Rekindling the humanistic soul of the academy pursuing knowledge for the good of humanity

Cultivating Knowledge for Good Rekindling the Humanistic Soul of the Academy: Pursuing Knowledge for the Good of Humanity Michael F Mascolo Merrimack College To appear in J Trajtelová & M Zvarík (Eds.) The Idea of University and Phenomenology of Education, The Yearbook on History and Interpretation of Phenomenology 2017, Vol 5: EPIMELEIA TĒS PSYCHĒS Peter Lang AG Cultivating Knowledge for Good Abstract The contemporary academy is suffering from a crisis in meaning Its humanistic core has given way to disciplinary specialization Scholars pursue their agendas within local specializations, often unware of outside scholarship that has deep implications for their work Disciplines prepare career-minded students for individual professions or further localized study There is arguably no core ideas that structure the scholarly and teaching missions of the academy While academic fragmentation has many sources, one involves the longstanding science-humanities antinomy From within this schism, the sciences produce reliable, useful and objective knowledge, while the humanities produce speculative, inconsistent and subjective belief This divide, however, is based on a false premise, namely the objective-subjective dichotomy itself Dra i g upo Husse l s concept of intersubjectivity within a shared lifeworld, I argue that the sciences and humanities share a common intersubjective basis Neither alone can address the crisis of meaning that infects academy and society alike Given their common foundation, the sciences and humanities can be understood to function with reference to a shared academic purpose: the cultivation of knowledge for the good of humanity This idea a k o ledges the complementarity of disciplines in advancing a common objective – one that incorporates descriptive and axiological dimensions of scholarly and social life Keywords: Self-Cultivation, Intersubjectivity, Science-Humanities Antinomy, Higher Education, Fact-Value Distinction, Subjectivity, Objectivity Cultivating Knowledge for Good Rekindling the Humanistic Soul of the Academy: Pursuing Knowledge for the Good of Humanity The university exists only to the extent that it is institutionalized The idea becomes concrete in the institution The extent to which it does this determines the quality of the university Stripped of its ideals, the university loses all value.1 – Karl Jaspers Organizations no longer embody ideas.2 Jürgen Habermas The contemporary academy is a fractionated one The 19th century ideal of unified knowledge has been superseded by the autonomy of individual disciplines Scholars pursue research agendas within particular specializations, often unware of outside advances that have important implications for their work Disciplines prepare career-minded students for individual professions or for more specialized education in local disciplines Beyond the academic major, general education curricula are typical organized around the distribution model: students select courses from categories corresponding to different disciplines3 While intended to provide breadth, such models typically fail to provide a coherent or integrated body of knowledge and skills There is arguably no unifying set of unifying ideals that structure the 21st century academy The fractionation of the academy has many sources One involves the longstanding science-humanities antinomy.4 It its contemporary incarnation, this consists of the opposition of Karl Jaspers The Idea of the University (Boston: Beacon Press, 1959), 83 Jü ge Ha e as, The Idea of the U i e sit : Lea i g P o esses New German Critique, 41 (1987): Steven Brint, Kristopher Proctor, Scott Patrick Murphy, Lori Turk-Bicakci, and Robert A Hanneman "General Education Models: Continuity and Change in the U.S Undergraduate Curriculum, 1975-2000." Journal of Higher Education 80 (2009): 605-642 C P Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 1961) Cultivating Knowledge for Good o je ti e s ie tifi k o ledge ith the su je ti e k o ledge of the hu a ities The desire for scientific and technological advancement, coupled with pressure to prepare students for professions, has marginalized humanities in the academy.5 This marginalization, however, comes at a price The humanities are the primary means by which we prompt reflection on the values that structure private and public life Their marginalization creates a crisis of meaning Persons are symbol using, self-conscious social agents.6 We are defined, in part, by our conceptions of who we are and who we should become.7 Our self-understandings are cultivated over time through our relationships with others Without the capacity to reflect upon the systems of meaning and value that we use to construct ourselves and our lives, the everyday life becomes an unexamined one Without a set of humanistic