Energy Policy 39 (2011) 887–893 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Energy Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol A solar economy in the American Southwest: Critical next steps Martin J Pasqualetti a,n, Susan Haag b a b School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning, Coor Hall, 5th Floor, 975 South Myrtle Avenue, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5301, United States Center for Research on Education in Science, Mathematics, Engineering and Technology (CRESMET), Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States a r t i c l e in f o abstract Article history: Received 16 July 2010 Accepted November 2010 Like many other sub-tropical deserts in the world, the southwestern U.S has high rates of solar insolation However, meaningful development there, especially in solar-rich Arizona, has been slow This article addresses why this is so by concentrating on one critical contributor to success—workforce development To identify shortcomings and needed changes, we used a survey of the significant solar firms operating in Arizona to ask three questions: Does a gap exist between existing and desired levels of solar engineering education and training? What skills should new graduates possess when entering the solar energy workforce? What course of study is considered important in the education of solar energy employees? We found that a stronger solar economy in Arizona will not depend, at least initially, on advanced graduate training in engineering, but on a broad-based Bachelor’s level degree program that complements engineering studies with a strong emphasis on verbal and written communication, as well as business and teaming abilities Non-technical skills and project management are at least as valuable as solar training Given the high public awareness of Arizona’s solar resource, a stronger solar future there should help stimulate similar progress elsewhere, both in the U.S and abroad & 2010 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved Keywords: Solar Workforce Arizona Introduction Solar energy is destined to be an important element in any chance we have of achieving a sustainable energy future Whatever future primary power requirements might develop – whether the 50 terawatt (TW) estimate of Hoffert et al (1998) or the 10 TW estimate of Harvey (2010) – solar energy is predicted to make an important contribution (Blanco et al., 2009; Fthenakis et al., 2009) The question is, how should we best prepare for and accelerate the transition from conventional fuels? What we need to do? According to the U.S National Science Board (2009), the answer first and foremost is to develop more human capital in the form of solar education and workforce development Presumably, such changes would most fruitfully be applied in the southwestern state of Arizona, a place that regularly receives recognition as the logical place for solar energy development (Zweibel et al., 2008), and ‘‘the established solar energy king’’ (Business Facilities, 2010) One might reasonably argue that if we cannot stimulate large-scale commercialization in Arizona, where would we be more successful? This is an especially salient question given that such success is predicted to produce both more jobs (Wei et al., 2010) and greater economic enhancements (Frondel et al., 2010) Given the great resource in the American Southwest, it may be surprising – if not perplexing – to admit that other countries such as Germany, Spain, and Japan have been moving much faster to develop n Corresponding author Tel.: + 480 965 4548; fax: + 480 965 8313 E-mail address: Pasqualetti@asu.edu (M.J Pasqualetti) 0301-4215/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.013 the solar energy available there There are many reasons for this difference, such as the greater commitment Germany has made to reduce carbon emissions Also, Germany has implemented favorable policies such as a generous feed-in tariff (Scheer, 2007) As feed-in tariffs continue to be downsized, however, we can expect that the pace of expansion in Germany will slow and other places, such as Arizona, will begin catching up Such expansion should have a healthy effect on solar development throughout the U.S as well as internationally In anticipation of such a progression, companies from many countries already have established a solar presence in Arizona Yet, for now, further progress is needed Some of that progress will probably have Arizona itself pass a feed-in tariff, but it will also require other steps such as a friendlier and more enthusiastic business climate overall, higher rates for conventional electricity that reflect their various environmental externalities, and more effective leadership This article reports on the results of a survey of solar firms in Arizona that assessed the need for workforce development in the state, a recognized key element in any solar energy future The survey posed three research questions: Does a gap exist between existing and desired levels of solar engineering education and training? What skills should new graduates possess when entering the solar energy workforce? What course of study is considered important in the education of solar energy employees? 