English grammar a university course – part 2

EXPANDING THE MESSAGE CHAPTER Clause combinations Module 31: Clause combining 31.1 31.2 31.3 272 274 31.2.1 Clausal and non-clausal material 274 Degrees of dependency between clauses 275 Module 32: Types of relationship between clauses 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 272 The complex sentence The sentence as an orthographic and rhetorical unit Syntactic relationships and semantic relationships Syntactic relationships of equivalence: coordination and apposition Syntactic relationships of non-equivalence: dependency and subordination The semantics of clause combining: types of expansion 277 277 278 279 279 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Module 33: Elaborating the message 33.1 33.2 33.3 Apposition and elaboration in finite clauses 281 33.1.1 Clarifying connectives: restating, exemplifying and upgrading 282 Sentence relative clauses Non-finite supplementive clauses: specifying and commenting 283 284 Module 34: Extending the message 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 281 285 The semantics of coordination 285 34.1.1 34.1.2 34.1.3 34.1.4 285 286 286 286 Addition Variation Alternation Explanation Contrastive dependency: while, whereas, but for the fact that Besides, instead of, without + non-finites Implicit meanings of -ing supplementives 287 288 288 Module 35: Enhancing the message 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 Coordination or apposition + circumstance 290 35.1.1 Inferred meanings of ‘and’ 35.1.2 Similar meanings expressed by coordinators and subordinators 291 292 Finite dependent clauses of time, contingency and manner 292 35.2.1 Finite dependent clauses and subordinators 292 Pragmatic conjunction Non-finite clauses expressing circumstantial meanings 294 296 35.4.1 Explicit markers of circumstantial meanings 35.4.2 Verb forms as circumstantial markers 296 297 Discourse connectivity and cohesion: Initial vs final circumstantial clauses 298 Module 36: Reporting speech and thought 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 36.7 290 Direct and indirect reporting Direct reporting of speech and thought Backshift in indirect speech and thought reporting Reported offers, suggestions and commands Clause type in the reported clause Free direct speech and free indirect speech Free indirect thought Further reading Exercises 299 299 300 303 305 306 307 308 309 309 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com CLAUSE COMBINING MODULE 31 SUMMARY The term ‘sentence’ is widely used to refer to quite different types of unit Grammatically, it is the highest unit and consists of one independent clause, or two or more related clauses Orthographically and rhetorically, it is that unit which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark ‘Complex sentence’ is the term we shall use to refer to a unit consisting minimally of two clauses of equal status, or two clauses of unequal status Coordinated clauses and those in an appositional relationship have equal status Dependent clauses have an unequal status with respect to a main clause Clauses embedded as Adjuncts are constituents of the superordinate clause in which they are embedded www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com In everyday uses of English, coordination and dependency typically interrelate in various patterns that contribute to produce flexible and dynamic discourse Clause combinations reflect the cognitive organisation of our experience into what is presented as more salient and foregrounded, and what is less salient and backgrounded 31.1 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE The highest grammatical unit is traditionally called the sentence Three possible types of sentence are usually distinguished: • • The simple sentence consists basically of one independent clause, as in Sam bought the tickets The independent clause is the unit we consider primary, in that it comprises minimal grammatical completeness and unity The compound sentence consists basically of two independent clauses, linked in a relationship of coordination, as in Sam bought the tickets and Sue parked the car 272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR • The complex sentence consists basically of one independent clause and one dependent clause, linked in a relationship of dependency, as in Sam bought the tickets, while Sue parked the car In connected discourse, however, the combinations may be more complex and variable than this simple outline suggests Coordination and subordination of clauses not necessarily occur unrelatedly, each in combination with a main clause, as illustrated in the compound and complex sentence above More often they interrelate Numerous combinations are possible Here are two examples In 1, a combination of clauses occurs in a report about the dangers of walking on hills: However, hillwalking is largely safe(1) but there are risks(2) and we have to educate people about these risks(3) if we are going to improve safety(4) [BNC CHK 1798] After the connective adjunct however, two coordinated clauses (1 and 2) are followed by a unit consisting of a third coordinated clause (3) in which a subordinate conditional clause is embedded (4) as adjunct This clause ‘if we are going to improve safety’ could alternatively be placed after ‘and’ but not at the beginning of the whole complex sentence In these examples the + sign indicates coordination, the ϫ sign subordination Round brackets enclose independent clauses, square brackets enclose subordinate clauses, (hillwalking is largely safe) + (but there are risks) + (and we have to educate people about these risks) ϫ [if we are going to improve safety] Adjunct www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Example comes from a news item and illustrates a different pattern: one independent clause with two subordinate clauses successively embedded as adjuncts: A boy saved the lives of his brother and two sisters yesterday(1) when fire broke out(2) while they were at home alone(3) [BNC AHX 185] The three clauses are organised in a hierarchical relationship An independent clause (1) encodes the main content – a boy