The art of systems architecting, third edition

THIRD EDITION THE ART OF SYSTEMS ARCHITECTING THIRD EDITION THE ART OF SYSTEMS ARCHITECTING MARK W MAIER EBERHARDT RECHTIN Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-7913-5 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this 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CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Maier, Mark The art systems of architecting / Mark W Maier 3rd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4200-7913-5 (alk paper) Systems engineering I Title TA168.M263 2009 620.001’171 dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 2008044161 To Eberhardt Rechtin, who opened new vistas to so many of us, and inspired us to go out and find more Mark Maier Contents Preface .xv Part I: Introduction A Brief Review of Classical Architecting Methods Notes Chapter Extending the Architecting Paradigm Introduction: The Classical Architecting Paradigm Responding to Complexity The High Rate of Advances in the Computer and Information Sciences The Foundations of Modern Systems Architecting The Architecture Paradigm Summarized 19 The Waterfall Model of Systems Acquisition 20 Spirals, Increments, and Collaborative Assembly 23 Scopes of Architecting 25 Conclusion 27 Notes and References 27 Chapter Heuristics as Tools 29 Introduction: A Metaphor 29 Heuristics as Abstractions of Experience 30 Selecting a Personal Kit of Heuristic Tools 31 Using Heuristics 34 A Process Framework for Architecting Heuristics 35 Heuristics on Heuristics 38 A Taxonomy of Heuristics 39 New Directions 41 Conclusion 41 Notes and References 42 viii Contents Part II: New Domains, New Insights Case Study 1: DC-3 47 The History 47 Architecture Interpretation 51 Three Story Variations 51 Was the Boeing 247 Successfully Architected? 52 What Is the “Architecture” of the DC-3? 53 Art Raymond’s Principles 53 Notes and References 55 Chapter Builder-Architected Systems 57 Introduction: The Form-First Paradigm 57 Technological Substitutions within Existing Systems 59 Consequences of Uncertainty of End Purpose 61 Architecture and Competition 61 Reducing the Risks of Uncertainty of End Purpose 63 Risk Management by Intermediate Goals 64 The “What Next?” Quandary 65 Controlling the Critical Features of the Architecture 66 Abandonment of an Obsolete Architecture 67 Creating Innovative Teams 68 Architecting “Revolutionary” Systems 70 Systems Architecting and Basic Research 72 Heuristics for Architecting Technology-Driven Systems 73 Conclusion 74 Exercises 74 Notes and References 75 Case Study 2: Mass and Lean Production 77 Introduction 77 An Architectural History of Mass Production 77 Cottage Industry (1890s to 1910s) 78 Birth of Mass Production (1908–1913) 78 Competition from New Quarters (1920s to 1930s) 79 The Toyota Production System (1940s to 1980s) 80 Metaphor or Vision Changes 81 Craftsmen 81 A Car for the Masses, or If We Build It, It Will Sell 81 Cars as Fashion 82 The Supermarket Metaphor 82 The Toyota Way 82 Elements of the Architecture of the Ford Production System 82 The Assembly Line 83 Contents ix Enterprise Distribution 83 Management Processes 84 Quality Assurance for Distributed Production 84 Devotion to Component-Level Simplification 84 Social Contract 85 Conclusion 85 Notes and References 86 Chapter Manufacturing Systems 87 Introduction: The Manufacturing Domain 87 Manufacturing in Context 88 Architectural Innovations in Manufacturing 91 Dynamic Manufacturing Systems 93 Lean Production 105 Flexible Manufacturing 108 Heuristics for Architecting Manufacturing Systems .111 Conclusion .111 Exercises 112 Notes and References 112 Case Study 3: Intelligent Transportation Systems 115 Introduction 115 ITS Concepts 116 ITS Sociotechnical Issues 118 Who Is the Client for an Architect? .118 Public or Private? 