1.1 The Arizona solar context Arizona is the most attractive solar state in the southwestern U.S ‘‘With an average of 325 sunny days each year, wide open 888 M.J Pasqualetti, S Haag / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 887–893 spaces, and an increasing need to locate and take advantage of ‘green’ energy opportunities, the Arizona desert is prime territory for renewable energy in the form of natural sunlight’’ (U.S BLM [Bureau of Land Management], 2010, p 1) Specifically, insolation in the west-central and southwestern regions of the state can produce more than kWh/m2/day, about twice that of what is possible in southern Germany In recognition of this resource, the U.S Bureau of Land Management (BLM) (2009) has experienced a ‘gold rush’ of right-of-way applications for solar facilities across Arizona These prospectors are looking at 12.2 million acres of land administered by the BLM Over 90% of these applications are for the development of projects using concentrating solar power (CSP) in the form of parabolic trough concentrators Most of these projects would likely send their generated electricity to California, where retail rates substantially exceed those of Arizona As proposed projects have multiplied rapidly in recent years, people are seeking to avail themselves of the still great opportunities for solar energy to become big business in Arizona, despite the head start of other countries (Busch, 2010; AzSC [Arizona Solar Center], 2010; Arizona Goes Solar, 2010) Over 160 solar companies now operate in the state, and although many of them are ‘‘startups’’, some large international companies are also involved, including BP, First Solar, and Kyocera One local utility company, Tucson Electric Power, has a 4.6 megawatt (MW) array already in place, and Arizona State University has more solar PV capacity than any other university in the country, currently about 2.5 MW with planned additions of MW by the end of 2010 Increased development in the future will help Arizona ‘‘become a world leader in the solar power industry’’ (AERO [Arizona Economic Resource Organization], 2008, p 1), and to cash in on the ‘‘Saudi Arabia of solar’’, as Gov Janet Napolitano once characterized Arizona’s solar potential (Copenhaver, 2009) Arizona Congresswoman Gabriel Giffords (2007), for one, believes that southern Arizona can become the ‘‘solar-con valley’’ of the U.S (Copenhaver, 2009) Progress in Arizona is sure to be noticed throughout the world Thus far, however, installed capacity is low By the end of 2009, the total photovoltaic (PV) capacity of systems in the state reached only 14.4 MW, out of a total of 826 MW nationwide (NREL [National Renewable Energy Laboratory], n.d.) This places Arizona eighth in the U.S behind California, New Jersey, Florida, Nevada, Colorado, Connecticut, and Massachusetts and much farther down the list when compared with many places in other countries By contrast, Germany installed a record 3800 MW of solar PV in 2009, a significant portion of the 21,000 MW installed globally (Russell, 2010) To the residents of the state, as well as its millions of visitors, the minor presence of solar energy development in Arizona is difficult to understand To others, the explanation is clearer Arizona still lacks a plan for the promotion of solar energy that is coordinated, agreed, and wellfunded Nevertheless, it has made some headway in recent years The present Renewable Energy Standard (RES) requires regulated utilities to generate 15% of their electricity from renewable energy by 2025, with about one-third of that from distributed sources (UCS [Union of Concerned Scientists], 2008) There is also a ‘‘solar– electric roadmap’’, developed in 2007, which affirmed that Arizona ‘‘has the potential to become a world leader in many aspects of solar development, and is a model location for the evolution of new solar technologies and applications’’ (Arizona Department of Commerce, 2007, p 1) One of the specific objectives of the Roadmap was to describe the necessary conditions to entice the solar–electric industry to make the required investment Among the identified conditions were workforce development, research, and a call for public education programs on alternative energy There has been some unhurried progress in all these arenas, with some recent progress at Arizona State University and the University of Arizona (AIRE [Arizona Initiative for Renewable Energy], n.d.; AzRISE [the Arizona Research Institute for Solar Energy], 2010; NSF [National Science Foundation), 2010) Solar programs in Arizona have grown organically rather than systematically, and this is true of solar education in the state Usually, solar energy courses have been inserted into curricula one at a time, commonly as part of a group of courses with another primary emphasis This suggests that solar education programs, whether sponsored by the state or made available through institutions of higher learning, tend to develop with little attention to the ultimate application of acquired expertise to a future solar economy It also reflects little coordination between industry needs and training response The solar companies in Arizona vary in size, function, and plans for expansion First Solar, with headquarters in Tempe, Arizona had 2009 revenues of $2.1 billion for its thin-film products (which are lighter and cheaper than the more familiar silicon solar cells, albeit with a reduced energy conversion efficiency of 7–10%) It has more than 4700 employees worldwide (First Solar, 2010) Other Arizona companies include the American subsidiary of the Japanese company Kyocera with revenues of more than $200 million (Newman, 2010) Stirling Energy Systems (SES), a private company that uses a solar dish technology to focus sunlight on a Stirling engine for water-free