saved the lives of his brother and two sisters yesterday Two subordinate clauses (2 and 3) encode the circumstances of time, when fire broke out, while they were alone in their home The first of these circumstantial clauses functions as A in the independent clause, the second as A in the previous subordinate clause This is a case of double, or ‘layered’ embedding: (A boy saved the lives of his brother and two sisters yesterday) ϫ [when fire broke out Adjunct ϫ [while they were at home alone.]] Adjunct EXPANDING: CLAUSE COMBINATIONS 273 Adopting a broader application of the term, we will say that a complex sentence can consist of any number of clauses of different types and in different combinations 31.2 THE SENTENCE AS AN ORTHOGRAPHIC AND RHETORICAL UNIT The structural criteria outlined in the preceding section are not the only criteria which have intervened in the traditional and widely accepted concept (or concepts) of ‘sentence’ For most native speakers of English, a sentence is something that starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (AmE ‘period’), a question mark or an exclamation mark It is, then, a category associated primarily with the written language and can be described as an orthographical and rhetorical unit 31.2.1 Clausal and non-clausal material We have already seen (Chapter 5) how units of lower rank than an independent clause, such as nominal and adjectival groups, as well as incomplete clauses, appear in plays, stories and advertisements between a capital letter and a full stop, functioning independently as orthographic and rhetorical sentences Such is the case with the italicised expressions in the following examples: The large size is unavailable Which is a pity (freestanding subordinate clause) [A We’ve got the deal.] B Fantastic! (adjective-headed exclamation) You deaf or what? (verbless clause) A Have you seen the satellites, erm, you know, our satellite places? B Oh those, no, no (non-clausal) www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com [BNC KBB 2402–2405] The following advertisement from Newsweek uses full stops and a dash to reflect tone units, as described in Chapter Here, units 2, and could be combined to form one sentence, just as when analysing spontaneous speech, we can attempt to make a distinction between clausal units and non-clausal material As a structural unit the clause is easier to identify, because of its own internal structure, as described in chapters and With Fax the possibilities are endless.1 It can send a document anywhere in the States within minutes.2 Including drawings, diagrams – even musical notes.3 Exactly as it’s written.4 Fax.5 Worth making a song and dance about.6 independent clause; 2independent clause; 3PP or non-finite -ing clause; 4dependent clause of manner; 5NG; 6verbless clause 274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR In this advert, only and are structurally independent clauses Punctuation serves to reinforce the presentation of each rhetorical unit as if it were independent, as would be done equally clearly if the text were read aloud To summarise, if we take the complex sentence as the highest structural unit, we can say that, structurally, the sentence is composed of clauses, but that rhetorically and orthographically it need not be Both in conversation and in texts that simulate the spoken mode, we can find orthographic units that are clausal and others that are nonclausal The difference is one of degree, however, rather than absolute In context, ellipted material can often be recovered, as we saw in section 29.5 With other units, such as fax5 in the advertisement, it is not possible to recover any material with certainty Consequently this unit cannot in this context be considered clausal 31.3 DEGREES OF DEPENDENCY BETWEEN CLAUSES We adopt the view that dependency is not an absolute property, but rather a question of degree It has been suggested that the degree of dependency between two clauses reflects the degree of integration, as perceived or imagined by the speaker or writer, between events That is, the stronger the semantic or pragmatic connectivity perceived between two events, the stronger will be the syntactic connectivity between the clauses that encode the events The tightest integration is that of embedding (see 3.7.3), by which one clause functions as the constituent of another clause In previous chapters we saw that in clause structure embedding occurs at Subject 1, Object 2, Complement (Cs), (Co), (obligatory Locative Complement), and A (Adjunct) and See also 5.1.2F (p 46) For embedding of units in nominal group structures, see Module 49 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Why he resigned was never revealed (clause embedded at S) She explained that the machine was out of order (clause embedded at Od) The question is whether we can finish in time (clause embedded at Cs) He made the club what it is today (clause embedded at Co) Put the flowers where we can see them (clause embedded at Cloc) Among the various types of Adjunct described in section 8.2, circumstantial Adjuncts of time, contingency and manner are those which are most similar to the central clause constituents They are dependent on the main clause and subordinate to it Unlike clauses functioning at Object and Complement, they are optional, they are not controlled by the verb and they occur in both initial and final positions Although Ed is only seven, he plays the piano beautifully (subordinate clause as A) Annie has been saving up to buy her mother a birthday present (subordinate clause as A) The functionally based reason for analysing such clauses as Adjuncts is the functional parallelism with adjuncts realised as adverbial or prepositional phrases Compare: EXPANDING: CLAUSE COMBINATIONS 275 The match was cancelled because of the rain The match was cancelled because it started to rain Like Subject and Object, they can usually be made the focus of a cleft: It was because of the rain that the match was cancelled It was because it started to rain that the match was cancelled Circumstantial Adjuncts often appear to be more integrated into the main clause when they occur finally, as in 