119 Facts and Perceptions 121 Architecture as Shared Invariants 122 Dominance of Economics 122 Notes and References 123 Chapter Social Systems 125 Introduction: Defining Sociotechnical Systems 125 Public Participation 125 The Foundations of Sociotechnical Systems Architecting 127 The Separation of Client and User 127 Socioeconomic Insights 128 The Interaction between the Public and Private Sectors 130 Facts versus Perceptions: An Added Tension 131 Heuristics for Social Systems 134 Conclusion 135 Exercises 135 Notes and References 136 Author Index A Abts, C., 400 Alexander, C., 41, 280–281, 402, 403 Arbib, M A., 411 Axelband, E., 337, 375–391 B Balzer, B., 245 Basili, V R., 283 Baudin, M., 243, 307–308 Bauermeister, B., 76, 283 Beam, W R., 411 Benjamin, T., 405 Bercuzk, C., 281 Bernstein, L., 283 Blaha, M., 410 Blanchard, B S., 391 Boehm, B., 23, 296, 349, 389, 410 Boorstin, D J., 411 Booton, R C., 390, 393 Bout, A., 402 Boyes, J L., 411 Brookner-Fowler, 401 Brooks, F P., 3, 68, 147, 167, 179, 283, 377, 389, 410 Burkett, W C., 398, 401, 406 Burruss, J., 405 Butler, S., 215 Buttazzo, G C., 306 C Cantry, D., 28 Carpenter, R., 27, 389 Carson, E R., 389, 392, 411 Cavola, R., 402 Cerveny, A., 406 Champy, J., 392 Chiariglione, L., 215, 333 Churchman, C W., 389, 392 Clark, K B., 95, 112, 113, 215, 408, 410 Clausing, D., 310 Constantine, L L., 175, 245, 264, 283, 310 Courtois, P J., 402 Cuff, D., 28 Cureton, K., 38, 42, 68, 76, 400, 402 D Davie, B., 215 Davis, S M., 411 Deal, T E., 409 DeMarco, T., 156, 179, 196, 215, 234, 246, 287, 293, 296, 307, 410 427 428 Deming, 266, 404 Deutsch, M S., 405, 410 Di Natale, M., 306 Diskin, D., 215 E Eddy, F., 410 Eisner, H., 380, 392, 410 F Fabrycky, W J., 391 Ferguson, C H., 74, 75, 398, 400 Flood, R L., 389, 392, 411 Forman, B., 336, 361–373, 398 Forte, M., 399 Furht, B P., 410 G Gajski, D D., 410 Gamma, E., 410 Garlan, D., 170–171, 179, 389, 393, 418, 424 Gaudet, D., 405 Gause, D C., 411 Geis, N P., 68, 76, 389, 397, 399 Genesereth, M R., 389, 392 Genesereth, M S., 411 Gerstein, D R., 411 Getting, I., 19, 184 Gillam, A., 406 Gödel, 29 Gold, J., 402 Gradous, L I., 136, 399, 405 Greenberg, A M., 134 H Hammer, M., 392 Harper, R., 283 Hatley, D J., 219, 231, 243, 246, 250, 286–287, 298, 300, 307, 318, 328, 410 Hauser, J R., 292, 310 Hayes, R H., 95, 112, 113, 215, 405, 410 Hayes-Roth, F., 261, 398 Hill, D J., 214 Hillaker, H., 32, 57–76, 271, 400, 402, 403, 405 Hofstadter, D R., 411 Honour, E C., 385, 392 Howes, N., 215 Author Index J Jaynarayan, H., 277, 283 Je, W., 283, 399 Jensen, R W., 401 Jones, D., 34, 113, 401 Jordan, K., 215 Juran, J M., 410 K Kaplan, J., 400 Kennedy, A A., 409 King, D R., 28, 397, 399, 401, 404, 405 Kjos, K., 404, 405 Klir, G J., 31, 389, 411 Kostoff, S., 389, 409 Kreitman, K., 259, 304 Kruchten, P B., 179 Kuchta, B., 403 L Lambert, B., 179 Lang, J., 4, 136, 389, 402 Lehan, F., 401 Lendaris, G G., 397 Leveson, N G., 179 Ley, D., 404 Lim, J., 405 Lindsey, W C., 113 Lister, T., 179, 410 Liston, J., 404 Lorensen, W., 410 Losk, J., 68, 76, 389, 401, 406 M Madachy, R., 40, 42 Maguire, S., 179 Maier, M., 123, 196, 215, 243, 283, 310, 402, 413, 419 Majchrzak, A., 75 Margolis, E M., 385, 392 Matz, R., 405 McConnell, S., 176, 179 McGinn, D., 34, 401 Mead, C., 32 Mellor, S J., 297, 311, 410 Miller, R., 410 Mills, A., 69, 76, 246 Author Index Mills, H., 377 Milutinovic, V M., 410 Morley, R E., 246 Morris, C R., 74, 75, 398 Morrison, 400 Mueller, D C., 272 N Nadler, G., 261, 389, 399 Newell, A., 389, 392 Nilsson, N J., 389, 411 Noel, L., 400 Norman, D A., 411 O Ohno, T., 78, 82, 107 Olivieri, J., 111, 397 P Parks, R., 401 Pearl, J., 411 Perry, W J., 392, 418 Peterson, L., 215 Pieronek, T., 68, 76, 389, 392 Pirbhai, I., 219, 231, 243, 250, 286–287, 300, 307, 318, 328, 410 Premerlani, W., 410 R Ramo, S., 19, 379, 390, 393 Raymond, A., 47, 50, 53–54, 188 Raymond, E., 209, 215, 283 Rechtin, E., 4, 22, 23, 35, 37, 39, 42, 70, 92, 113, 120, 123, 126, 255, 260, 283, 359, 385, 395, 396, 400, 411, 426 Renton, M B., 401–403, 405 Rowe, A J., 42 Rowe, P G., 4, 389, 392, 409 Rubinstein, M F., 389, 392, 400, 402, 411 Rumbaugh, J., 176, 243, 246, 311, 410, 425 Russo, J E., 402 Ruth, Susan, 395, 399, 403, 406, 