socrates this form of critical reflection in social context was a form of birth-giving, the spiritual birth of the subject (see Plato, 1993 Theaititos, 150 b–c) Critical dialogues, and the dialectical methodology was not a pedagogical enterprise for Socrates, it had an ethical/philosophical/ spiritual orientation These aspects of philosophical dialogue were further refined and developed by Plato Plato used the dialogical interchange between two interlocutors that argue and juxtapose two opposing points of view on issues that are socially negotiable Each argument and dilemma brings the interlocutors to a point of disequilibrium and hence an opportunity for community Of primary importance is the fact that the two discussants are equal and that they jointly pursue meaning making and reaching understanding They discuss a myriad of socially/ communally important issues, such as: the gods, the laws, the virtues, knowledge, justice, freedom, being wealthy or poor, wisdom and more In the Platonic dialogues there is no dogmatic teaching or preaching of a pre-existing or established ‘truth’ The narrator of the dialogues is not present as an active subject and his opinions are expressed in an indirect and oblique manner via the positioning of the two interlocutors (see the Platonic dialogues, Lysias, Protagoras, Lahis, Kriton, Eythefron, Gorgias, Menon, Eythydumos, Ion, Faidon, Symposia, Faidros, Sophistis and chapters I, II–X of Politea) The quest is energized by puzzlement and wonderment, which are the by-products of deep concentration, devotion, immersion and careful deliberation between people This process brings forth a certain balance, psychic equilibrium, and in time, the attainment of eudaimonia The concepts of eudaimonia, the virtues of courage, sophrosyne (temperance), holiness and the social virtues of honesty, forgiveness, justice, gratitude/humility and friendliness were both states of being and ways of being, that is praxis (Aristotle, 1992a; Nochominena Ethics, III, 2, 1111a) Virtues are the praxis which are fulfilled of one’s own free will and pleasure Intention is predilection which is based on one’s judgement, conviction and rational volition Relying upon this set of particular points of view which are outlined above and which were couched into a post-modern social constructionist perspective a group primary prevention intervention was conceived, designed, implemented and evaluated with the aim of re-introducing philosophical dialogues into the daily fabric of the lives of the participants for the purpose of conscious-raising, critical reflective appraisal and praxis (Freire, 1970, 1975, 1978) enhancement In line with the post-modern constructionist perspective critical reflection was both part of the intervention and its evaluation, primacy was given to personal lived experience, and an emphasis was placed on personal change, empowerment, and emancipation (that is a transformative approach and process) It is within this epistemological context that this applied research project took place Sociocultural context Rethymno is a city of 31 700 people that has a long history dating back to the Minoan Era Currently it is a university city and its major industries are tourism and agriculture Most of Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 21 the residents have moved to the city from the villages that exist in the wider prefecture and this has occurred in the past 20 years and has literally changed the structure and culture of the city Cretan traditions, dialect, and ways of being still predominate as does the influence of the Greek Orthodox religion Nevertheless, houses are now multiple family dwellings, open community areas are limited and the old traditions of sitting on your stoop or in a small enclosed courtyard with your neighbours in the afternoons passing time, discussing personal issues, and knitting have long been eclipsed Those afternoon discussions have not been replaced by the ‘psychotherapy’ movement that has become so popular in North America In Greek culture ‘psychotherapy’ and psychology in general are imports and not widely used or accepted as viable ways of getting help or developing understanding The cultural notions of ‘honor’, ‘shame’, ‘private’ and ‘public’ continue to appear in everyday discourse and undoubtedly impinge upon people’s subjectivities and activities (Sant Cassia, 1992) These notions influence people’s willingness to participate in ‘therapeutic’ interactions especially in an open community group format Yet, with the fraying of communal dialogues and opportunities of interaction and the concomitant new world dilemmas that people confront on a daily basis, some community members are willing to participate in group interchanges and dialogue People are more likely to participate however, when the socio-cultural context’s traditional ways of knowing, understanding, and meaning-making are taken into consideration and adhered to For the past 25 years or so, the Lyceum for Women in the town of Rethymno has been running an ‘educational group’ as part of their wider programme which aims to uphold Greek traditions and culture and to bolster the institution that is the bedrock of Greek cultural existence, the family The ‘Lyceum for Women’ is a non-profit organization that is considered a learning environment in the greater Rethymno Prefecture The learning environment ‘Lyceum’ has evolved from the belief that knowledge and culture are inextricably intertwined, that knowledge is created through the interaction of people in a relational community, and that learning by doing will bring about personal and communal change Up until very recently, the group was psychoeducational in nature and consisted of lecture presentations in areas such as child development and parenting The programming for the family currently entails an experiential format, with a focus on the family, its members as individuals and as members of the wider social and communal system The theme for the lyceum group last year was: Philosophical dialogues as a means to a more ‘positive psychology’ The purpose of this paper is to present the procedures implemented and the formative qualitative evaluation of the processes and outcomes of the programme More recent theoretical contexts On the face of it the aims of the Lyceum for Women might seem contradictory: on the one hand, the need to preserve stability in terms of upholding Greek traditions and culture, on the other the recognition that ‘learning by doing’ will engender social and personal change However, if one looks to the relatively recent psychological approaches concepts of wisdom (Baltes, Gluck, & Kunzmann, 2002; Baumeister & Vohs, 2002; Sternberg, 1990, 2003) one sees how these apparently disparate social needs may be intertwined Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde (1990) take an interesting perspective to studying wisdom and they call it ‘evolutionary hermeneutics’ They state that this method is based on the assumptions that there are some concepts that relate to the evaluation of behaviour (wisdom and virtues being two such concepts) that have been used for centuries and that Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 22 S Triliva and M Dafermos have ‘adaptive value’ and in order to understand the meanings of these concepts it is best to analyze how some components of them remain constant (p 25) As these authors put it: ‘The aim is to integrate the experience of previous generations with our own, trying to understand the adaptive value of former responses, thereby providing a deeper and richer context for present understanding’ (p 27) This concept is clearly relevant for the Greek cultural context, useful in developing understandings in the community group format, and applicable to the social constructivist perspective Gaining experience through authentic and emotional involvement in a communal setting was deemed to be helpful for the participants in clarifying their own wisdoms and integrating them with diverse points of view, gaining interpersonal validation for them, forming them into unfolding stories, and possibly developing them to the realm of praxis In addition to the above, from the psychological literature on wisdom, some aspects of Karen Strohm Kitchener’s ‘reflective judgement model’ of wisdom were found helpful for the community group intervention project Strohm Kitchener and Brenner (1990) postulate that wisdom consists of knowledge that life is fraught with ambiguities, uncertainties, and problems that need to viewed as such Their empirical findings on making judgments when there are no ‘right’ or ‘true’ answers by using ‘depth’ (reflexivity) and ‘breadth’ (empathic and intellectual understanding) along with a willingness to construct sound solutions and to compare these constructed beliefs within particular contexts illuminated many areas of the complexity (personal and interpersonal) involved in confronting the quandaries that life puts forth Similarly, the uncertainties involved in life’s dilemmas, the appreciation of fallibility (Meachan, 1990), people’s openness to change, and finding balance through problem finding and pondering (Kennedy Arlin, 1990) were definitions of wisdom that were also helpful for the intervention From this same literature, the work of Juan Pascual-Leone (1990) on how wisdom is developed (integration of affect, cognitive processing, spiritual and praxis) and the role that wise counsellors can play in its development (restricting authoritarian interventions, fostering freedom, and allowing for the integration of people’s agency and communion) were useful principles for the group facilitator The themes of the group-work programme examined the questions that philosophers, especially the ancient Greek philosophers, pondered The Socratic ‘dialogistic/ dialogical’ method was applied as a way of developing dialogue, interaction and communication The participants expressed their opinions and positions by examining questions that have no right or wrong answer By both posing questions and providing experiential activities it was hoped that understandings, meanings, and points of reference would be developed by the participants on the subjects and themes touched upon Relying on the work of Rogers (1967), Maslow (1971), Kolb (1984), Boud, Cohen, and Walker (1993), Heron, 1996, Jaques, (1991) and Freire (1970, 1975, 1978) experiential learning activities were generated To Rogers (1967, 1980) experiential learning was equivalent to personal change and growth He believed that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn and the teachers, counsellors or facilitators can reinforce this natural inclination Group facilitators, who set up a positive non-threatening climate for learning, find ways to strike a balance between the emotional and intellectual components of the teaching–learning process Moreover, facilitators who share of themselves in the learning process promote participation, learning and transformation (Rogers, 1967, 1980) Since the themes of the group had practical, social, and personal significance it was hoped that the process would allow for interplay of connections, emotional reverberations and a move from ‘wisdom to responsibility’ (Hoffman, 2002) Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 23 Being that experiential activities are structured and designed to appeal to the ‘aesthetic’ manner of expression and communication (Eyford, 1989) the work of Abraham Maslow (1971) was used as a basis for understanding ‘the primary processes of cognition’ (Maslow, 1971, p 86) and the role of feelings, intuitions, and aesthetic experiences in self-realization or actualization According to Eyford (1989), ‘the primary processes of cognition are the intuitive, creative, mystical, imaginative, spiritual and emotional aspect of human nature’ (p 32) and they are the processes that need to be tapped into, since they are the wellsprings of peoples’ beings Meaning, significance, motivation and inspiration-purpose in life derive from these processes It is essential to point out that these forms of processing and coming to understandings have been part of traditional Greek myths, epics, theatre, philosophical dialogues and narratives, and have been relied upon for centuries in developing understandings and cultural subjectivities Since experience is the foundation of and the stimulus for learning and learning builds on and flows from past, present and future experience (Boud, Cohen, & Walker, 1993), the activities used within the group were developed and applied so that the participants could construct their own impressions and understandings and to allow for the input of their fellow community members, being that meaning-making is socially and culturally constructed (Gergen, 1999; McNamee & Gergen, 1999) After the advent of participating in an experiential activity, Kolb’s (1984) model raises the following questions: What was noticed? So, what does this mean? Now what? This type of questioning was used to help the participants step back and reflect upon the activity, interpret for themselves and plan and experiment with change Experiential learning thus involves actively engaging with the phenomena being studied, rather than passively thinking about the activity or event Hence, the activities focused on personal growth and critical self-reflection, this of course, in dynamic relation to others and using methods derived from cultural traditions The active engagement of experiential learning as well as the relevance of the subject matter is captured by Paulo Freire’s (1970, 1975, 1978) work which outlined three elements of the reflection-learning process was most relevant Freire (1970) emphasized the need for community interaction, experimentation, responsibility and creative outputs:  Consientization—the process through which learners perceive, understand and are mobilized by their deepening awareness of the social, political and cultural contexts and the contradictions within them Learners are ‘knowing subjects’ and hence, are able to develop a capacity to understand and through their own volition transform the reality in which they are embedded  Problematization—mental focusing on those parts of learning, which require attention and change, which prove difficult