7, than when they are initial, where they fulfil a framing function, as in These differences are explained and illustrated in section 35.5 More peripheral are the -en and -ing supplementive clauses (see 8.2.2) illustrated in and 9, together with the so-called ‘sentence relative’ clause 10, also a supplementive Verbless clauses such as ‘if necessary’ are likewise peripheral All are set off from the main clause by a comma and have their own intonation contour Their function is to provide background information when they are placed initially, and supplementary details when final: Built of cypress, brick and glass, the house exhibits many of Wright’s significant contributions to architecture (-en participal clause) He sat and looked at her, not knowing what to say (-ing participial clause) [BNC HOF 2512] 10 The door may be locked, in which case go round to the back (sentence relative) Finally, at the opposite end of the scale of dependency, we have coordinated and appositional clauses in which one clause is not subordinated to another, but has a relationship of equivalence and interdependency based on similarity of function and on relevance of content We now discuss the structural relations between combinations of clauses and also the semantic relations which unite them The latter are essential if we are to say anything of interest about the grammatical structure of any combination of clauses, since a mere enumeration of main and dependent elements reveals at best only the degree of complexity at sentence level, but not the semantic and pragmatic relations between the component clauses Relationships between clauses, both semantic and syntactic, are most clear and explicit when a subordinator or coordinator are present Where these are absent, and especially if the dependent clause is non-finite, the relationship is less explicit The functional motivation for less explicit meanings is that, at the point at which they occur in discourse, greater explicitness is not necessary, and economy of expression is preferred: www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com He has a summer job with a travel agency, guiding parties of tourists It’s my new timetable – to help me finish my thesis They advised me to emigrate – which is the last thing I’d 276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLAUSES MODULE 32 SUMMARY The clauses which comprise a complex sentence are related in two different ways: syntactically and semantically Syntactic relationships are basically of equivalence, holding between clauses of equal status, or of non-equivalence, holding between clauses of unequal status The semantic relations are grouped under the notion of expansion, by which one clause expands the meaning of another in some way www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com 32.1 SYNTACTIC RELATIONSHIPS AND SEMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS There are two kinds of relationship between clauses that together form a sentence: syntactic and semantic The syntactic relationship is one of interdependency Clauses are related to each other basically in one of two ways: either the relationship is one of equivalence, both or all clauses having the same syntactic status, or the relationship is one of nonequivalence, the clauses having a different status, one being dependent on another Coordination and apposition display relationships of equivalence, while dependency and subordination are based on non-equivalence The semantic relations are very varied, as they represent the way the speaker or writer conceptualises the connection made between one clause and another, at one point in the discourse Such connections not simply link clauses within a sentence, however, but also clauses within a paragraph and paragraphs within discourse These semantic relations can be grouped together under the heading of expansion, by which one clause expands another by clarifying or exemplifying (elaboration); by adding or contrasting some feature (extension), or by providing circumstantial information such as time, cause and condition (enhancement) EXPANDING: CLAUSE COMBINATIONS 277 Both types of relationship, the syntactic and the semantic, are present in all the clausal relationships described in this chapter 32.2 SYNTACTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF EQUIVALENCE: COORDINATION AND APPOSITION Coordination is the syntactic relationship between units of equal status and often of similar form For this reason, a repeated part may be ellipted, as in Semantically, the contents of the two clauses have to be seen as relevant to each other in some way I don’t like it and I don’t want it You can keep it or you can give it away It’s a fine piece of furniture, but (it is) too large for this room The linking relationship is made explicit by the coordinating conjunctions (‘coordinators’ for short) and, or and but In listing a series of elements, the explicit links may be omitted, although the coordinator is typically retained between the last two items The coordinator can also be replaced by a comma in short conjoined clauses as in This one’s yours, that one’s mine It is not only independent clauses that can be coordinated Dependent clauses may be coordinated as long as they have the same function: It’s much nicer here when the rain stops and (when) the sun comes out (finite dependent circumstantial clauses as A) www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com She sat there, watching television and eating chocolates (non-finite -ing dependent supplementive clauses as A) When no explicit formal link is present, but the relationship is one of equivalence, we have apposition, as long as a relation of relevance can be inferred This involves a kind of ‘bridging assumption’ For instance, example below relies on the knowledge that a hallmark guarantees authenticity The term ‘apposition’ is extended here from its usual application to nominal groups in order to account for this type of relationship between clauses, which is close to coordination, but without an explicit link, as seen by comparing and 3: It must be genuine; it has the hallmark (appositive clauses) Tom is an astrophysicist