generation, has estimated revenues of between $10 and $20 million (SES, 2010) Abengoa, a Spanish company with a local presence, plans to construct a 280 MW concentrated solar power (CSP) facility near Gila Bend with a capital cost of over $1 billion (Solana, 2010) Suntech Power, China’s largest solar panel manufacturer plans to open its first American plant near Phoenix (Galbraith, 2009) In total, over three dozen solar projects of various sizes have been proposed for Arizona Their combined capital contribution to economic development has people starting to pay closer attention to the ultimate commercial solar energy potential in the state Our survey examined what should be done to best prepare the Arizona workforce to welcome and enhance this attention Methods Achieving the potential for solar energy development in Arizona (or anywhere) requires understanding a complex interlocking of a diverse set of topics These include economics, policy, legislation, technology, education and training To obtain a greater understanding of these last two components, we used both quantitative and qualitative research to generate rich descriptions and provide an internally consistent account of constituent perceptions We conducted formal interviews, administered an online survey, and examined the public literature To ascertain an initial willingness to participate in our study, a pre-survey letter of request was distributed to over 160 industries that we identified as possible solar energy firms Of these 160 industries, we deleted several that were no longer in business Of the others – such as those small operations involved in construction, roofing, sales, consulting, or marketing of some aspect of solar energy – some said they were not offering any jobs in the near future and consequently had not established any employment and training criteria Some of the remaining industries felt ‘‘unqualified’’ to discuss the educational needs for employees in a solar energy workforce and opted out of this study This process of elimination resulted in a list of 134 solar energy companies still doing solar business in the state Ninety-two companies agreed they were appropriate candidates for the study and agreed to participate Three reminders were sent out after the first online mailing in spring of 2010 Of the 92 local relevant companies, 76 889 M.J Pasqualetti, S Haag / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 887–893 responded, yielding a response rate of 83% Potential interview candidates were informed that their opinions and the opinions of their company were vital to the research, and that their responses would remain confidential They were told that individual information would not be disclosed, but would be used to portray an overall picture of the educational needs of the industry The authors collaborated with industry members and university faculty to design a survey instrument to address the three research questions To answer the first question (Does a gap exist between existing and desired levels of solar engineering education and training?), respondents were asked whether their solar employees had specific solar energy training when they were hired, whether new employees had specific solar energy experience, whether new hires that lacked formal solar training would learn skills on-the-job, and whether there were current shortages of potential employees with engineering knowledge associated with solar technologies Answering the second question (What skills should new graduates possess when entering the solar energy workforce?) required learning about desired skills in new employees, such as business practices, project management expertise, project design expertise, communication skills, and teaming skills Participants were also asked if they planned to hire additional employees with technical training (a 2-year associate’s degree), with specialized solar training (through a 4-year bachelor’s degree), and those with advanced training (through a master’s degree) for the solar energy workforce To answer the third question (What course of study is considered important in the education of solar energy employees?), a list of fifteen courses was provided and respondents indicated their level of importance with a Likert scale of or choices Course selection was provided by local engineering faculty and subsequent industry input They included topics such as basic solar engineering principles, business operations, commercialization, power electronics (AC/DC power conversion, and so forth), solar energy policy, solar energy and society, solar energy and sustainability, solar energy supply chain and logistics, solar energy storage, solar energy project economics (e.g., finance), solar thermal power systems, technology entrepreneurship, residential solar applications, industrial solar applications, and semi-conductor theory In addition to the quantitative internet survey, personal interviews were conducted with sixteen members of the solar community Those selected for interviews represented the four different groups (categories) selected for the survey: hiring managers, training managers, engineers, and CEO/presidents of solar companies Through the course of the interviews, we raised questions that would reveal participants’ perception concerning the current state of the solar energy industry workforce in terms of education and training, and actual and optimal engineering applicant skills Each interviewee was asked questions that incorporated topics linked to the solar