and frustrating Thinking about and working out these aspects of the learning process enhances understanding and helps the person to resolve dissonance and learned helplessness It is the means by which people come to understand, unravel and transform the realities in which they are embedded  Praxis—The internal dialogue that corresponds with the process of experiencing Attempts at figuring out how and why specific actions succeed or fail so that we can act deliberately and problem solve more efficiently on another occasion It is the union of reflection to action, a vital dynamic to change and transformation, a kind of knowing that allows people to intervene and change their world In Freire’s (1970, 1975, 1978) schema reflection is a complicated and essential component of learning Learning becomes a personal process and it is not only the understanding of specific subject matter His view included the knowledge-volition-action Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 24 S Triliva and M Dafermos process which is crucial to bringing about personal and community change and transformation and which leads to empowerment He emphasized that change and transformation happen in ‘communion’ and are mediated by culture and context Totikidis and Prilleltensky, (2006) have more recently applied ‘the cycle of praxis’ in combining a diverse community’s interest in wellness with action These experiential learning tenets were strongly adhered to in the design and implementation of the activities As stated earlier, the theoretical background for the programme module was a post-modern social constructionist perspective More specifically Harre and Gillett’s (1994) notion that, ‘in this view, our delineation of the subject matter of psychology has to take account of discourses, significations, subjectivities, and positionings, for it is in these that psychological phenomena actually exist Thus the discourses constructed jointly by persons and within socio-cultural groups become an important part of the framework of interpretation’ (pp 21–22) In this manner, social collaboration, sharing in an open community group, and the development of dialogue on different socio-psychological issues were taken to be the underlying processes in personal and interpersonal meaning making and personal transformation RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE In order to investigate the impact of the group experience, its themes, processes, and contents on the group members an illuminative evaluation was undertaken The aims of the evaluation were: (1) to develop an understanding of the perceptions and experiences of participants in the programme, (2) to discover the social meanings that programme interactions had for the participants, and (3) to point out how the experience derived from the programme affected the daily lives of the participants and perhaps their lives within the broader communal setting Hence, the formal written evaluation that was conducted at the end of the programme addressed questions regarding its content, participants’ perceptions of the outcomes, and how the group experience impacted on their lives These questions were considered significant not only for the programme evaluation but for allowing for the building of a grounded theory framework (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) and in this manner studying the programme impact, what makes it effective or ineffective, and the theoretical contexts and techniques that might impact on the meaning making and possible transformation of the participants within this socio-cultural milieu Being that the group was a mutual activity and joint action the question posited is: What is or are the group’s emergent outcome(s) or result(s)? PLAN OF INQUIRY Participants and format of participation As many as 60 people attended the open group meetings on a regular basis The participants were mostly women (only 1–5 men attended the group regularly) and ranged in age from 20 to 82 years of age They were all people who live in Rethymno and they were all of Greek heritage The goals of the group were discussed in the first session and consensus was reached that the group would focus on discussing philosophical issues such as: what brings happiness to our lives, how can we improve our lives, where is strength and life-force found Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 25 within us, and what are human virtues and how are they developed The participants voluntarily attended the group The meetings were scheduled for 12 consecutive weeks and lasted approximately hours The programme themes were constructed in collaboration with the participants On the first meeting of the group discussion was generated on what constitutes ‘positive psychology’ This is a literal translation of a term used widely in the Greek language and it was established by the group participants that it connotes, the experience of positive feelings and emotions, psychological ‘balance’, fulfilment/eudaimonia, and sense of well-being These became the themes for discussion and experiential activity in 11 remaining sessions of the group Table presents the themes, format, goals and issues for discussion, and experiential activities that constituted the agenda of the group As it is apparent from Table 1, the group discussions and activities were based on open-ended questions that attempted to enrich the unfolding process and to help the participants reflect upon their experiences, personal lives, and on communal aspects of their being These questions as much as the topics were the ‘philosophical dialogues’ Method and approach to the analysis Forty-five regular participants responded to the anonymous questionnaire, which was used in evaluating the outcomes of the programme The participants were given the questionnaire during the last group meeting and returned it by post The questionnaire consisted of the following open-ended questions: — In your own words describe what you gained from the 12-week community programme — Did you participate actively in the activities? What helped you to this? What hindered this process? — How did the dialogue on positive feelings, thoughts and experiences affect your life? — What did the group leader that you liked? What did not help? — How can the sessions be improved? — Did the parts of the programme fit together? How or how not? — Which activities did you find most meaningful for you? Why? These questions were addressed in an open-ended essay format and each participant completed three pages of written narrative feedback A three-phase method of analysis was implemented in order to delineate the programme outcomes from the participants’ perspectives In the first phase the participants’ responses were studied and coded by the researcher and two independent psychologists (one a psychologist with 25 years of experience in intervention programming and one a family therapist with 20 years of experience in family and community intervention) in order to reach a consensus as to the forms of outcomes the participants described The evaluation questionnaires were read and coded first by the researcher and than by the first psychologist The two coding trials were compared, overlapping categories were defined, and in the very few instances (six categorizations) where there was disagreement the third psychologist’s coded the responses In this way, consensus was reached on all responses and categories were identified for those programme activities/experiences mentioned by the participants From this first stage of data analysis six categories of outcomes were delineated: Group ‘as-a-whole’ process, relational, personal, emotional, knowledge and facilitator characteristics The words used Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp An outline of the themes, activities, goals, the theoretical (philosophical and ‘Positive Psychology’ literature) Issues for discussion and experiential activities DOI: 10.1002/casp J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) What is ‘positive psychology?’ To delineate as a group what is ‘positive psychology’ The themes for discussion and activity development for the 12-session group What we aim at in life or what makes life worth living? To develop personal and communal understandings of what wisdom is and can be Wisdom: What does it mean for me? How does it affect my life? How is it connected to who we are and what we do? What activities does a fulfilled life contain? To expand each participant’s understandings of their worldview(s), and concomitantly at the collective level, to use these insights as a basis of enhancing and further developing understandings of culture, conflict, coping and community What makes living worthwhile? To raise community consciousness and feeling and social empowerment in each of the participants and in the group as a whole Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? To learn from and about each other by sharing stories, narratives and understandings Activity: Make list of the group’s words of wisdom Sophrosyne: Personal and communal understandings: What does it mean? What makes my life balanced? What brings imbalance to my life? How I find balance? References: Research and theoretical underpinnings Aristotle (1976); Baltes and Freund (2003); Baltes, Gluck, and Kunzman (2002); Plato (1956) Aristotle (1976); Plato (1956) Activity: The balancing act: Diagrammatic representation of all that needs to be balanced in life Eudaimonia: What is eudaimonia for me? How did our ancient forefathers define it? Where does it come from? How we define and live it as a community? Activity: One-week journal of moments of fulfilment and well-being Positive Affectivity: Positive feelings and their origins What are the positive emotions and feelings? Where they come from? How they affect my life? Activity: Positive acts and strivings Aristotle (1976); Plato (1956) Fredrickson (2002); Isen (2003); Seligman (2002);Watson (2002) S Triliva and M Dafermos Programme themes Goals of meetings, discussions, and experiential exercises 26 Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Table To deepen each participant’s self-awareness and insight regarding gratitude and humility Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? To have fun and enjoy each others company Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? To engage with each other and invite authentic participation Gratitude and relationships: What am I grateful for? How I express my gratitude? Activity: My life and relationships as gifts The use of humour in problem solving: What makes humour an elixir in life? Activity: The sharing of funny anecdotes Authenticity: What is it? How I display it? How I feel about it? Berscheid (2003); Emmons (2004); Emmons and Shelton (2002); Seligman (2002) Lefcourt (2002) Averill (2002); Harter (2002) Activity: Show and tell of: drawing, story, or creation of meaning, vitality, connectedness To discuss and explore new ways of being with others Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? To engage fully in the process of meaning making Love, empathy and understanding: How I define these terms? How I live them? How they affect my daily life? How they affect our lives? What acts these experiences include within our lives and within our community? Activity: Self-focus and mirroring role- play Hope: What is it? How we live it? How we develop it in the face of adversity? What are acts of hope? Batson, Ahmad, Lishner, and Tsang (2002); Hendrick and Hendrick (2002); Pines (1999); Plato (1956) Snyder, Rand, and Sigmon (2002) Continues 27 DOI: 10.1002/casp J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? 28 Programme themes Where can we find the strength and energy to make our lives better? Goals of meetings, discussions, and experiential exercises To embellish and illuminate the participants’ ways of meaning making and to exchange these wisdoms Issues for discussion and experiential activities Activity: Stories of hope and courage Meaningfulness and the psyche: How we make sense of what transpires each day? What are the processes involved in meaning making within our life and within the group? How does meaning making affect our psychical experiences? How does meaningfulness affect our community life? Activity: I know what counts References: Research and theoretical underpinnings Baumeister and Vohs (2002); Levine (2000); Seligman (2002) S Triliva and M Dafermos Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Table (Continued) DOI: 10.1002/casp J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 29 by the participants in describing what the group ‘as-a-whole’ outcome were words such as: ‘Being part of the group was helpful;’ ‘Talking and hearing the others tell their stories;’ ‘We became one, a parea’ (in-group) and other descriptions focusing on the whole group and the dynamic process involved in participation In the relational outcomes they described the impact of participation on their relationships and changes or personal transformations that they put forth in their relational worlds Sentences such as ‘the dialogue helped me open up to new ways of communicating’ were used The personal and emotional categories were the two that were the most difficult for the coders to disentangle and they focused on changes that the critical reflexive process brought about The knowledge outcomes consisted of cognitive changes or understandings, for example, ‘I learned .’ The impact of the group facilitator was described by the participants in ways that focused on her way of relating to the group and its members In the second phase of analysis the 135 pages of written narratives were read by the researchers in order to develop some understandings as to the meanings the participants gave to these experiences and how they made sense of all that transpired This phase was instituted in order to illuminate the richness of subjective meaning-making and to counteract the ‘ascribed’ meanings that the categorizing of narratives may have ‘imposed’ in the first phase (Emerson & Frosh, 2004) The goal of this phase of analysis was to search for and identify the segments of the transcripts that described ‘sense-making’ and ‘meaning-making’ efforts by the participants and how such constructions were linked to the group context The researchers discussed these written narratives in order to capture the moments of ‘philosophizing’ within the narrative which were a product of the community interaction and dialogue With this, identifying how the participants generate and transform their own meanings In the third and final stage of the analysis, the evaluation narratives were re-read and analysed with the goal of discovering how participation in the group had impacted upon the members’ abilities to bring about changes and personal transformations in their lives In other words, how the social discourses and dialogues (the group process) provided the scaffolding, which enabled the participants to assert agency in their lives and intervene and somehow change their world ANALYSIS OF OUTCOMES In the three-stage process of outcome analysis, each programme evaluation questionnaire was read and coded in an attempt to delineate what was the impact of the programme according to each participant, that is what were the personal outcomes of the programme and what made the programme effective After all the coding was completed, compiled and agreed upon the following themes and results emerged Group ‘as-a-whole’ process outcomes Of the 45 responses that were received and analysed 44 mentioned community sharing and building as being an integral component of the programme and an important process and outcome They referred to the group as an ‘oasis’ and as a process of developing community ties and finding a ‘syntrofia’ (company) They called the group a ‘parea’ meaning ‘in-group’ and connoting a sense of familiarity, sharing and support giving As Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 30 S Triliva and M Dafermos one participant put it, ‘In this ‘parea’ we are learning by sharing’ The participants emphasized the structuring and building of ‘communal understandings’ with such comments as, ‘learning from each other about myself and about the others in the group’ The support and acquiring ‘voice’ components of the process were also underlined, ‘there is a place and a time where people will listen to what I have to say’ and ‘in this context we can all interact and speak and in this way understand what is happening in our worlds’ ‘Sharing our stories’ and the learning that transpires from such sharing was also mentioned, as were the collective experiences: ‘At some moments I felt like we were all a big family’; ‘Some of the ladies felt like I and explored similar experiences’ and ‘I listened to what others said and felt like I was not the only one with problems and who is always trying to figure out things’ These ‘group as-as-a-whole process’ outcomes, communal sharing, and collective understandings were the most prevalent in the evaluation protocols and appeared to help in building a sense of community These dynamic processes were also linked to feelings of ‘belonging’, a decrease in anxiety and fear, and praxis such as reaching (through communication, offering of support, and via acceptance) out to people within the group and toward significant others Relational outcomes The ‘relational’ category of outcomes was the second most frequent one described by the group participants and was closely related to the interpersonal aspects of the previously described category The participants described their experiences by writing, ‘that I can understand my thoughts, ideas, and actions better when I discuss them with others’, ‘that if I can talk openly to people I scarcely know, I can certainly the same to my family members’, and ‘felt accepted by a wider circle of people’ These relational outcomes appeared to be highly valued by the participants Intimacy and belonging were also described by the participants with words such as, ‘I felt closer to the community and more accepting of others’, ‘that there is a whole community of people out there that I can share things with’, and ‘that we belong only when we are open to talk about ourselves and to hear others’ This widening of the interpersonal world and the richness in feeling that it can provide was an integral part of the participation process for many of the members of the group The sharing of personal experiences in a non-threatening way increased people’s understandings of each other and helped them see the commonalities they share as well as their differences Several participants made connections between these relational understandings and the positive affectivity involved with ‘positive actions’ such as: reciprocated kindness—‘After the gratitude talk, I found myself being nicer and more thoughtful of others’; giving of the self to others—‘That by opening up yourself you become open to others, that is sharing, giving and taking’; forgiveness—‘The letter I wrote, the things other people wrote made me feel that forgiveness is possible and I did forgive the person I wrote the letter to’; and delving into establishing interpersonal understandings— ‘After the activity on what is important in life, I went home and explored family values with my whole family’ The agentic component of the descriptions emphasizes the importance of the experiential activities in raising consciousness and bringing about change and praxis (Freire, 1970, 1975, 1978) The positive emotional impact of forgiveness that McCullough and vanOyen Witvliet (2002) propose is highlighted The importance of gratitude lived as a virtue that Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 31 opens peoples’ hearts and expends their perspectives (Roberts, 2004) was also emphasized by the participants Personal and emotional outcomes These two categories of outcomes are analysed concomitantly because they were difficult to disentangle and render distinct The participants talked about how their self-awareness was enhanced by the reflective exercises and interchanges, one participant wrote, ‘As the ancient Greeks said, ‘know thyself’ and this knowing comes about through interaction and sharing with others’, and another, ‘In the group we understand ourselves by listening to and talking to others’ In a sense the participants described how the web of dialogue links people together The increased empowerment, emancipation from self-rejection and self-punishment, sense of worth through vital engagement, insight and personal agency were also described as personal outcomes by the participants Along these lines, they mentioned: ‘Like I had more power and strength to deal with things that I avoided, just opening my mouth helped’; ‘Many negative thoughts I was able to put a stop to, I was too responsible for everybody and everything, this was something I learned by listening to the other people’; ‘I was able to see how I not ask my husband for things .and expect him to read my mind’; ‘Felt confident and real when I talked about personal things in the group’; ‘That I could things, that I was strong enough to face even old skeletons’; ‘That I could try new ways of expressing myself’; ‘By interacting with others and talking I discovered other ways of being and acting’ The participants tied this sense of personal gain to emotional outcomes They discussed having ‘less anxiety