and works at the CERN in Geneva (coordinated clauses) Tom is an astrophysicist; he works at the CERN in Geneva (appositive clauses) Semantically, as such clauses have equal status, the information presented in one clause is as important as that presented in the other or others This does not mean that such combinations are necessarily reversible 278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Syntactic and pragmatic factors frequently intervene to make reversibility impossible Three such factors are: • • • if the second clause contains a term which refers anaphorically to an antecedent in the first clause, as does them in below; if the second clause contains an item which makes it cohesive with the first, as does as a result in example 2; if the order of the clauses is of pragmatic significance, as shown by and 4, which suggest different pragmatic interpretations: I have bought some beautiful tapestries and I think you will like them There was no moon that night; as a result, they took the wrong turning She got married and moved to York (She first married and then moved to York) She moved to York and got married (Her move to York resulted in her marrying) See also section 28.13 for clauses as Themes 32.3 SYNTACTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF NON-EQUIVALENCE: DEPENDENCY AND SUBORDINATION When units of unequal status are related, the relationship is one of dependency One clause is dependent on another or on a cluster of clauses, as seen in section 31.1 The relationship between the clauses is therefore not symmetrical, as with coordination and apposition, but hierarchical Syntactically and semantically, the dependency relationship is most clearly signalled by subordinating conjunctions (‘subordinators’) such as because, although, if, as However, when no subordinator is present, as often happens with nonfinite clauses, as in Clutching her umbrella, she hurried to a bus shelter, the non-finite form itself indicates dependency We here use the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘dependency’ to include subordination www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com 32.4 THE SEMANTICS OF CLAUSE COMBINING: TYPES OF EXPANSION Traditional grammar has no terms for the overall semantic relationships holding between clauses, although (as we shall see) the syntactic relations are traditionally established Following the classification proposed by M A K Halliday, we shall say that in coordinated and appositive clauses the second clause expands the first clause by (a) elaborating, (b) extending or (c) enhancing it The same semantic relations hold between a main and a dependent subordinate clause, no matter what position the subordinate clause occupies These combinations are shown below EXPANDING: CLAUSE COMBINATIONS 279 Indirect Object (Oi) 6–7, 34, 50–1, 55–6 semantic roles 50, 55 indirect (reported) speech 102–3, 299–300, 303–9 backshift 359 say and tell 105, 152 speech acts 178–9 thought 305, 308–9 indirectness 209–10 individuation (countability) 405–10 inference 207, 281–4, 291 infinitive see bare infinitive; to-infinitive information 93, 238–46 presupposed 249, 250–1 units 238–40 see also Focus of information informativeness 254 -ing (present participle) 12–13, 436, 478–9 clauses 13, 54, 101–2, 276 and affectivity 143 as complement 54, 56, 112–13, 115, 536–7 as Direct Object 53–4 expanding NG 259 initial as Theme 237 meanings 112–13, 288–9, 297 of + -ing 459 as Predicator 48 restrictive 452 as Subject 47 as supplementives 284, 447–8, 452 vs to-infinitive 108, 113, 332, 537 ingress or initiation [phase/aspect] 112, 331–5, 378 inherent circumstance 124–5 inherent participants 122, 125–7 see also obligatory elements initial position see thematic, fronting initiation or ingress [phase/aspect] 112, 331–5, 378 Instrument [circumstance] 156, 551 integration of classifier and noun 440–2 of preposition and verb 59–60 intended events 360 intensifiers, interrogatives 207 intensifiers and intensification 488 of adjectives 488–90 of adverbs 516–18 attenuation 490–1, 493 in discontinuous VGs 329–30 -ever in wh-words 186 of prepositions 531, 538 intensive relationship 68 intention 386–7, 393 interdependency [clauses] 275–6 interpersonal meaning 4–7, 178, 223, 234 interrogative mood/clauses 6, 22–3, 177–8, 180–9, 211, 225 alternative 180, 185 double 186–7 exclamations 200 in/dependent 106 indirect 105–6 intensifiers 207 modalised as directive 208 negative 21–4, 182–3 position of Subject 43, 180, 182–3 wh- (non-polar) 22–3, 100, 105–6, 185–7 yes/no (polar) 22, 177, 201–2, 225 see also queclaratives; questions intonation 193, 195, 196, 199, 203, 207 contour 276 questions 176, 181, 186, 187 see also nucleus; tone units intransitive patterns/verbs 37–8, 91, 126–7 complementation 83, 85–7 copular verbs 37–8 pseudo-intransitive 132, 135–6 intrinsic modality see modality, meanings inversion of subject–verb 230–1, 300–1 interrogatives 22–3, 182–4, 321–2 not always possible 243, 287 so/neither/nor 244–5 involuntary processes 130–1, 152 involvement of speaker in get-passive 256 it 413 anticipatory 47–8, 52, 260–1 dummy 44, 250 iterativity (of aspect) 377, 378 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com just [aspectual marker] 508 just [intensifier] 508–9, 516 keep [verb] 88, 97–9, 332–3, 340, 378 know [verb] 102, 104–7, 141 don’t know 105 Landmark 546 laugh at 57–9 left-dislocations 232–3 let’s/let us/let 194–5 discourse functions 194, 207 lexical auxiliaries 21, 319–20 see also verbs, lexical lexical density 162 lexical (free) prepositions 534, 546–8 like [verb] 108–10, 142–3 Location [circumstance] 71, 86, 155–6 with be and put 124 INDEX 603 Goal 72, 155–6 space or time 146 Time 292, 293–4 verb tense 353–4 Locative [space/time] 37–8, 155 adjuncts 155 adverbs 505–6 change of location 549 prepositions 546, 548–51 Locative/Goal Complement (Cloc) 17, 37–8, 99 intransitive verbs 86–7 logical necessity 382–3, 385 look after 57–9 loving/hating see affectivity make, use for Range 94, 158–9 Manner [circumstance] 37, 72, 156, 292, 293–4, 553 phrasal verbs 337–40 manner-of-motion verbs 86, 337–40 manner/attitude [phase] 334–5 marked vs unmarked see Focus; tense; Theme