407 S Saaty, T., 272 Savagian, P J., 111 Schmidt, J H., 111, 401, 405, 406, 407 429 Schriever, B., 379 Selby, R W., 283 Shaw, M., 170–171, 179, 279, 389, 410, 423, 424 Sheard, S., 385, 392 Siegel, H J., 410 Simon, H A., 113, 389, 392, 397, 410 Sooter, C., 18, 401, 407 Spinrad, R., 3, 4, 9, 34, 68, 69, 75, 76, 397, 399, 400, 401, 403, 406 Spuri, M., 306 Stankovic, J A., 306 Steiner, J E., 260, 372, 398, 402 Suzaki, 397 T Tausworthe, R C., 403 Taylor, 111, 401 Thome, B., 410 Turner, C S., 179 V von Braun, W., 401 W Ward, P T., 297, 311, 410 Weinberg, A M., 133, 136 Weinberg, G M., 411 Wheelon, A D., 399 Wheelright, S C., 95 White, A N., 221 White, J B., 113 White, S., 310 Wile, D., 245 Williams, P L., 42 Willis, R R., 410 Wolf, S., 403, 404 Wolstenholme, E F., 309 Womack, J P., 109, 113, 424 Wood, D P., 286 Wood, W G., 286 Y Yamasaki, Y., 107 Yourdon, E., 175, 245, 246, 264, 283, 310, 410 Z Zachman, 324 Subject Index 621B, 184 A Abstraction, 30–31, 270, 423 Acceptable quality limits (AQLs), 13 Acceptance criteria, 23, 218, 222, 398, 400, 404 Accounting methods, 242 Acquisition process, 20–23, 27, 98, 228 Activity model (OV-5), 317, 318 Ada language, 175, 299–300 ADARTS, 175, 231, 243, 257, 292–293, 297–300, 423 Aerodynamics, 5, 7, 49, 339 Aerospace IEEE Aerospace Electronics Society, 389 systems, 377, 399 West Coast industry, 32 Aggregation, 6, 22, 222, 241, 259, 261, 263–265, 402, 423 Air defense systems, 197, 201–202, 204 Air Force, 64, 96, 182, 184, 188–189, 191, 379–380 Aircraft heuristics domain-specific to, 40 program, Osprey, 368 Airline travel, 133 AM; see Architecture Model American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 211, 223, 305, 315, 324–327, 382, 415 Animal experiments, 367 ANSI; see American National Standards Institute APG; see Architecture Planning Group API; see Application programming interface Apollo mission, 10, 14, 93, 365 Apple, 62, 66, 209–210, 263 AppleTalk control, 177–178 Application programming interface (API), 177, 211 Application-specific languages, 168, 174 AQL; see Acceptable quality limits Architecting as art and science, 1–3 classical paradigm, collaborative systems and, 202 foundations of, 8–19 heuristics, 35–38, 395–406 scope of, 25–27 software and, 147–151, 170 Architecting, in business and government, 339–359 431 432 architecture of programs, 346–350 enterprise architecture, 353–359 problem-system-program-organization, 339–343 strategic architecting of programs, 350–353 strategy and architecture, 343–345 Architectural level, understanding, 314 Architectural styles, 170–171, 423 Architecture, defined, 413–421 consistency and completeness, 421 IEEE Architecture Working Group, 415 INCOSE SAWG, 417 Internet discussion, 419 Maier’s tongue-in-cheek rule of thumb, 419 MIL-STD-498, 417 Perry-Garlan, 418 Webster’s Dictionary definition, 414 working definitions, 421 Architecture, frameworks, 313–333 adapting processes to, 327–329 current frameworks, 315–324 defining, 314–315 overview, 313 research directions, 327–329 Architecture Model (AM), 218, 250, 255, 270, 287, 289 Architecture paradigm, 5–27 architecting scope, 25 classical paradigm, foundations of modern systems architecting, 8–19 high rate of advances in, 7–8 responding to complexity, 5–7 spirals, increments, and collaborative assembly, 23–25 summarized, 19–20 waterfall method of systems acquisition, 20–23 Architecture Planning Group (APG), 324 Architecture Working Group (AWG), 316, 415–416 Ariane space launch, 16 Aristotelian logic, 362 ARPANET-INTERNET communication network, 11, 424 Assessment, 405 Authentication, 177 Automobiles AVCS and, 117 facts vs perceptions, 132 Subject Index flexible manufacturing and, 108–109 lean production and, 105 mass production and, 78–85 scale models, 230 smart, 57 software and, 7, 63 systems architecture and, 14 ultraquality systems and, 91 AWG; see Architecture Working Group B Ballistic missile defense, 11, 125, 150, 379–380 Beacon systems, 202 Behavioral programming, 236 Bell Laboratories, 67 Bell Telephone System, 