and worry about that which is uncertain’ and ‘feeling less isolated just by listening’ One participant tied these ‘emotional outcomes’ to sharing and belonging in a wider community, ‘by listening and talking to others, I felt stronger like we were all one ‘fist’ united and stronger, though different’ Other participants wrote that ‘courage’ is developed by participating openly and that active ‘social’ engagement bolsters one’s ability to face difficult situations and people As many as 38 participants mentioned the gains that ‘wisdom’ brings They narrated the following: ‘Felt like a ‘philosopher’, something that even our language does not allow to women, this was personally empowering for me’; ‘Balance or wisdom come from knowing that there are so many possibilities, twists, turns and contradictions and we all feel and live this’; and ‘sophrosyne, felt not as restraint but as freedom’ Gaining ‘balance’, ‘wisdom’, and ‘sophrosyne’ appeared very important to the participants and they underscored the sharing and ‘dialogue’ components of the programme as being essential in bringing about such gains Many participants linked these personal and emotional outcomes to ‘maturing’, ‘developing emotionally and psychically’, and ‘embellishing and gaining depth in one’s psychic world’ There words encompass the Greek cultural view that the ‘psyche’ is not only psychological and emotional but also spiritual Knowledge outcomes Of all the categories of outcomes the ‘knowledge’ outcomes was referred to the least This may attest to the greater influence of the experiential activities as opposed the contents of the programme module Another possible explanation is that the participants did not focus on Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 32 S Triliva and M Dafermos learning but on the integrative aspects of wisdom, eudaimonia, and sophrosyne which transcend the realm of the cognitive and which are ‘discovered through an introspective process and manifested in words or works of transcendent truth and beauty’ (Robinson, 1990, p 23) Or, as Freire (1970, 1978) explains through introspection and reflection (consientization and problematization) learning becomes a personal matter Nevertheless, of the content outcomes focused on, learning about ‘positive emotions’ and eudeimonia, ‘sharpening one’s senses to enjoy the simple things in life’, and ‘that meaning making is an intellectual, emotional and behavioural activity, and that it is important for whom I am and how I lead my life’ Several participants mentioned that the ‘knowledge’ they gained about ‘wisdom’ and ‘eudaimonia’ helped them see how they can be shapers of their experience and not products of it As one participant put it: ‘I learned that pondering life’s problems makes me wiser because only by asking ‘what is all this about’ can I face uncertainty wisely’ Group facilitator outcomes For the group facilitator the participants emphasized her way of relating that made the difference for them They emphasized things such as, narrates, ‘ .tells stories well’, encourages, ‘ .gets everyone to participate’, uses humour, empowers, ‘ .helps us to reflect upon our problems and encourages us to make changes asks the right questions for everyone to answer for themselves’, and ‘gives of self to the community’ In this set of responses the narrative sharing is underlined as is the encouragement and openness of generating alternatives and participating socially in meaning making The importance of narrative, telling, and the use of image and metaphor were outlined by the participants who found these aspects of the interchange to be the most influential part of the group-work process The facilitator outcomes seem to follow what Nelson and Prillentensky (2005) describe as the role of an ‘inclusive host’ and ‘listener conceptualizer’ (pp 222–223).That is making participants feel safe, accepted, and comfortable to voice their opinions and concerns, and helping them to listen and come to understandings that are derived from their own and their fellow group members’ narrations and experiences Overall, the participants underlined the collective, communal, and relational aspects of the interactive conversations and activities of the group They joined together with some trepidation and fear, began in their own ways to relate to each other and to the group as a whole, eventually began to move slowly individually and collectively, and were transformed and transforming into new ways of understanding, being and acting The joint activities, dialogues, and the ‘common’ or ‘communal’ that the group context brought to the forefront developed into new understandings, subjectivities and possibilities for action This rich social interaction constructs a melded interplay of meanings, emotional reverberations, embracing all sides of social and personal dilemmas This in turn brings about new forms of relatedness through open dialogue, reflective practices and through these processes communal linkages are made These aspects of being and relating are intertwined A story that one participant narrated in her evaluation is very telling of this: ‘A few days ago I was talking to a couple of women I have known for a long time and we were discussing how values have changed in our life time One of the two said, ‘you have thought these things out and speak of them with such eloquence’ I replied, ‘we have spent many hours talking in the ‘Wednesday Group’, this talk has broadened my lenses, made me think deeply about things and even my vocabulary has become enriched I am grateful to the group’ Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 33 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FINDINGS In aiming for a more integrative view, it was evident from what transpired during the meetings and from the illuminative evaluation that for some participants this form of interaction, reflexivity and meaning making helps in finding a solution to a problem, while for others, their understandings of how they and their fellow community members conceptualized and live wisdom, eudaimonia, sophrosyne and fulfilment are enriched For still others, their conceptions and stance on meaning is broadened and grounded in experiential communal wisdom The open-group format was reminiscent of the old ‘syntrofia’ (keeping company) of years past, a communal activity that then (and now in this new format) is a way of nurturing the development of individuals, families and communities through collaborative interdependence, enriching the mutuality in developing understandings, and using dialogue and narrative to support the participants continuous process of generating and transforming meaning (Gergen, 1999) The fact that such endeavours had been a part of ‘traditional’ ways of knowing, that reflexivity is most definitely what went on in an ancient world ‘lyceum’ and is sorely needed today, helped in reifying the social preconditions and techniques used The participants who evaluated the programme did not focus so much on the contents as they did on the group processes and the personal meanings derived from their group experience They described how in essence they