markers attitudinal 203–4 discourse 222 of countability 409–10 mass noun see countability, non-count material processes 122, 125, 138 causative 132–4 doing/happening 128–31 Matter [circumstance] 157 may and may not 323–4, 388–9, 392 Means 146, 156 mental processes 122, 125, 139–43 metaphor 146 grammatical 160–5 prepositions 552–3 metonymy 420, 552–3 might and mightn’t 392 hypothetical 385, 393 might/must have 327–8 modal auxiliaries [verbs] 21, 318, 320, 325–8, 385 negation of may/must 388–9 past time ref 386, 388, 391, 392 have + -en 383, 385, 390 with perfect + passive 327–8 with perfect/progressive 318, 325–6 semi-modals 21–2, 318, 380 should for subjunctive 103, 393 modality 325, 379–94 adjectives/adverbs/nouns 380–1 as circumstance 157 meanings 379–81, 385, 393 deontic or intrinsic 385–90, 393 dynamic 390–2 epistemic or extrinsic 157, 209, 381–5 hypothetical 393 modal harmony 381 modal tags 207 modalised declarative/interrogative 208–9 modifier (m) 18–19, 403, 492 of adjectives 492–3 of adverbs 515–18 of nouns 404 of prepositions 531–2, 538–9 quantified 491 see also post-modifier; pre-modifier momentary verbs/acts see aspect, lexical monotransitive patterns/verbs 90–2, 101 atypical 103 monovalency 126 mood 6, 176, 181, 196, 207 see also declarative; exclamative; imperative; interrogative; subjunctive morphs and morphemes 11, 16, 26 Motion Events/verbs 231, 336–9 and Cause 338–9 and Manner 86, 337–40 and Path 72, 337–41 translation of 339 movement see Motion Events/verbs mustn’t vs needn’t/don’t have to 387–9 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com 604 INDEX necessity 385–90, 393 logical 157, 209, 381–5 need [semi-modal] 21–2, 380 needn’t as negative of must 389, 393 negation and negative clauses 21–6, 230–1 cumulative 23 declaratives 199 imperative 194 interrogative 21–4, 183 inversion of subject–operator 230–1, 510–11 must/need 388–9, 393 no/none/no-one 258, 428 not + any 23, 428 not 22, 182 nuclear 23, 203 question tags 187 transferred 26, 199 negative objects 231 neither [substitutive] 230, 244 see also coordination; determiner, distributives new information see Given–New NICE properties 321 no and not see negation nominal clauses 14–15, 106 see also that-clauses; wh-interrogative clauses Nominal Group (NG) 16, 18, 44, 52, 403–5 appositive as post-modifier 455 Complement of Subject/Object 66, 68, 98, 420 complement of preposition 531 functions 404–5, 460–1 divisible 110–12 in/definite 417–21 structure 18, 403, 403–5, 416, 438, 444 order of elements 435 unmarked for count 407 nominalisation 162–5, 461–2 non-agentive verbs 244 non-assertion see assertive/non-assertive non-clausal material 274–5 non-count nouns 405–9 markers 409–10 non-declarative see imperative; interrogative non-defining see relative clauses, restrictive non-factual see factual or not? non-finite (dependent) clauses 12–14, 47, 53–4 as complement 108–15, 496–7 see also bare infinitive; -en/ed; -ing; to-infinitive adjuncts/variants 71, 74, 75, 106 supplementive 284 non-finite verb forms 12–13, 324, 328–9 non-restrictive see relative clauses, restrictive non-specific vs indefinite 418–19 notational symbols xxi–xxii noun complement clauses 457–62 nouns 16, 380, 405–11 compound 440–2 nominalisation 162–5, 461–2 proper 410–11 see also pronouns nuclear negative 23, 203 nucleus (intonation) 239, 242 numerals, cardinal/ordinal 427 obligation 385–90, 393 obligatory elements 37–8, 64, 83, 86, 238 occurrence, verbs of 85–6 offers reported 305–7 one-to-one correspondence 20, 40 one/ones [pronoun] 403, 416 operator/finite operator 21–2, 181–2, 317–18, 321–2, 324 the do-operator 21 extended VGs 325–8 optative mood 195 order (sequence) 224 adjectives 438–9, 444–5 AdjG 438–9, 444–5 determinatives 434 determiners 434 Finite and Subject 43 NG 403, 435, 438 ought 21, 318, 383, 387, 390 parenthetical clauses 105, 283–5, 300–3, 451 participants (semantic roles) 4–5, 123, 124, 129, 166 un/actualised 125–7 see also Affected; Agent; Beneficiary; Carrier; Existent; Experiencer; Force; Phenomenon; Possessor/ed; Range; Recipient; Sayer/Said participials (adj) 478–9 pseudo-participials 436, 478 participles 13; see also -en/ed; -ing particle (p) 18–19, 22, 341 let’s 194 in phrasal verbs 60–2, 336–41 partitive [determiner] 428–9 Passage 549 passive voice 7–8, 252–7 active/passive 10, 38, 64, 93, 98, 111–12, 252–7 with Affected subject 43, 129, 252–5 bare infinitive 111–12 in complex transitives 97–8 discourse motivation 253, 255–6 and end-focus 246, 252–3 get 136, 138, 256–7 and prepositional object/verb 95–6 raised object 38, 50, 110–11, 252–4 rare with Beneficiary 55 with Recipient subject 43, 55, 253–5 with two objects 93 in VG structures 325–9 without Agent 254–5 passivisation see passive voice, active/passive past participle see -en/ed past tense 353–4, 358–60, 372 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Object 35–6, 229–30, 231 see also Direct Object; Indirect Object; Object Complement; Prepositional Object Object Complement (Co) 17, 36, 38, 64, 67–8 Attributive 68, 97–8 oblique 56, 68, 105 vs adjunct 68 object-to-subject raising 38, 50, 321 objective/subjective (case) 437–8 pronouns 43, 50, 64 INDEX 605 distancing 359, 381 and Present Perfect 361–3 see also Perfect; Progressive; tense Path or Direction [circumstance] 72, 155, 549 Passage 549 phrasal verbs 337–41 Patient see Affected pauses, symbols xxii perception [process] 111–12, 139–40, 142 the senses 146 see also cognition Perfect [aspect/form] 361 non-finite 368 Past Perfect 361, 366–7, 372 progressive 372, 377 Present Perfect 361–6, 372 progressive 372, 376–7 time–frame 361–4 continuous 365, 376–7 first time 365 vs past tense 362–3 perfective/imperfective 369, 370 performatives [verbs] 197–9 explicit 197–9 hedged (indirect) 198 permission 385–92, 393 personal pronouns see pronouns perspective 96–7, 162–3, 421, 547–8 persuade-type verbs 110 phase 112, 331–5, 378 Phenomenon [participant] 139–43 phrasal quantifiers 429, 433 phrasal verbs 60–3, 336–43 idiomatic 86, 342–3 semi-idiomatic 341–2 non-idiomatic 337–40 phrasal-prepositional 62 syntactic features 60–1 vs prepositional verbs 61–2, 338 see also Figure and Ground; manner-of-motion verbs; Motion