ideals, the academy becomes an institution without a soul It underserves its students, its faculties and the society of which it is a part As a result, there is a need to revitalize the humanistic mission of the academy around the integrative goal of promoting human flourishing and knowledge for good.8 In this paper, I offer three arguments First, any integrative conception of the academy must transcend the epistemological divide between the sciences and the humanities Drawing on classic and contemporary phenomenological frameworks.9 I argue that while the sciences Martha Nussbaum "Political Soul-Making and the Imminent Demise of Liberal Education." Journal of Social Philosophy 37 (2006): 301-313 Michael F Mas olo a d Cathe i e ‘aeff U de sta di g pe so hood: Ca e get the e f o he e? New Ideas in Psychology, 44 (2017): 49-53 Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1989) Alasdair MacIntyre, "Philosophical Education against Contemporary Culture." Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Association 87 (2013): 43-56; Martha Nussbaum, Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1997) George Heffe a The Co ept of Krisis i Husse l s The C isis of the Eu opea “ ie es a d T a s e de tal Phe o e olog Husserl Studies, 2017; Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (Translated by David Carr, Evanston: Cultivating Knowledge for Good and humanities are distinct endeavors, they nonetheless draw upon common intersubjective foundations Intersubjectivity is the process by which experiences and meanings are coordinated between people within a shared lifeworld.10 The capacity for intersubjectivity produces the shared backdrop against which so-called objective and subjective modes of understanding are possible This view raises the possibility, at least in principle, of genuine rapprochement between the sciences and the humanities Second, if the sciences and humanities both operate within a common intersubjective base, they are neither autonomous nor antagonistic If this is so, it is possible to galvanize academic life around a common purpose: the pursuit of knowledge for the good of humanity Such a goal offers an opportunity to bring humanistic and scientific thinking together in common cause: What is the good? How does scholarship across disciplines contribute to the good? How does my scholarship contribute to the good? How shared and contested conceptions of the good inform my scholarship? Third, I suggest that an academy committed to the pursuit of knowledge for good would be one founded upon a relational rather than individualist epistemology It would be organized around a hermeneutic spirit of collaborative reflection on how diverse forms of knowing contribute to the human good The academy would encourage and reward not only disciplinary activity, but also interdisciplinary, reflexivity, collaborative scholarship and teaching, and a Northwestern University Press, 1970); Dan Zahavi "Husserl's Intersubjective Transformation of Transcendental Philosophy." In The New Husserl: A Critical Reader, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003) 10 Husserl, Crisis; Michael F Mascolo, How objectivity undermines the study of personhood: Toward an i te su je ti e episte olog fo ps hologi al s ie e New Ideas in Psychology, 33 (2017): 4148; Zahavi, Husserl’s I tersu je tive Tra sfor ation Cultivating Knowledge for Good desire to foster self-cultivation with reference to images of the good The overall mission of such an academy is a humanistic one – one in which disciplines serve complementary rather than autonomous functions Evolution of the Western Idea of the University The form and functions of education are cultural and historical products organized by shared and contested beliefs and values It follo s that the ideas that have structured the university have changed with time, place and social conditions Precursors of the Modern University Western highe learning a e said to have early origins with Socrates, who sought to prompt philosophical reflection among the citizens of Athens Socrates, as represented in Plato s Apology, makes it clear that philosophy serves nothing less than a means to care for the soul: … are first, and with more energy, not about your bodies, nor about wealth, but about ou soul, that it e as good as possi le, telli g ou: Arête does not come from wealth, but wealth and all other goods for human beings come from arête In Ancient Greek, arête refers to good ess , e elle e o the good state of o e s soul (Christiansen 2000, 24).11 For Socrates, the cultivation of goodness of the soul was the highest goal of philosophy It was through philosophical reflection that a genuine sense of the good could be achieved Plato carried forward this philosophical task by initiating a series of informal intellectual gatherings known as the Academy With no formal edifice, participants met in an 11 Michel