67, 128 Block diagrams, 224, 230–232, 305, 420; see also Functional Flow Block Diagrams Blocking pull, 231 Blueprint standards, 20, 313, 316, 333; see also U.S Department of Defense Architecture Framework Boston University, 376, 386 Boycotts, 93, 126 Breadboard-brassboard-flight, 347 Builder-architected systems, 57–74 abandonment of obsolete architecture, 67 architecting “revolutionary” systems, 70–72 architecture and competition, 61–63 consequences of uncertainty of end purpose, 61 controlling critical features, 66 creating innovative teams, 68–70 form-first paradigm, 57–59 heuristics for architecting technologydriven systems, 73 reducing risks of uncertainty of end purpose, 63 risk management by intermediate goals, 64 systems architecture and basic research, 72 technological substitutions within existing systems, 59–61 “what next?” quandary, 65 Building codes, 1–2, 256, 316 Byzantine failure, 16, 277 Subject Index C C language, 300 C4I systems, 150, 196, 210 C4ISR framework (CAF), 316, 418 CAF; see C4ISR framework Call distribution systems, 160 Carnegie Mellon University, 171, 377, 387, 389 CASE tools; see Computer-aided system engineering (CASE) tools CD-ROMs, 154 Cellular telephones, 129–130, 150, 214 Certification, 17–18, 27, 94–96 Chaotic behavior, 73, 103, 236–237 Chernobyl, 133 Chunking, 402 Circle-to-spiral model, 97–98 Civil architecture, 20, 217 Civil engineering, 255 Civil works architecture, 5, 125 COCOMO; see Constructive cost model Coding theory, 73 Cold War, 64, 363, 380 Collaborative assembly, 25 Collaborative formation, 350 Collaborative systems, 195–214 analogies for architecting, 202–203 collaboration as category, 195–196 examples of, 197–202 heuristics, 203–206 misclassification, 208–211 standards and, 211–213 variations on collaborative theme, 207–208 Command relationships model (OV-4), 317 Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) units, 111 Commercial standards, 382–384 CompressedSize, 302 Compression, 177, 205, 302, 331–332 Computational frameworks, 236 Computational specification, 323 Computer-aided system engineering (CASE) tools, 245, 379 Concept formulation, 179, 245, 400 Concurrent engineering, 3, 98–100 Concurrent progressions, 253–254 Conflict of interest, 18, 76, 402 Congress, 18, 316, 336, 362–369, 373 Construction blueprints, 218 Constructive cost model (COCOMO), 296–297 Consumer electronics, 7, 72, 92, 349 433 Cost estimates, 20, 253 COTS; see Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) units Customers acceptance/uncertainty of, 64, 75 feedback, 100–102, 107 flexible manufacturing and, 108–109 incremental development for, 57–58 -sales-delivery loop, 107 D Data attributes, 302 communication systems, 155 entry-system, computer-based, 179 exchange, 295, 320 flow, 167, 172, 231–232, 234–235, 285–289, 293–297 Data flow diagrams (DFDs), 234–235, 288 Databases, 115, 148–149, 168–169, 261–262 Decision theory, 261, 271–273, 336 Decompositioning, 403 Defect rate, 14, 84, 107, 109–110 Design hierarchy, 293 layered, 164 politics as factor in, 362–364 progression, 248–249 reviews, 234, 399, 404 Design progression, in systems architecting, 247–282 architecture and design disciplines, 277–280 design as evolution of models, 250 design concepts for systems architecture, 254–277 design progression, 248 evaluation criteria and heuristic refinement, 250–254 examples, 250 overview, 247 Desktop publishing, 71, 263 DeSoto story, 91, 109 DFDs; see Data flow diagrams Diagnostic procedures, 92 Digital electronics, 188, 190, 192, 310 Discrete event systems, 102, 235–236, 239, 286–287 DODAF; see U.S Department of Defense Architecture Framework Domain-specific languages, 229 434 Don’t assume heuristics, 400 Drug testing, 367 Dynamic manufacturing, 93–105 E Econometrics, 309 Economic stability, 204 Effective lines of code (ELOC), 296–297 Electric power distribution, 131, 214 Electronics industry, 130, 352–353 ELOC; see Effective lines of code E-mail, 11, 60, 197, 354 Engineering concurrent, 3, 98–100 models, 13, 292 