Events; Path pitch (intonation) 228, 239, 489 place-frame 155, 228–9 place-holders see dummy it; there unstressed as Subject plural forms of nouns 405–10 point of departure in message 224, 226 point of reference in time 352–3 polarity (positive/negative) 182, 242, 325 see also question tags; yes/no interrogatives politeness and polite forms 203–4, 211–12, 359, 489 directives 206, 207–8 position 38, 145, 223–37, 252–3 positive/negative see polarity possession 144, 146–8 possessive forms 425–6, 535 Possessor/ed [participants] 147 possibility 157, 209, 381–5, 390–2 post-determinative 404 post-head elements 402–4, 447 post-modifier (m) 403–4, 446–56 realisations 446–8 embedded or integrated (restrictive) 446–50 mixed or other 452–6 supplementives (non–restrictive) 404, 446, 448, 451 vs complement 404, 476 postponement 262 potentiality 113, 359–60, 379 power (factor) 177, 199 pragmatic inference 86–7, 180, 294–6 pre-determinative 404 predicate 35, 101, 421 predicatives 482 detached 71, 231, 231–2, 482 Predicator (P) 35, 42, 48–9, 101, 182 predicted/required elements 37–8 prediction 359, 380–1, 382, 385 pre-head 402–4, 476, 509 pre-modifier in NG (m) 403–4, 435–45, 444 multiple items 443–5 Prepositional Object (Op) 56–60 fronted 58 with passive 59–60 with phrasal-/prepositional verbs 62, 91–2, 95–6 in wh-questions 58 Prepositional Phrase (PP) 19, 531–4, 532, 535–55 as Adjunct or Complement 62, 68, 460, 497–9, 533, 541–2 complement element 531–2, 536–7 embedded 533, 541 as post-modifiers 452–3 as Subject 45 see also discontinuity prepositional verbs 56–9, 92, 95 phrasal-prepositional verbs 62 vs phrasal verbs 61–2, 338 prepositions 16, 296, 504–5, 531–2, 534–5, 540–1 free vs bound 534, 547 bound (grammaticised) 554–5 free (lexical) 547–53 modifiers 538–9 stranded 59, 534, 556–8 and that-clauses 104 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com 606 INDEX verbs that take 92, 95 vs adverb particles 338, 504, 544 vs homographs 543–5 present participle see -ing present tense 354–7, 372 habitual 356, 374–5, 377–8 past events 356–7 stative 355–6 see also Perfect; Progressive; tense presupposition 242–3, 249, 358 primary verbs 21, 318 see also operator probability 157, 209, 381–5, 390–2 processes (lexical aspect) 370–2 processes (semantic types) 4–5, 49, 122–7, 163, 166 dynamic/stative 1, 123, 141, 354–5 see also behavioural; existential; material; mental; relational; verbal programmed events 359–60 progression see thematic progression Progressive [aspect/form] 123, 142, 325, 369, 372–5 discourse functions 294–5, 375–6 durative un/bounded verbs 371–2, 374–5 future events 360 iterativity 377, 378 non-progressive 325, 355, 369, 372–3, 376 passive 327–8 Perfect aspect 326–8, 376–7 and tense 372 prominence (tonic) 239 pronouns/pronominal forms 16, 104, 411–16 backshift 303–5 demonstrative 414–15, 424–5 personal 43–4, 50, 64–5, 255, 411–13 gender-neutral 412–13 indefinite 413–14 one/ones 403, 416 reflexive 192, 413 wh-type 185–6, 413 propensity 390–2 proper names/nouns 227, 410 (proto)typical forms 40–1, 44–8, 52–4, 88, 226 correspondence 178 pseudo-cleft clause see clefting pseudo-intransitive 132, 135–6, 138 pseudo-participials [adjectives] 436, 478 punctuation 274–5, 281, 283, 441, 447 Purpose [circumstance] 156, 235–7, 297, 548, 558 put and location 124 quantifier 403–4, 427–9, 491, 538 non-count nouns 408–10 queclaratives 201, 203–4 question tags 43, 181, 187–9, 207 questions 201–4 echo 180, 183–4, 190 see also interrogative quotation see direct (quoted) speech quotative verbs 302–3, 356–7 raised elements 109, 111, 261, 321, 496 Range [participant] 51, 94, 152, 158–9 rank-scale 11 real, appearing [phase] 334 realisations 19–20, 39, 40–1, 160–6 Adjuncts 71, 74–5 Complements 66, 68 modal meanings 380–1 Objects 56, 59–60 prepositional complements 536–9 Subjects 44–8 verb complementation 114–15 VGs 318–19, 326 Reason [circumstance] 156 Recipient [participant] 5, 7–8, 55–6, 137–8, 151 recursive links 108, 455 reduced clauses see clauses, classes of, reduced reference and referent 95, 111, 417–22 anaphoric (backwards) 227, 414, 419 cataphoric (forwards) 414, 419 chains and coherence 226–7, 243, 259, 415 exophoric 414 generic 421–2 partitive 428–9 reflexive/emphatic pronouns 192, 413 relational processes 122, 125, 144–50 Attributive 144–5 attributive 145–6 circumstantial 146 possessive 146–8 Identifying 144, 148–50 see also Token/Value relative [circumstances] 155 relative clauses 449–52 adverbial 454 non-restrictive (supplementive) 283–4, 404, 448, 451 restrictive (defining) 404, 447–8, 450 relativisers 449–50 relevance in Present Perfect 365–6 relevance time (R) 361–2 reporting speech/thought 299–309 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com qualifier see modifier; post-modifier INDEX 607 representation see clauses, functions, interpreted respect (as + NG) 98 restating to clarify 282 restrictive/non-restrictive 447–8 Result 294, 366, 553 retrospection, verbs of 112–13 reversibility 145–6, 148–50, 251, 278–9 Rheme 223–4, 246–9 rhetorical questions 201 right-dislocations 232–3 Role [circumstance] 157 ’s possessive 425–6, 535 salience (cognitive) 226 say [verb] 103 and tell 105, 152, 301–2, 305 Sayer/Said [participants] 151–2 saying, communicating [process] 151–2 scope see Range selective quantifier 427 semantic functions xxi, 4–5 vs syntactic 114–15, 125, 160–2 see also Affected; Agent; Attribute; Beneficiary; Carrier; Experiencer; Force; Locative; Phenomenon; Range; Recipient; Sayer/Said semantic valency 83–4 semantic–syntactic transfer see grammatical metaphor semi-determinatives 423, 431–3 semi-modal verbs 21–2, 318, 380 semi-negatives 24 semi-auxiliaries see lexical auxiliaries Senser see Experiencer sensing see perception sentences 272–5, 277–9, 298 sentential relative clauses 283–4 sequencing events 331–3 shall/shan’t 21, 182, 386–7, 388, 393 should/shouldn’t 21, 383, 385, 390, 393 situation types 122, 287, 369, 371–2, 371 see also Attributes; circumstance; participants; processes situational ellipsis 244 so [conjunction] 295 so [substitutive] 230, 244 some and derived forms 202–3, 427–9 Source [circumstance] 72, 155, 549 space, spatial see Location; Locative specific vs