Ch istia se "'Ca i g a out the “oul' i Plato's Apolog " Hermathena, 169 (2000): 24 Cultivating Knowledge for Good open garden located on the outskirts of Athens A istotle, Plato s stude t, founded the Lyceum as a school at which he lectured to interested intellectuals and philosophers Both institutions served the elites of Athens – men with means that allowed them devote time to intellectual pursuits Formal institutions of higher learning emerged only with the ascendency of Christianity and the founding of monastic and cathedral schools These schools were aimed toward preparing young men for the priesthood or monastic life While monastic schools tended to focus on literary studies, cathedral schools provided instruction in emerging philosophical and theological issues (Daly 1961).12 Monastic and cathedral schools remained the only available form of higher learning until the birth of the universities in Bologna and Paris during the 11th century These universities catered to young men from elite families who sought careers in the professions rather than the clergy The emergence of the European university was accompanied by the rise of scholasticism and the Muslim reintroduction of Greek philosophy into European consciousness.13 The medieval European universities were organized around the disciplines of theology, law and medicine.14 At this time, 15although distinct, the disciplines were nonetheless regarded as branches of philosophy Although scientific advances (e.g., Copernicus, Galileo) would threaten Church teachings, science and theology were not regarded as inherently antagonistic 12 Anya Daly "Primary Intersubjectivity: Empathy, Affective Reversibility, 'Self-Affection' and the Primordial 'We'." Topoi: An International Review of Philosophy 33 (2014): 227-241 13 Geo ge Makdisi The Scholastic Method in Medieval Education: An Inquiry into Its Origins in Law and Theology , Speculum, 49 (1974): 640-661 14 Julie Klein Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory and Practice (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University, 1990) Cultivating Knowledge for Good Indeed, major scientists from the Medieval and Enlightenment periods held deep religious beliefs (e.g., Galileo, Bacon, Boyle, Newton, Kepler, etc.) With the onset of the Enlightenment, the natural sciences increasingly established themselves as systematic disciplines with the academy The Modern Research University The emergence of the modern research university is generally identified with the founding of the University of Berlin in 1811 Its originating ideals are commonly attributed to Wilhelm von Humboldt, a Prussian philosopher, government official and founder of the University Drawing upon German idealism and Enlightenment values, the fundamental p e ises of the Hu oldtia academic ideal include (a) fostering bildung – personal and cultural development through education; (b) academic freedom – both of the teacher and the student; (c) the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake over specialized training; (d) the unity of teaching, scholarship, and student.16 Bildung is the German term for self-cultivation, self-formation and self-determination through education For Humboldt, the university provides an outlet for an i di idual s inherent creative energies, allowing students to actualize their potentials and cultivate their selves (Sorkin, 1983).17 Bildung, however, does not develop on its own; it arises through the social bonds that are formed between people over the course of education Self-cultivation through 16 Marek Kwiek The Classical German Idea of the University Revisited Center for Public Policy Research Papers Series, Poznan: CPP AMU (2006): 1-44; Johan Östling, Peter Josephson, & Thomas Ka lsoh , The Hu oldtia t aditio a d its t a sfo atio s I The Humboldtian Tradition: Origins and Legacies (Vol 12), edited by Peter Josephson, Thomas Karlsohn, & Johan Östling (Brill Academic Publishers, 2014) 17 William “o ki Wilhel Vo Hu oldt: The Theo a d P a ti e of “elf-Formation, 1791-1810” Journal of the History of Ideas, 44 (1983): 55-73 Cultivating Knowledge for Good education not only fosters development in the self, it also provides a basis for the development and unification of culture: It is the ultimate task of our existence to achieve as much substance as possible for the concept of humanity in our person, both during the span of our life and beyond it, through the traces we leave by means of our vital activity 18 Hu oldt s model advocated the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake For Humboldt, this goal could be attained only if universities operated independent of the political demands of state and society This motivated the need for academic freedom.19 While the state should support and protect education, state control would stifle the pursuit of pure knowledge Academic freedom embraced both the