energy industry education and training and needs, ideal technical and non-technical skills (communication and teaming skills), need for in-house training, and perception of education gaps in the industry Respondents were also asked for their ideas concerning their ‘‘future needs’’ for a solar energy workforce The interviews aimed to understand the range of educational needs that contribute to progress in the industry Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and coded Codes derived from interview questions were created to reduce vast amounts of information into manageable pieces for analysis Notes were edited and reviewed only after all interviews were completed, thus allowing for a fuller picture of what was said Open and axial coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) were used to categorize the data When distributing the survey announcement to the solar energy industry, we asked our company contacts to recommend an appropriate person to complete the survey, someone who would be able to answer diverse questions about industry needs We also commented that their opinions and the opinions of their company were critical to our overall research Although we suggested several types of employees in the company as participants, 65% of the responses came from company owners, presidents, and CEOs We infer from the length of the comments they wrote and the time they invested in answering several pages of questions that this critical group of stakeholders perceived the importance of such a needs assessment in Arizona, and personally responded In summary, industry presidents, owners, CEO’s and COOs were the majority of the study respondents (65%), followed by engineers (11%), directors/managers or those involved in business development (10%), human resources or hiring managers (10%), and training managers (4%) Results The technology chosen for most of the utility-scale proposals for solar energy development in Arizona have so far been parabolic trough concentrators This type of concentrated solar power (CSP) uses mirrored surfaces to focus the sun’s energy on a tube filled with a secondary fluid such as oil (Fernandez-Garcıa et al., 2010) The heated oil passes through a heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to water which is then converted to the steam that turns the turbines This technology offers at two principal advantages First, it produces electricity at a price competitive with conventional energy resources in places like California, where rates are higher than in Arizona (12.48 cents/kWh compared to 9.11 cents/kWh in Arizona) (EIA [U.S Energy Information Administration], 2010) Second, it can provide backup storage capabilities; the 280 MW Solana project near Gila Bend, for example, has been designed for about h of dispatchable storage Despite the growing popularity of this technology (a worldwide capacity of 15 GW by the end of 2008), only a few solar energy companies in Arizona claim CSP expertise Rather, such experience is coming from outside Arizona The Solana project, as one example, is to be built by Abengoa, a Spanish company Most solar–electric companies situated in Arizona focus on photovoltaics (Table 1) One explanation for this is that PVs are modular, easily scalable, and simpler to install and maintain than CSP, despite their reputation for being expensive Another possible explanation is that there is little or no CSP research and instruction available in the state This shortcoming might be remedied in the future as the CSP market in Arizona continues to grow, although Table suggests that currently, those coming into the employ of solar companies lack specific solar training or experience (Table 2) Instead, most of them are expected to acquire solar expertise on the job At this juncture in the development of a solar education basis for Arizona, one might assume that solar companies would welcome any type of solar training in their new employees However, Table suggests that non-technical skills and project management are at Table Frequency of product specializations offered by companies surveyed (N ¼76 companies) Company—product specialization Percentage Photovoltaics (PV) only PV and hot water PV and CSP Hot water only Concentrated solar power (CSP) only PV, hot water and CSP Other (utility) 51 25 3 890 M.J Pasqualetti, S Haag / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 887–893 Table New hires—knowledge and expertise (76 companies) New hires that lack formal solar training will learn the appropriate skills on the job Currently there are shortages of potential employees with engineering knowledge associated with solar technologies Before hiring, few of our solar engineering workforce had specific solar energy training Before hiring, few of our solar engineering workforce had specific solar energy experience Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree 28.9 34.2 34.2 22.4 28.9 28.9 5.3 13.2 2.6 1.3 22.4 21.1 28.9 31.6 22.4 19.7 14.5 15.8 11.8 11.8 In percent Likert scale: ¼Strongly agree to ¼Strongly disagree Table Educational needs (76 companies) Education for a solar economy Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree Graduates in the solar energy workforce will be able to apply business practices along with engineering skills Graduates in the solar energy workforce should have project management expertise Graduates in the solar energy workforce will be able to design solar projects of any scale Graduates in the solar energy workforce will be able to solve problems