profession of, 375–378 solutions, 336–337, 365, 370, 398 specifications, ODP systems, 323 Enhanced Requirements Model (ERM), 287 Enterprise architecture, 353–358 Enterprise distribution, 83–84 Entity-Relationship diagrams, 241, 307 ENTP personality type, 68 Environmental control, 131 ERM; see Enhanced Requirements Model Event flow networks, 233, 234 Evolving and re-architecting, 406 Execution semantics, 171, 245 ExpandedSize, 301–302 F Facilities layouts, 420 Facts of life, 365–373 Failure rate, 91, 276–277, 404, 405 system, 92, 399 Fault tolerance, 16, 91–92, 200 Federal government, 336, 361 Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs), 390 Feedback customers and, 58 loops, 371–372 release cyclees and, 89 systems, 93, 100–105, 425 ultraquality systems and, 44 waterfall, 97 FFBD; see Functional Flow Block Diagrams Subject Index FFRDCs; see Federally Funded Research and Development Centers Fiber optics, 72 Flat screen monitors, 11 Flexible manufacturing, 108–111 Flight control, 15–16, 154, 179, 265, 277 Floor plans, 20, 218, 224, 249 FORTRAN, 153, 168 Free flight, 109 Free software, 208 Functional Flow Block Diagrams (FFBD), 234; see also Block diagrams Funds flow model, 244, 307 Fuzzy control systems, 104, 109 G Global Positioning Systems (GPS), 181–193 621B, 184 architecture as invariants, 192 architecture interpretation, 189 commercial markets and Gulf War, 187 consensus without compromise, 191 fateful weekend, 185 guided weapons, 188 history, 181 inertial navigation and limits, 182 long road to revolution, 186 origins of, 181, 184 Parkinson and Currie, 185 revolution in second generation, 187 revolution through coupled change, 192 success of, 189 TIMATION, 183 timeline to operation, 186 transit program, 182 ubiquity of, 188 weapon delivery, 182 Government regulations, 61, 375 GPS; see Global Positioning Systems Graduate education, 386 Ground radar, 202; see also Radar Groundthink, 3, 69 GSM digital cellular telephone standard, 214 H Hard pull, 232 Hard push, 231 Hardware architecture, 7–8, 72, 166–168 Subject Index costs, 7, 97–98 hierarchy, 161–162, 164 integration of, 44, 157–160 IT systems and, 147–149, 151–154 software and, 176–179 spirals for, 157 upgrades, 24 waterfall model and, 20–21 Harris Corporation Infomation Systems Division, 385 Hatley-Pirbhai modeling method, 250, 286–291 Heuristics for architecting manufacturing systems, 111 for architecting technology-driven systems, 73 collaborative systems and, 203–206 in political process, 356–373 refinement, 250–254 for social systems, 134 software and, 175–178 specialized and formalized, 257 Heuristics, as tools, 29–41 as abstractions of experience, 30–31 heuristics on heuristics, 38 new directions, 41 process framework for, 35–38 selecting personal kit of tools, 31–34 taxonomy of, 39–41 using, 34 Heuristics, for systems-level architecting, 395–407 aggregating, 402 assessing performance, 405 certifying, 404 integrating, 403 modeling, 401 multitask heuristics, 397 organizing the list, 395–397 partitioning, 403 prioritizing, 401 rearchitecting, 406 scoping and planning, 398–401 tool list, 397–407 Hewlett-Packard, 58, 67, 75 Hierarchical systems, 137–144 business background, 137 layerd alternative, 140–142 motivation for change, 138–140 pain of transition, 142–144 Hierarchy, 161–165 large, autonomous components, 165 435 layered design, 164 object orientation, 162–164 reconciling, 165 High technology, cost of, 366 High-level language, 153, 168, 279 High-Level Operational Concept Graphic (OV-1), 317, 320 Highway travel, 60 Hitachi, 109 Hughes Aircraft, 337, 385 Human observers, 202 Humor, 38, 414 I IBM, 66 IEEE, 324, 383, 415–417, 421, 424 IEEE Software Engineering Standards Committee (SESC), 324 IETF; see Internet Engineering Task Force INCOSE, 376, 383, 390–391 INCOSE SAWG, 378, 417 Incremental delivery, 348 Industrial controls, 147 Information flow, 44, 102, 109, 111, 231, 317 networks, 125, 245 processing, 5, 110, 148, 322 specifications, ODP systems, 322 system capacity, 110 Information