teacher s f eedo to teach a d the stude t s f eedo to learn In so doing, Humboldt called for the unity of teaching and research and of teacher and student in the process of producing and testing knowledge.20 This did not mean that good scholars are necessarily proficient teachers; instead, it affirmed the importance of the teachers and students as active contributors to the creation and dissemination of knowledge The Humboldtian ideal was a holistic one While research in science, theology, humanities should proceed without constraint, disciplinary activities were viewed as part of an organized philosophical whole The faculty of philosophy assumed a central role in the Vo Hu oldt, W Theo of Bildu g I Teaching as a Reflective Practice: The German Didaktik Tradition, translated by Gillian Horton-Krüger, edited by Ian Westbury, Stephan Hopmann, and Kurt Riquarts (Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001), 58 19 Sorkin, Wilhelm Von Humboldt 20 Johan Östli g The ‘ege e atio of the U i e sit : Ka l Jaspe s a d the Hu oldtia t aditio i the Wake of the “e o d Wo ld Wa I The Humboldtian Tradition: Origins and Legacies (Vol 12), edited by Peter Josephson, Thomas Karlsohn, & Johan Östling, 111-126 (Brill Academic Publishers, 2014) 18 Cultivating Knowledge for Good 10 Humboldtian conception It was through philosophy that the integration of knowledge could be achieved.21 Splintering Ideals Even during Hu oldt s te u e, university life did not live up to its Humboldtian ideals.22 Disciplines operated in a more-or-less independent.23 The Humboldtian model began to influence European and American universities in the latter part of the 19 th century Its influence, however, was limited to (a) broadening the academic mission to include research instead of just teaching; (b) invoking the value of academic freedom; and (c) introducing general education beyond disciplinary specialization.24 As this model began to take shape, its momentum was interrupted by the rise of Fascism in Europe After World War II, philosophers called for ways to renew the idea of the German university, which had become physically and spiritually devastated Notable among these was Karl Jaspers, who, in The Idea of the University, called for a university organized around the ideal of the unification of knowledge: O e ess a d hole ess a e the e esse e of a s ill to k o In practice this oneness and wholeness is realized only in specialized fields, yet these very specialties are not alive except as members of a single body of learning Integration of the various 21 Kwiek, German Idea of the University Mitchell G Ash Ba helo of What, Maste of Who ? The Hu oldt M th a d Histo i al Transformations of Higher Education in German-“peaki g Eu ope a d the European Journal of Education, 41 (2006): 245-267 23 Klein, Interdisicplinarity 24 Christopher L Lucas American higher education: A history (2nd edition) (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Östling, The Humboldtian Tradition 22 Cultivating Knowledge for Good 28 understood as analogous to the phenomenological concept of the hermeneutic circle.66 The hermeneutic circle describes the process by which texts are interpreted through an iterative cycle of relating parts to wholes From this view, interpreting a text involves an evolving circle of understanding the whole of a text in terms of its parts, while simultaneously understanding its parts in terms of an evolving sense of the whole In the hermeneutic process, the parts are not understood as prior the whole (and vice-versa); the parts and whole are understood in terms of each other as interpretation unfolds over time The hermeneutic process provides a metaphor for understanding the circular relation between disciplinary activity and the broader academic mission In this view, as shown in Figure 1, academic life would be organized around continuous cycles of scholarship and reflection Reflection would function to identify relations between local (inter-) disciplinary activity and the broader goal of cultivating good: Ho does this pa ti ula fo of i te -) disciplinary activity promote the good of humanity? How evolving conceptions of the good inform (inter) disciplinary activity? This iterative process would prompt teachers, scholars, and students to position their ongoing scholarship within a larger matrix of interdisciplinary meaning The institutionalization of such a process – through shared institutional forums, journals, societies, online platforms, etc – would create a dynamic exchange between evolving conceptions of the good and the scholarly activities that inform and are informed by them Within the current context of clashing moral frameworks, how is it possible for a community to come together with an eye toward articulating common conceptions of the good 66 Georgia Wa ke The He 112 e euti Ci le e sus Dialogue The Review of Metaphysics 65 (2011): 