entered the divergent dialogues and discourses that became available in the group context and how their personal and collective ‘selves’ were transformed by the process of joining, participating, interacting and discussing Along with ‘syntrofia’, new constructions of what is real, important, positive, wise, good and pleasing emerged The participants did not describe the predominance of one reality or worldview but an opening of subjectivities and understandings to new ways, different perspectives, and possibilities for action As Vygotsky (1962) put it, ‘A shared narrative is what matters Reason does not turn the trick’ (p 107) The participants who replied to the evaluation questions indicated both individual and collective transformations, which are taken as indices of strong emotional, intellectual and interpersonal growth Since the development of understandings of individual and collective worldviews happens naturally in groups and these forms of understanding are relational in nature, the group was viewed as and possibly acted as a mutual community via the creation of new experiential references and habits (Gergen, 1999) New ideas, solutions, and efforts are generated by the interaction with the others who participated, as one person put it, ‘I understood that dialogue and talk with others helps me make sense of my problems’ and ‘ .understand that each person has gifts, potentials, powers and strength’ Furthermore, several participants pointed out that dialogue helps in ‘Looking inside myself and beyond myself’ and ‘ .experience what it means to analyse and examine all the different voices inside me and outside me’ Others talked about voice in this fashion: ‘ .put my feelings into words and express them’, ‘ .find my voice and feel confident in using it’, and ‘ .use my intuition as a guide to making decisions and expressing myself’ These outcomes can be viewed as products of the process of participation, sharing, and simply ‘telling’ one’s story, opinion, or ‘truth’ Perhaps they can be viewed as McNamee and Gergen (1999) write: Meaning and language is generated within the process of relationships In effect, all that we propose to be real and good (ontology and morality) is born of human interchange .relational responsibility, that is toward means of valuing, sustaining, and creating forms of relationship out of which common meanings—and thus Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 34 S Triliva and M Dafermos moralities—can take wing By using the term responsibility .as a conversational resource; it is a term that may enter conversations in ways that might sustain and support the process of constructing meaning as opposed to terminating it .Relational responsibility, then lies within the shared attempt to sustain the conditions in which we can join in the construction of meaning and morality (p xi) The participants of the group came into dynamic interaction with their community of people Each participant came into open-dialogue with others, which in turn created linkages between people, their emotional, social, political and behavioural worlds The power of speaking, reflecting and interacting perhaps empowered and enabled the participants to feel and know how to go on with the dilemmas they confront possibly through the social negation processes that are inherent in any group The group participants became social partners in developing understandings, from the flow of the common dialogues and their worlds of language become connected The experiential nature of the activities was commented upon with words such as: ‘The things I learn in the meetings stay with me, they are not forgotten easily’, and ‘remember what I learned in the meetings, I will forget words but not the exercises’ The reflexivity brought about transformation and change and as two participants stated, ‘ .learned that self-direction and change begins by willing to try something new’ and ‘ .discover new possibilities and other ways of understanding’, possibly reverberating Shotter’s (2002), In this view, then, our ‘inner’ lives are structured by us living ‘into’ and ‘through’, so to speak, the opportunities or enablements offered us by ‘others’ and ‘otherness’ both around us and within us Thus our mental life is never wholly our own We live in a way which is both responsive, and in response to, what is both ‘within us’ in some way, but which is also ‘other than’ ourselves (p 45) Many participants wrote about their change in understandings with regard to wisdom and how it is not something for ‘professors’ and ‘the wise’ and how each person can ‘nurture their own philosophies and epistemologies and expand them via the dialogue with others’ Could this be manifestations of ‘sustaining and constituting developing new forms of intelligibility (the) development of intelligibilities that invite, encourage, or suggest alternative forms of action’ (McNamee & Gergen, 1999, p 10)? Could it possibly be evidence of what Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde (1990) call ‘evolutionary hermeneutics?’ These communal dialogues that are based on the traditions of the broader macro-culture appear to be supporting and facilitating the creation of meanings in a collaborative fashion, and in this way, the women together (in this very small micro-culture) are constructing their world These webs of understanding and connections may be what McNamee and Gergen (1999) describe in the following passage: The practice of relational responsibility may proceed with a set of latticed concerns, questions, deliberations, and other actions moving outward from the individual to embrace the ever expanding domain of relatedness Each of these conversational moves, in turn, may broaden and deepen our forms of discourse and enrich the range of reasonable actions in such a way that cultural participants are more fully (or less lethally) coordinated (p 19) Taken as a whole the processes and outcomes echo the work of Vygotsky (1978) and his view that development and personal maturation are social processes that is that they entail socialization of cognitive, affective and social skills, including internalization of them Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp Philosophical dialogues and ‘positive psychology’ 35 Moreover, these inter-subjective understandings are peoples’ ways of seeking to comprehend psychological processes in a social way, not as products of isolated intra-psychic mechanisms, but as forming the interface of reciprocally interacting subjectivities (Atwood & Stolorow, 1984) The participants’ ‘voices’ narratives, stories and self expressions were expanded and with this possibly their potential repertoire of personal and communal relationships (Gergen, 1999) As Harre´ and Gillett put it ‘ .show that the person is not an isolated cognizer or interpreter of the world but is engaged with others in practical, ceremonial, and communicative activities, constituting forms of life in which language is taught and learned Thus the discourses constructed jointly by persons and within socio-cultural groups become an important part of the framework of interpretation’ (pp 21–22) The shared