technology systems, 147–178 architectures, unifying models, and visions, 169 directions in software architecting, 170–175 hierarchy, 161–165 programming languages, 167–169 role of architecture in softwarecentered systems, 166 software as status component, 151–153 status of software architecting, 147–151 systems, software, and process models, 153–154 Insights heuristics and, 18–19 socioeconomic, 128–130 thrill of, 39 Integrated modeling, 115–122, 242, 285–310 general models, 286–292 for manufacturing systems, 307 overview, 286 for sociotechnical systems, 308 436 software and, 292–306 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS), 115–122, 128 architecture as shared invariants, 122 clients, 118 concepts, 116–118 dominance of economics, 122 facts vs perceptions, 121 public vs private, 119–121 sociotechnical issues, 118 Interagency rivalries, 362 International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), 383, 390–391 International Systems Organization (ISO), 211, 320–324, 382 Internet as collaborative system, 24–25, 45, 126, 195, 204–208 Department of Defense and, 150 layered systems and, 141 open source design and, 58 Protocol (IP), 159, 419 regulation, 128 software and, 153–154 standards and, 211–212 TCP/IP, 145, 178, 197–199, 342 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), 24–25, 198–199, 206, 211–213 Internetwork communication server, 179 INTP personality type, 68 ISO; see International Systems Organization Iterative development, 23 ITS; see Intelligent Transport Systems J Java, 167, 300 Jet aircraft, 57, 59, 126 JIT inventory; see Just-in-time (JIT) inventory Joint Technical Architecture (JTA), 316 Jump and exploit, 351–353 Just-in-time (JIT) inventory, 107–108, 308 K Key presses, 174 Killer apps, 71, 72 Kodak, 67 Subject Index L Landsat System, 129 Languages, 153 Ada, 153 application-specific, 168, 174 C++, 153 domain-specific, 229 FORTRAN, 153 meta-, 169 Pascal, 153 Laptop computers, 195 Latent markets, 58 Lean manufacturing, 44, 404, 405 Lean production, 77–86, 105–108 Linux, 208–209, 212, 214 Lobbyists, 362, 372 Logical Data Model (OV-7), 317, 318 Loop delay, 101 Lunar missions, 11–12, 93, 127, 366 M Macintosh computers, 66, 71, 109, 169, 177–178, 229, 263 Madachy taxonomy, 40 Managerial models, 242 Manufacturing certification, 94 dynamic, 93–105 flexible, 108–111 heuristics domain-specific to, 111 lean, 44, 404, 405 zero-g, 367 Manufacturing systems, 87–112 architectural innovations, 91–93 dynamic, 93–105 flexible manufacturing and, 108–111 heuristics, 111 lean production and, 105–108 manufacturing in context, 88–91 Market research, 64 Mass production, 77–79 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 353, 386–387 Mathematical systems theory, 233, 235–236 Mathematicans, 29 MATLAB, 153, 168–169, 279 MBTI; see Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Medicare management systems, 126, 127 Mental models, 13, 259, 401 Meta-languages, 169 Subject Index Meta-models, 229, 242 Microchips, 6, 32, 66, 184 Microgravity experiments, 367 Microprocessors, 14–15, 59, 92, 110–111, 148 Microsatellite Imaging System, 287–288, 290, 298 Microsoft, 66, 169, 209, 212, 263 Microwaves, 195, 310 Military C4I systems, 150, 196, 210 MIT; see Massachusetts Institute of Technology Modeling methodologies, integrated, 115–122, 242, 285–310 general models, 286–292 for manufacturing systems, 307 overview, 286 for sociotechnical systems, 308 software and, 292–306 Models; see also Integrated modeling behavioral, 232–238 classifications by view, 225–242 data, 240 defined, 425 design as evolution of, 250 of form, 229–232 integrated, 242 managerial, 242 objectives and purpose, 227 performance, 238–240 representation and systems architecting, 221–245 roles of, 222 Molecular resonance imaging, 72 Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG), 205, 206, 214, 331, 333 Multinational reconnaissance-strike systems, 45 Multitask heuristics, 397 Murphy’s Law, 34, 397 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 68, 