91- Cultivating Knowledge for Good 29 even for the most mundane of issues? One approach arises from considering Husse l s all to challenge un-reflected ways of knowing and being in the world (e.g., the naturalistic attitude) Like Socrates, Husserl believed we much of what we without knowing why we it For Husserl, philosophical reflection functions to identify taken-for-granted assumptions and expose the intersubjectivity that undergirds both harmony and conflict in social relations Intersubjectvity provides the foundation upon which we can join with others to create new ways of positioning ourselves in relation to evolving collectivities.67 For Husserl, this is accomplished through the relational development of the self through reason: Human personal life proceeds in stages of self-reflection and self-responsibility from isolated occasional acts of this form to the stage of universal self-reflection and selfresponsibility, up to the point of seizing in consciousness the idea of autonomy, the idea of a esol e of the ill to shape o e s hole pe so al life i to the s theti u it of life of universal self-responsibility, and correlatively, to shape o eself i to the t ue I, , the f ee auto o ous I hi h seeks to ealize his i ate easo , the st i i g to e t ue to hi self, to e a le to e ide ti al ith hi self as a easo a le I ; ut the e is a inseparable correlation here between individual persons and communities by virtue of their inner immediate and mediate interrelatedness in all their interests – interrelated in both harmony and conflict – and also in the necessity of allowing individual-personal 67 Phillip R Buckley, Husserl's Rational "Liebesgemeinschaft", Research in Phenomenology 26 (1):116129; Thomas Szanto Husse l o Colle ti e I te tio alit In The Phenomenological Approach to Social Reality: History, Concepts, Problems, edited by Allesandro Salice & Hans Bernhard Schmid, 145-172 Springer, 2016 Cultivating Knowledge for Good 30 reason to come to ever more perfect realization only as communal-personal reason and vice-versa68 For Husserl, the capacity to reason with others in an intersubjectively shared lifeworld provides a precondition not only for scientific but also ethical development in both individuals and collectives In the contemporary context of the university, the mere act of taking questions of the good seriously – the bald insistence that it is desirable and possible to bring together competing claims of the good with an eye toward synthesizing novel common grounds – can much to stimulate ethical development If we can approach moral deliberation not from the standpoint of encased individualism but instead from an open-ended commitment to build upon already existing intersubjectivities, it becomes possible to forge novel ways to reconcile competing conceptions of the good The Centrality of Self-Cultivation The crisis of meaning and purpose is reflected in the curricula and educational experiences that universities offer their students The most prominent reason that students provide for attending a college or university is to prepare for a career.69 Career preparation takes priority over self-cultivation The distribution requirement model does little to disabuse students of this belief General education curricula typically offer a hodgepodge of disconnected courses whose overall meaning and coherence is dubious at best In practice, many students view their courses as a series of hurdles that must be cleared to fulfill a 68 69 Husserl, Crisis, 338 Deborah J Kennett, Maureen J Reed, and Dianne Lam "The importance of directly asking students their reasons for attending higher education." Issues in Educational Research 21 (2011): 65-74 Cultivating Knowledge for Good 31 requirement or obtain a credential While career preparation is undoubtedly an important goal of the university, it is not its most important one A humanistic academy offers preparation for life, of which a vocation is merely a part The learning goals of a university should flow smoothly from its mission The overarching learning goal that follows the mission of pursuing knowledge for good is to foster self-cultivation (bildung) in students As an aim of life and education, this concept is found in thinkers as diverse as Aristotle, Confucius, Humboldt, James, Foucault, Nietzsche, and Peirce70 Self-cultivation involves continuously re-identifying the self with some evolving image of the good – a sense of who one should become – and the continuous attempt to bring action in congruence with that image The process is akin to that of a painter or an athlete who, over time, commits the self to improving his craft with reference to some image of the aesthetic good The typical general education curriculum offers a structured opportunity for students to choose courses from among various disciplines Given its emphasis on choice, this system might be said to support the fostering