experiences of the group helped the members gain more social and perhaps more powerful understandings about the comprehensibility, meaningfulness and manageability of their lives For many of the participants the group-work process was in itself the most important aspect of the intervention Most participants openly mentioned the process of social collaboration and sharing as paths to wisdom and to personal empowerment This substantiates Baltes, Kluck, and Kunzmann’s (2002) statement that wisdom can be understood as the ancient idea of good life, in which conceptions of individual and collective well-being are tied together It also coincides with Sternberg’s (1998, 2003) and Kramer’s (2000) multiple self systems view of wisdom (cognitive, conative, affective), multiple points of view, in conjunction with the person in his or her context coming into balance Wisdom was viewed as strength by the participants, a way of understanding and striving toward personal and interpersonal fulfilment and well-being (Baltes & Freund, 2003; Kramer, 2000) Another important aspect of seeking ‘wisdom, eudaimonia and syprhosyne’ was the inter-generational learning component of the programme It is important to note however that this was an open group and that approximately 20 participants did not come on a regular basis Moreover, five participants mentioned that such open discussions where everybody that is present can say what s/he wants create confusion and chaos, as one participant put it: ‘Everybody here can come and say whatever is on their mind, it is too confusing and some people monopolize the conversation with their problems instead of their ideas’ There are, unfortunately, few places in society where persons of several generations can meet on an equal basis, share in the joys and vicissitudes of life, develop dialogues and exchange understandings and stories The local ‘wisdoms’ can certainly be preserved, embellished, and brought to life in this fashion Moreover, the scaffoldings of a sense of community can be set in place and possibly ‘social capital’ can be created (Nelson & Prillentensky, 2005) As Nelson and Prilletensky point out empowerment is relational in nature and is both a process and an outcome, a process of critical reflection, community sharing and participation, and interpersonal validation and respect Through the years the programming of ‘The Lyceum for Women’ has become integrated into the daily fabric of life in Rethymno Due to its longevity, non-profit nature, and the focus of the programming it has become part of the broad-scale social system(s) of the community These are characteristics that Caplan and Caplan (2000) propose as being essential in prevention programming Its programming focuses on multiple levels and dimensions of the lives of individuals and the community and is sensitive to the developmental processes of individuals, groups and of the community system(s) as a whole Since it is sustained, led, and operated by women it is perhaps characterized by community leadership in the developmental tradition, fostering empowerment of others Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J Community Appl Soc Psychol., 18: 17–38 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/casp 36 S Triliva and M Dafermos and modelling the skills of doing so, bringing into the public life an environment that supports personal and interpersonal growth and relationships, an evolving sense of self that is connected with others in a web of interconnections (Bond, Belenky, & Weinstock, 1998) The participants who attended regularly and evaluated the programme seemed to focus upon the more ‘positive’ aspects of this community mental health promotion endeavor but there are some drawbacks to the study in that it was not a systematic independent evaluation, the participants were self-selected, and the group facilitator was also the researcher and writer of this article Producing qualitative research that is deeply attentive to process is a difficult endeavour since knowledge-producing activities are fraught with power differentials and barriers These drawbacks are important to note and to state because they are limiting Nevertheless, it is hoped that this analysis has accomplished what Harre´ and Gillet (1994) emphasize about such research undertakings, ‘Reveal the structure of meanings existing in the lives of the human group to which the subject of an investigation belongs’ (p 20) REFERENCES Aristotle (1973) Metaphysics Athens: Papadima (In Greek) Aristotle (1976) In J A K Thompson -Trans (Ed.), Nicomachean Ethics Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Aristotle (1992) Nicomachean Ethics Athens: Cactus (In Greek) Aristotle (1992) Politica Athens: Cactus Atwood, G E., & Stolorow, R D (1984) Structures of subjectivity: Explorations in psychoanalytic phenomenology Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press & L Erlbaum Associates Averill, J R (2002) Emotional creativity: Toward ‘Spiritualizing the passions’ In C R Snyder, & S J Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp 159–185) NY: Oxford University Press Baltes, P B., & Freund, A M (2003) Human strengths as the orchestration of wisdom and selective optimization with compensation In L.G Aspinwall, & U M Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology (pp 23–35) Washington: American Psychological Association Baltes, P B., Gluck, J., & Kunzmann, U (2002) Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development In C R Snyder, & S J Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp 327–347) NY: Oxford University Press Batson, C D., Ahmad, N., Lishner, D A., & Tsang, J (2002) Empathy and altruism In C R Snyder, & S J Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp 485–498) NY: Oxford University Press Baumeister, R F., & Vohs, K D (2002) The pursuit of meaningfulness in life In C R Snyder, & S J Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp 608–618) NY: Oxford University Press Berscheid, E (2003) The human’s greatest strength: Other humans In L G Aspinwall, & U M Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology (pp 37–47) Washington: American Psychological Association Bond, L A., Belenky, M F., & Weinstock, J S (1998) The politics of prevention: Community women as leaders in the developmental tradition The Journal of Primary Prevention, 19(2), 105–115 Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Walker, D (1993) Introduction: Understanding learning from experience In D Boud, R Cohen, & D Walker (Eds.), Using experience for learning (pp 1–20) Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press Caplan, G., & Caplan, R B (2000) The future of primary prevention The Journal of Primary Prevention, 21(2), 131–136 Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K (1990) The psychology of wisdom: An evolutionary interpretation In R J Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom, its nature, origins, and development (pp 25–51) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Diogenis Laertios (1994) Collected works Athens: Cactus (In Greek) Copyright # 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