definite 418–19 speech acts 176–9, 206, 207 verbs 92, 109–10 see also direct (quoted); indirect (reported) speech time 352–5, 353 spoken English 104, 162, 195–6, 256, 283, 488–90, 513–14 concord 45, 257 conversation 179, 195–6, 293–4, 301–3, 335 examples 3–4, 240, 260, 520–1 dialogue 301–3 novels 26, 209–10, 307–8, 393–4 plays 75–6, 184, 415 ellipsis 183, 204 interview 48 prepositional phrases 533, 537 question tags 187–9 see also idiomatic usage stance see Adjunct, Stance stance adverbs 506 statement 177–9, 181–2 states of affairs 259–60 stative process/use/verb 123, 140, 141, 354–5 vs dynamic 370–2 still vs already/yet 513 stranded prepositions 59, 534, 556–8 stressed/unstressed 228, 238–42, 488–9 question tag 187–8 there 45, 153–4, 228, 257–60 see also any; some structure xxi, 20 AdjG 475, 476, 492 AdvG 475, 502–3, 508–9 clause 17–18, 34–41, 101, 277–9 NG 18, 403, 403–5, 416, 435 PP 531–2, 532 VG 18–19, 317–18, 321–2, 324–9, 335 style adjuncts 73–4 Subject (S) 35, 42–8, 181, 225–7 Affected 129, 135–6 embedded clause 46–7 implicit 109, 191–2 see also extraposition Subject Complement (Cs) 17, 36, 64–7, 88 Identifying 66, 230 subject–operator inversion see inversion subjective/objective [case] 437–8 subjunctive mood/form 103, 196, 358–9, 393, 495 subordination 26, 27–8, 279 subordinate clauses 292 see also dependency subordinators see complementisers; conjunctions substitution 238, 244–5 such 431–2 sufficiency, degrees of 500 suggestions, reported 305–7 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com 608 INDEX superordinate clauses 14, 100 supplementives 14–15, 71 detached predicative 71, 231–2, 482 non-finite clause 284, 288–9 non-restrictive 283–4, 446, 448, 451 parenthetical 404 verbless clauses 15, 190, 195, 453, 482 suppletive [adjectival form] 485 swear words 518 symbols xxi–xxii syntactic functions xxi, 7, 17–19, 39–40 vs semantic 114–15, 125, 160–2 tag see question tags take, use for Range 94, 158–9 Target [participant] 152 tell [verb] 105–6 tense 325, 352–4 deictic function 353 marked/unmarked 354 past 357–60, 374–8 habitual 374–5, 377–8 for hypothetical 358–9 for present 358–9 see also backshift present 354–7 for future 358–60 see also be going to habitual 356, 374–5, 377–8 for past 356–7 state 355–6 tensed forms 12, 181–2, 352 termination [phase] 334 tests for constituents 9–10, 58, 129, 133, 138 textual component/meaning 223, 234 textual ellipsis 243–4 textual/pragmatic functions see Given–New; Theme, and Rheme; Topic that [complementiser] 102–5 that [demonstrative] 414–15, 424–5 that-clauses 46, 100, 101–5, 196, 449–50, 457–8 extraposed 260–1 relative 449–50, 456 thematic 6–7 equative 251 fronting (thematisation) 145, 223–37, 510–11 progression 246–9 Theme 222–5, 226–37, 261, 542 absolute 232 constant 247–8 continuative 75, 234 derived 248–9 detached 232–4 dislocation 232–3 marked/unmarked 224–5 multiple 235 negative 230–1 non-experiential 234–5 and Rheme 6–7, 223–4, 228, 235, 246–9 and Subject/Topic 225–7 there [existential] 45, 153–4, 228, 257–60 there/then [anaphora] 229 think [verb] 103–4, 141 this/that [demonstratives] 414–15, 424–5 this/that (of quantity) 491 thoughts reported 302–3 three-place [ditransitive] verbs 90, 92–6, 126, 137–8 Time [circumstance] see Location; Locative time-frame 126, 155, 228–9, 353–4 prepositions 551–2 present/past perfect 362, 367 progressive 375–6 to-infinitive clauses 12–13, 47, 54, 143, 297, 452 as complement/object 53–4, 101–2, 109–11, 332, 459, 496–7, 519–20 extraposed 260–1 with lexical auxiliaries 319–20 of purpose 236–7 vs bare infinitive 112 vs -ing clause 108, 113, 332, 537 togetherness 157 Token/Value 144, 149–50 tone units xxii, 238–40 tonic prominence (syllable) 238–9 Topic and topicality 35, 222, 225–8 cognitive features 42, 226, 272 continuity 227, 255–6 Trajector 546 transfer of verb/process 92–3, 128, 137–8 transferred negation 199 transitivity 5, 90–9, 122 hypothesis (high–low) 160, 165 in/transitive verbs 37–8, 126 types see complex-transitive; copular; ditransitive; intransitive; monotransitive see also complementation patterns translation 339 trivalency see three-place [ditransitive] verbs two-place [monotransitive] verbs 90–2, 126, 128–36 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com unactualised (unexpressed) element 91, 125–7, 141 unbounded see boundedness units 11–20 INDEX 609 unreal/hypothetical [past] 367 upgrading to clarify 282–3 used to (habituality) 369, 377–8 valency 83–4, 126 reduction 94, 122, 127 Value/Token 144, 149–50 Verbal Group (VG) 16, 18–19, 317–18, 318, 321–9 complementation 18–19, 317–18, 321–2, 324–9, 335 discontinuous 323, 329–30 experiential structure 323–4 phased 54, 112, 331–5, 378 realisations 318–19, 326 verbal process (saying) 151–2 verbless clauses 195–6, 204, 210, 212, 276, 307 supplementive 15, 190, 195, 453, 482 verbs 16, 37–8, 85–91, 193, 297, 318 bounded/unbounded 372 catenative 108–9 dynamic/stative 154–5, 354–5, 371–2 finite/non-finite 12–13 intransitive (one-place) 85–9, 91 copular 37–8, 88–9 lexical (v) 18, 318, 370–2 vs operator 321–2 meanings behaviour 85–6, 152–3 being/becoming 88, 144–6 causative/ergative 91, 113, 126, 130, 132–6, 138 cognitive/factual 102, 111, 141 doing/happening 126, 128–31, 138 expectation 102 finding/leaving 113 motion 231, 336–9 perception/suggestion 102–4, 114 possession 147 reciprocal/reflexive 91 saying 92, 109–10, 151–2, 301–2, 305 transfer 92–3, 128, 137–8, 138 volitional 113, 142, 152–3 and prepositions 91–2, 543 punctual or momentary 372 quotative 302–3, 356–7 transitive 90–1 three-place (ditransitive) 90, 92–6 two-place (monotransitive) 83, 90–2 see also auxiliary verbs; complementation patterns; ergative pairs; modal auxiliaries; performatives; phrasal verbs; prepositional verbs; primary verbs; valency viewpoint 370 vocatives 192, 234 voice (active/passive) 7–8, 129, 252–7 volition 385–90, 393 verbs of 113, 142, 152–3 want-type verbs 98, 108–11, 142–3 see also desideration weather, verbs of 85, 126 wh-clauses 10–12, 46, 105–7, 195 complement 100–2, 105–7, 191, 536 wh-nominal 100, 101, 106, 260–1, 459–60, 537–8 exclamative 100, 107, 191 interrogative 22–3, 46, 100, 105–6 wh-cleft see clefting wh-determinatives 190, 193, 403, 