of self-determination and self-cultivation However, selfcultivation is not something that can be achieve merely by being provided with the capacity for choice The capacity for self-determination does not spring spontaneously from within the self It is a slow and gradual process through which students construct knowledge, skills and values that have their origins between the student and agents of culture Fostering self-cultivation is a 70 Mark Uffelman "Forging the Self in the Stream of Experience: Classical Currents of Self-Cultivation in James and Dewey." Transactions of The Charles S Peirce Society: A Quarterly Journal In American Philosophy 47 (2011): 319-339; Michael V Ure, "Senecan Moods: Foucault and Nietzsche on the Art of the Self." Foucault Studies (2007): 19-52; Von Humboldt, SelfCultivation Cultivating Knowledge for Good 32 value-neutral or laissez-faire process.71 It is a relational process in that occurs as teachers provide the academic and socio-moral scaffolding that awakens, orients and supports a stude t s a ti e effo ts to a d self-formation The goal of self-cultivation requires curriculum and pedagogy that go beyond the disinterested dissemination of discipline-based information It requires a curriculum systematically designed around to goal of preparing students for life – and not just any life – a good life To take this goal seriously, faculties must ask, What systematic bodies of knowledge and skills students need to live a good life in an ever-changing global o ld? Serious consideration of this question would reveal the need to address a suite of essential questions: What is the good? How are human actions predicated on their conceptions of the good? What are the different ways in which cultures have sought to define the good in cultural, economic, political and religious ways? How can I appreciate the good aesthetically? Who are we as a physical, biological and socio-cultural beings living in physical, biological and social worlds? Who am I in relation to these various versions of the world? Conclusion: The Humanistic Academy and Its Aristotelian Soul Jaspe s all fo the e italizatio of the Humboldtian academy was based upon the primacy of philosophy in the quest of unified knowledge Thinking of any particular discipline as the source of unification treats that discipline as a kind of Cartesian spirit; philosophy becomes the soul that coordinates university life While the university is in need of a soul, a Cartesian version will not The Aristotelian conception is a more fitting metaphor for the academic soul For Aristotle, the soul is not a spiritual force that animates the body; it is not 71 Cf Nussbaum, Political Soul Making Cultivating Knowledge for Good 33 an incorporeal substance For Aristotle, soul is related to body as form is to matter The living body is ensouled; it is a kind of matter that functions by virtue of its form The academic soul is an organized system of active potentialities that together explain the functioning of the whole The ideal university is thus like a contextualized organism, whose soul is not to be found in any particular location, but instead in the relations between and among the academic agencies that make it up Cultivating Knowledge for Good 34 References Allen, Richard T 1996 Pola i s o e o i g of the dichotomy of fact and value Polanyiana, (1996): 5-20 Ash, Mitchell, G Ba helo of What, Maste of Who ? 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In Cognitive development: Theories, stages and processes and challenges, edited by Rouling Chen, 59-75 Hauppauge, NY, US: Nova Science Publishers, 2014 Cultivating Knowledge for Good 41 Figure A Hermeneutics of Academic Life Teaching (t) and scholarship (s) within disciplines (d efle t pa ts of the a ade i p o ess; e ol i g o eptio s of The Good the hole at a efle tio gi e poi t i ti e He e euti a ti it is i di ated i te et ee a d a o g the pa ts a d the o espo d to s of o ti uous hole O e ti e, o ti uous o u al reflection brings forth novel conceptions (shared and contested) of the evolving Good, which frame further (inter-)disciplinary activity Cultivating Knowledge for Good 42 Acknowledgement I would like to thank George Heffernan for his sound, informed and insightful advice related to the preparation of this manuscript ... Cultivating Knowledge for Good Rekindling the Humanistic Soul of the Academy: Pursuing Knowledge for the Good of Humanity The university exists only to the extent that it is institutionalized The idea... the core of human experience In this regard, the concept of the good takes on special import To identify the mission of the academy in terms of the good is to reclaim the humanistic mission of. .. Crisis: Pursuing Knowledge for the Good of Humanity A o di g to the t aditio al i te p etatio , [Husse l s se se of] the Krisis of the European sciences lies not in the inadequacy of their scientificity