424 N NASA, 11, 75, 126, 363, 367–368, 390 National security, 2, 128, 149, 369 Natural languages, 31, 151, 223 Networks event flow, 233, 234–235 portable languages, 167 Node failures, 321 437 Nonblocking pull, 231 Nonlinearity, 101–104, 111, 236 O Object Management Group (OMG), 323 Object Modeling Technique (OMT), 243, 292, 301, 425 ODP systems, 322–324 OMG; see Object Management Group OMT; see Object Modeling Technique On-orbit diagnostics, 230, 367 Open architectures, 63, 74, 399 Open collaborative systems, 207, 210 Open source software, 58, 126, 149, 208–212 Open System Interconnect (OSI), 141 Operational Event/Trace Description (OV-6a), 318 Operational Information Exchange Matrix (OV-3), 317 Operational Node Connectivity Description (OV-2), 317 Operational Rules Model (OV-6a), 317 Operational State Transition Model (OV-6b), 318 OSI; see Open System Interconnect OV-1; see High-Level Operational Concept Graphic OV-2; see Operational Node Connectivity Description OV-3; see Operational Information Exchange Matrix OV-4; see Command relationships model OV-5; see Activity model OV-6a; see Operational Rules Model OV-6b; see Operational State Transition Model OV-7; see Logical Data Model (OV-7) P Packet forwarding, 197 Partitioning, 403 Pascal, 153, 161, 168 Pattern language, 41, 170, 280–281 Performance assessing, 405 -driven systems, 291 integration, 306 models, 238 Perry-Garlan, 418 438 Personal computers, 67 Personality types, 68 Petri Nets, 236 Physical link parameters, 177 Pipe and filter style, 171–172 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), 177 Policy triage, 205 Political process, systems architecting and, 361–373 first skills to master, 364 heuristics, 365–373 politics as design factor, 362–364 Political solutions, 365, 398 Poor performance, 405 PPP; see Point-to-Point Protocol Precursor systems, 64–65, 95 Prioritizing, 401 Production lean, 77–86, 105–108 lines, 15, 79, 81, 102, 108–109, 112 mass, 77–79 prototype, 159–160 Productivity, 14, 85, 92, 112, 168, 176 Product-to-machine interfaces, 110 Professionalization, of systems architecting, 375–390 advanced study, 389 assessment of profession, 390 commercial standards, 382–384 company standards, 384 curriculum design, 387–389 graduate education, 386 origins of systems standards, 379–382 societies and publications, 389 summary of standards developments, 385 systems architecting and systems standards, 378–379 Program architecture, 346–350 breadboard-brassboard-flight, 347 collaborative formation, 350 incremental delivery, 348 risk spiral, 349 serial production, 347 single pass, waterfall construction, 347 Program development, top-down, 248 Programming languages, 167–169 Project management, 18, 27, 71, 242, 321 PROLOG, 153 Propulsion systems, 9, 11 Prototyping, rapid, 12, 45, 75, 95, 150, 156 Public choice models, 233, 237–238 Public perception, 104, 121, 127, 133 Subject Index Q Quality Function Deployment (QFD), 291 Quantitative QFD (Q2*FD), 291 Queuing channel, 232 R Radar, 75, 182, 202, 375 Rational Corporation, 303 Raw images, 288–289 Reactive systems, 286–291 Real-time software, 88 Rebooting, 103 Reconnaissance-strike systems, multinational, 45 Reference architectures, 58, 75 Reference Model for Open Distributed Processing (RM-ODP), 315, 321–324 Reference texts, suggested for institutional libraries, 409–411 architecting background, 409 management, 409 modeling, 410 software, 410 specialty areas, 410 system sciences, 411 system thinking, 411 Refinement, 250–254 Renaissance architects, 19 Representation models, systems architecting and, 221–245 behavioral, 232–238 classifications by view, 223–225, 225–242 data, 240 of form, 229–232 integrated, 242 managerial, 242 models, viewpoints, and views, 223–225 objectives and purpose, 227 performance, 238–240 roles of, 222 Requirements Model, 287 Risk spiral, 349 Risks assessing, 405 management of, 64 reducing, 63 spiral, 349 RM; see Requirements Model Subject Index RM-ODP; see Reference Model for Open Distributed Processing S Sanity