in a multi-disciplinary context that spans technical and ’’non-technical’’ areas (such as communication skills) Graduates in the solar energy workforce will demonstrate effective oral communication skills (e.g., in a presentation) Graduates in the solar energy workforce should demonstrate effective written communication skills (e.g., in reports, plans, technical memos) Graduates in the solar energy workforce should demonstrate effective teaming skills (work well in teams) In the next 5–10 years, my company plans to hire those with technical training (through a 2-year associate’s degree) for the solar energy workforce In the next 5–10 years, my company plans to hire those with specialized training (through a 4-year bachelor’s degree) for the solar energy workforce In the next 5–10 years, my company plans to hire those with advanced training (through a master’s degree) for the solar energy workforce In the next 5–10 years, my company plans to hire additional engineers who specialize in solar energy 22.4 31.6 23.7 28.9 55.3 44.7 31.6 50 19.7 19.7 27.6 17.1 2.6 3.9 15.8 3.9 27.6 55.3 11.8 5.3 53.9 40.8 5.3 51.3 22.4 40.8 27.6 7.9 32.9 17.1 25.0 36.8 26.4 10.5 1.3 11.8 26.3 27.6 27.6 6.6 31.6 34.2 22.4 9.2 2.6 1.3 In percent Likert scale ¼Strongly agree to 1¼ Strongly disagree All 76 Solar Energy Companies completed this item least as valuable as solar training For example, solar companies welcome capabilities in written communication, teaming, oral communication, and multi-disciplinary problem-solving, all of which were scored above a four on a 5-point Likert scale A preference exists toward hiring employees with less traditional or ‘‘academic’’ specialized solar training (Table 4) Solar basics, power electronics, and solar energy project economics scored the highest in value, whereas semi-conductor theory scored the lowest The value of other training scored between these extremes Concerning hiring practices, we asked industry members to indicate preferences in candidate selection (Table 5) A survey item captured this preference: ‘‘In hiring future engineers for a solar energy workforce, if a solar energy degree was available, it is more likely my company would hire individuals with a Master’s degree in Engineering with a solar energy content area and focus or a Bachelor’s degree in Engineering with a solar energy content area focus.’’ While the majority (68%) of industry members would hire employees with a Bachelor’s degree in Engineering (with a solar energy content area focus) less than one-third (32%) indicated they would hire individuals with Master’s degrees These results suggest that a bachelor’s degree is, at least at this stage in the development of an Arizona solar economy, normally sufficient training This widens the pool of potential employees and places less demand on the institutions of higher education that would provide the education The indifference toward highly specialized education and training comports with the existing and anticipated near-term commercial solar energy environment; that is, companies are more interested in organizing and implementing the most profitable business plan and leaving more sophisticated training and expertise to others They are seeking people with the combination of basic solar knowledge and a variety of less-technical training in policy, sustainability, economics, business, and the capacity to communicate effectively within a multi-disciplinary setting Any further training would be acquired on-the-job, and any further specialized expertise would be hired on a consultative basis, including those persons available at nearby universities Data analysis revealed company differences between the group choosing a Master’s degree and the group choosing a Bachelor’s degree On average, those industries selecting Master’s degrees were in business longer (17 vs 11 years), currently employed more engineers (66 vs 28 engineers), employed more engineers dedicated to solar energy (16 vs solar engineers), and had fewer numbers of employees working full time The Master’s degree group also planned to hire more engineers dedicated to solar energy in the future (4 solar engineers vs solar engineer) Group differences were significant (p o0.05) Although the majority of solar energy companies in this study preferred a bachelor’s degree, it is noteworthy that there is a group of industry members, who have been in business longer and already hire more engineers dedicated to solar energy, who prefer to hire master’s degrees in engineering 3.1 Interview data The personal interviews enhanced the quantitative results by allowing more detailed responses Respondents were asked to briefly describe the current state of the solar energy industry in terms of education and training Most participants agreed that there is currently a shortage of qualified candidates, and that the skills present in the workforce are not adapting as quickly as the 891 M.J Pasqualetti, S Haag / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 887–893 Table Course work importance (76 companies) Solar energy education—courses Very high (count) High Ave Basic Solar Engineering Principles (e.g., solar photovoltaic system basics) 81.6 62 43.4 33 40.8 31 42.1 32 35.5 27 15.8 12 25.0 19 17.1 13 17.1 13 23.7 18 13.2 10 17.1 13 10.5 13.2 10 2.6 13.2 10 40.8 31 43.4 33 38.2 29 44.7 34 52.6 40 40.8 31 52.6 40 46.1 35 34.2 26 31.6 24 32.9 25 26.3 20 25.0 19 27.6 21 5.3 15.8 12 14.5 11 13.2 10 15.8 12 31.6 24 31.6 24 23.7 18 26.3 20 30.3 23 44.7 34 31.6 24 59.2 45 