426–7, 433 wh-interrogatives 22–3, 100, 105–6, 185–7, 225 wh-words 100, 185, 449–50 + ever 186 will/won’t/will have 21, 381–2, 386–7, 390–1, 393 willingness 385–90, 392–3 words 11, 16 would 143, 382, 391 would have + -en participle 393 would rather/sooner 318, 320 www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Index written by Angela Downing and Gerard M-F Hill 2005 610 INDEX yes/no (polar) interrogatives 22, 177, 201–2, 225 yet 24, 290–2 vs still/already 513 zero anaphora 227, 449–50, 454 zero articles 420, 421–2, 450 zero plural 405 RELATED TITLES FROM ROUTLEDGE English Grammar Richard Hudson Routledge Language Workbooks are practical introductions to specific areas of language for absolute beginners They provide comprehensive coverage of the areas as well as a basis for further study English Grammar: • helps users to understand grammatical concepts • encourages the reader to practise applying newly discovered concepts to everyday texts • teaches students to analyse almost every word in any English text • provides teachers and students with a firm grounding in a system which they can both understand and apply www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Pb: 0-415-17410-4 Available at all good bookshops For further information, please visit www.routledge.com/linguistics RELATED TITLES FROM ROUTLEDGE Grammar and Context An advanced resource book for students Ann Hewings and Martin Hewings Grammar and Context considers how grammatical choices influence and are influenced by the context in which communication takes place This is part of a series of comprehensive resource books, providing students and researchers with theoretical introductions, a range of readings from key names in the field, and extensive tasks and research tips www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Hb: 0-415-31080-6 Pb: 0-415-31081-4 Available at all good bookshops For further information, please visit www.routledge.com/linguistics RELATED TITLES FROM ROUTLEDGE Grammar and Vocabulary A resource book for students Howard Jacksonn This is a comprehensive introduction to the grammar and vocabulary of contemporary English covering core areas and providing classic readings by key names in the discipline Grammar and Vocabulary: • covers the core areas of the subject: words and sentences, word classes, word structure, slots and fillers, sentence patterns, clause and phrase, grammar rules and vocabularies • draws on a wide range of real texts from newspaper articles, adverts, poems and websites • provides classic readings by key names in the discipline www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Hb: 0-415-23170-1 Pb: 0-415-23171-X Available at all good bookshops For further information, please visit www.routledge.com/linguistics RELATED TITLES FROM ROUTLEDGE Introducing Language in Use Aileen Bloomer, Patrick Griffiths & Andrew John Merrison An essential introduction for students of English language and linguistics, this book guides the reader through the core areas of study, drawing on a wide range of texts and examples “This is an exceptionally rich textbook, providing expert but friendly introductions to a wide range of fields of language study, up-to-date examples, opportunities to debate and analyse language, a glossary and extensive further reading.” Dr Tim Parke, University of Hertforshire www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Hb: 0-415-29178-X Pb: 0-415-29179-8 Available at all good bookshops For further information, please visit www.routledge.com/linguistics SERIES FROM ROUTLEDGE Routledge Applied Linguistics Series Editors: Chris Candlin & Ronald Carter Routledge Applied Linguistics is a series of comprehensive resource books, providing students and researchers with the support they need for advanced study in the core areas of English language and Applied Linguistics Each book in the series guides readers through three main sections, introductions, influential readings and tasks and research exercises Throughout the books, topics are revisited, extended, interwoven and deconstructed, with the reader’s understanding strengthened by tasks and follow-up questions www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Titles in the series so far include: Intercultural Communication by Holliday, Hyde & Kullman Translation by Hatim & Munday Grammar and Context by Hewings & Hewings Second Language Acquisition by de Bot, Lowie & Verspoor Corpus-Based Language Studies by McEnery, Xiao & Tono For further information, please visit www.routledge.com/linguistics SERIES FROM ROUTLEDGE Routledge English Language Introductions Series Editor: Peter Stockwell Series Consultant: Ronald Carter Routledge English Language Introductions cover core areas of language study and are one-stop resources for students Assuming no prior knowledge, books in the series offer an accessible overview of the subject, with activities, study questions, sample analyses, commentaries and key readings www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com Titles in the series so far include: Sociolinguistics by Peter Stockwell Pragmatics and Discourse by Joan Cutting Grammar and Vocabulary by Howard Jackson Psycholinguistics by John Field World Englishes by Jennifer Jenkins Practical Phonetics and Phonology by Beverley Collins & Inger Mees Stylistics by Paul Simpson Language in Theory by Mark Robson & Peter Stockwell Child Language by Jean Stilwell Peccei For further information, 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www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk ... described as an orthographical and rhetorical unit 31 .2. 1 Clausal and non-clausal material We have already seen (Chapter 5) how units of lower rank than an independent clause, such as nominal and adjectival... grammatical elements are all integral parts of an analytical form The first auxiliary has a special status and is usually called the ‘operator’ (o) (see 3.1.1), for reasons which are explained... adjuncts realised as adverbial or prepositional phrases Compare: EXPANDING: CLAUSE COMBINATIONS 27 5 The match was cancelled because of the rain The match was cancelled because it started to rain Like