51.3 39 53.9 41 Power Electric (AC/DC power conversion, etc.) Solar Energy Project Economics (finance) Residential Solar Applications Industrial Solar Applications Business Operations Solar Energy Policy Solar Energy Supply Chain & Logistics Solar Energy Storage Solar Energy & Sustainability Solar Energy & Society Solar Thermal Power Systems Commercialization Technology Entrepreneurship Semi-conductor Theory Low 1.3 6.6 3.9 2.6 6.6 10.5 11.8 10.5 18.4 14 3.9 10.5 15.8 12 In percent Levels of importance Likert scale: 4¼ Very high, 3¼ High, ¼Average, 1¼ Low All 76 Solar Energy Companies completed this item Table Preferred degree Solar energy education—degrees Count % Master’s degree in Engineering with a solar energy content area focus Bachelor’s degree in Engineering with a solar energy content area focus 24 52 32 68 changes in the industry The majority indicated that because the industry is growing rapidly, there is still a limited supply of solar training, despite high demand One respondent (who, like all those interviewed, were guaranteed anonymity) predicted that the need for well-trained solar energy engineers and technicians (for a solar workforce) will increase dramatically over the next five to ten years He also indicated that there is a need for training ‘‘at the university level so that the shortage can be corrected.’’ Another interviewee said there is a shortage in energy and business development A utility company responded that currently they only have a few well-trained engineers who work in the renewable energy group, but they anticipated increased demand in this arena over the next five to ten years Moreover, because their employees are involved not just with solar projects but other renewable energy technologies as well, they predicted an increasing need for diverse types of engineers along the supply chain Even within solar energy alone, several specialties are needed, as reflected in this interview excerpt: ‘‘Typically an electrical engineer will design the solar system and wiring; a mechanical engineer will get involved on structural analysis and for large ground mounted arrays a civil engineer may get involved For manufacturing, there are mechanical engineers, industrial engineers, electrical engineers and materials engineers.’’ The largest number of the expected need in the technical field is likely to be for electrical engineers to design the system and wiring Other companies indicated that business courses and basic business principles, project financing and economics are important for the workforce Other ‘‘non-technical’’ skills were also mentioned such as oral and written communication skills and presentation skills, consistent with the survey data results One human resources manager emphasized the importance of written communication skills, pointing out that ‘‘So much is done through email communication and forms of communication other than verbal in the industry today.’’ Several smaller training companies are starting to offer courses useful to solar employers The courses they are offering, however, are less focused on the engineering aspect of solar energy In terms of education, respondents indicated that there is an emphasis on CAD expertise, while others indicated that engineers are being hired with bachelor’s degrees in mechanical engineering with little to no experience in solar engineering Industry is attempting to provide on-the-job training to fill the gap Respondents were asked whether their company provided inhouse training Most answered that they provided such training for their new hires, including bringing in outside resources if it was necessary to ‘‘complete’’ the training, again highlighting the gaps in traditional engineering training One training manager indicated his company offers a two week initial internal training course Another manager stated, ‘‘Typically, within a year new hires are pretty much up to speed for the job they have been hired to do.’’ 892 M.J Pasqualetti, S Haag / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 887–893 Many of the respondents indicated that part of the training they offered focused on solar business structure Several indicated that training for new hires included hands-on installation experience in the construction field Many of the respondents (training managers, hiring managers, human resource managers, engineers, and presidents) indicated that their new hires were cross-trained in the diverse areas of solar energy design and production while many were being cross-trained in business skills 3.2 The ideal candidate Both the internet survey and the personal interviews confirmed that there is indeed a gap between existing and desired training This was not surprising, given the immature nature of the solar energy industry in Arizona Responses to the other questions allowed us to develop a model of an ideal candidate and a suggested curriculum that could be established to provide the appropriate training The ideal candidate would hold a varied skill set He or she would have a fundamental understanding of engineering principles, ability and willingness to learn, and effective communication and teaming skills The preferred majors in the technology areas of solar design would include a degree in electrical engineering, with a close second being a degree in mechanical engineering Further preferred skills would include solar installation experience and knowledge of the National Electric Code Participants frequently stated that an ideal candidate would also have business knowledge, AutoCAD training, plus schooling in economics and project financing The focus would be on how projects are financed and knowledge of return on investment Several indicated that cooperative education and internships would be useful in a solar engineering curriculum Despite the desire for candidates with a variety of skills, there is still room for those holding engineering degrees only For example, many participants indicated that a Bachelor’s degree in Engineering would be sufficient for construction aspects of solar, although ‘‘not for solar manufacturing.’’ More specifically, the Bachelor’s degree should be either in electrical engineering or mechanical engineering with a solar focus One interviewee felt that solar courses could be incorporated from other programs as opposed to having a standalone program Several mentioned appropriate topics for programs in solar energy: Solar Theory, Solar Economics, Entrepreneurship, Business principles, and Project Management and Development Conclusions and policy recommendations While the solar energy resource in Arizona is among the best in the U.S., several steps in workforce development will help Arizona assume more of a leadership position Many of these steps will require an integrated development plan that includes training and policy adjustments at several levels First, universities need to expand their solar energy training Some of this training will come with increasing research funding that is now coming to the two major universities within several disciplines, including engineering, sustainability, and the social sciences As research funding increases, so too will discoveries, solar training, and the likelihood of accelerated solar development in the state As additional incentives, policies will be needed to require curricula in various classrooms, including at the pre-college level, that include renewable energy principles as first steps to a more sustainable future To complement changes proposed for greater solar research and training in Arizona, greater demand for solar energy within the state is also needed This means that a second policy adjustment should be to take more aggressive action to promote local solar development Already there are various tax incentives and the 15% renewable energy requirement, but many would like to see the introduction of more incentives and an accelerated standard (Mayes, 2010; APIRG [Public Interest Research Group], 2010) At present, utility companies are in large part meeting that standard by importing wind and geothermal electricity from out of state Instead, a third policy change should restrict the RES mandate to instate generation In so doing, it will provide additional incentives for more solar energy development and the development of a larger workforce A fourth policy, already under consideration, is the adoption of some form of feed-in tariff within the state (Go Solar in Arizona, 2010) Such tariffs have had great success in other countries, and they have been instituted in some parts of Canada and the U.S already Arizona needs to accelerate the consideration of this option and create jobs in the process, jobs that can be filled by those who will be part of the workforce development outlined in this article As for the workforce, the most important first two steps will be: (1) create a standardized, diverse and integrated college-level solar curriculum; (2) develop a Bachelor’s level degree program that emphasizes not only engineering content, but also verbal and written communication skills, teaming ability, and business knowledge (along with a moderate focus on Master’s degree) To achieve this with the universities, several adjustments are needed A vibrant solar future in Arizona will require the continued training of several types of engineers, mostly in electrical and mechanical, some in civil, and some in materials Those specializing in these areas will find employment in the near future, but they will find it easier to obtain employment, at least until the solar industry is more robust, if they combine this training with other skills, including communication and teaming skills, project management, autoCAD, economics, and business The solar industry is not yet mature enough to be overly-welcoming to those who hold a narrow range of knowledge and abilities As the industry expands, there will be increasing need for focused skills in CSP, PV, and dish technologies, but for now the solar market is small enough that employees must be able to integrate knowledge about several aspects of the business These will be the most valuable assets For solar energy to expand in Arizona, and anywhere solar energy is abundant, universities will need to respond to the identified needs of the 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Energy Policy 38, 919–931 Zweibel, K., Mason, J., Fthenakis, V., 2008 A solar grand plan Scientific American 298 (1), 64–73 ... was necessary to ‘‘complete’’ the training, again highlighting the gaps in traditional engineering training One training manager indicated his company offers a two week initial internal training... feed -in tariff within the state (Go Solar in Arizona, 2010) Such tariffs have had great success in other countries, and they have been instituted in some parts of Canada and the U.S already Arizona... Foundation), 2010) Solar programs in Arizona have grown organically rather than systematically, and this is true of solar education in the state Usually, solar energy courses have been inserted into