checks, 2, 39, 400 SAWG; see INCOSE SAWG Scale models, 12, 157, 218, 229–230 Scars, 33, 63 Scenarios, manufacturing, 88–90 full development and serial production, 88 incremental development and release, 88–89 protoflight development and manufacturing, 89–90 Scoping, 258, 398 Scripting languages, 149, 153 SDM program; see Massachusetts Institute of Technology Semiconductor industry, 72, 148 Serial production, 347 SESC; see IEEE Software Engineering Standards Committee SETACs; see Systems Engineering and Test Assistance Contractors Single Image, 302 Single pass, waterfall construction, 347 Social systems, 125–136 defining sociotechnical systems, 125 facts vs perceptions, 131–134 foundations of modern systems architecting, 127 heuristics, 134 public and private sector interaction, 130 public participation, 125–127 separation of client and user, 127 socioeconomic insights, 128–130 Sociotechnical systems, 125 Soft push, 231 Software, 147–178 architectures, unifying models, and visions, 169 directions in software architecting, 170–175 hierarchy, 161–165 and process models, 153–154 programming languages, 167–169 role of architecture in softwarecentered systems, 166 as status component, 151–153 status of software architecting, 147–151 439 Solid-state electronics, 72 Source code, 149–150, 208–209; see also Open source software Space station program, 365–368 Spacecraft, heuristics domain-specific to, 40 Specialization, 69–70, 257 Spirals, 23, 157–161, 349, 425 SPOT, 129 Standards, 211–213, 324, 378–385 Stepwise refinement, 248–250, 256 Strikes, 93 Structuralism, 173, 418 Structure charts, 231, 294–296 Subsystem specialists, 9–10 Success, 398–399 Sun Microsystems, 209 Supplier-buyer concept, 15 Surveillance, 5, 129, 150; see also C4ISR framework SV-1; see System Interface Description Synchronization, 318 SysML, 305–306 System Interface Description (SV-1), 318 Systems aerospace, 377, 399 air defense, 197, 201–202, 204 architecture, 14 collaborative, 202 waterfall method of acquisitions, 20–23 Systems Engineering and Test Assistance Contractors (SETACs), 390 T Taguchi method, 108 Taxonomy of heuristics, 39–41 Madachy, 40 TCP/IP; see Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Technical Standards Forecast (TV-2), 319 Technical Standards Profile (TV-1), 319 TIMATION, 183 Total quality management (TQM), 108 TQM; see Total quality management Transaction oriented data flow diagrams, 295 Transform oriented data flow diagrams, 295 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), 145, 178, 197, 199 Transportation, 8, 44–45, 73, 82–83 440 Subject Index TV-1; see Technical Standards Profile TV-2; see Technical Standards Forecast USAF satellite control system, 64 USENET, 211 U V Ultraquality, 13–17 UML, 303–305; see Unified Modeling Language Unified Modeling Language (UML), 303–305 Unifying models, 169 University of Maryland, 376, 386, 387 University of North Carolina, 377, 389 University of Tel Aviv, 376, 386, 387 University programming courses, 41 Univesity of Southern California (USC), 9, 32, 271, 336 UNIX, 172 Upward reporting, 22 Urban development, 125 Urban planning, 119, 202–203 U.S Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DODAF), 220, 316–320; see also Blueprint standards evaluation and issues with use of, 319–320 operational view, 317–318 summary information, 317 system view, 318 technical view, 318–319 Value judgments, avoidance of, 17 W Wang word processors, 67 Waterfalls, 20–23, 347, 426 Weapons systems, 73 Web applications, 149, 153 Welfare, 125–126, 131 Western Electric, 67 “What Next?” quandary, 65 “Wicked” system problems, Windows; see Microsoft Word processors, Wang, 67 X Xerox, 67 Z Zero defect approach, 13–15 Zero-g manufacturing, 367 .. .THIRD EDITION THE ART OF SYSTEMS ARCHITECTING THIRD EDITION THE ART OF SYSTEMS ARCHITECTING MARK W MAIER EBERHARDT RECHTIN Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor... background They already realize the necessity of applying scientific and quantitative thinking to the design of complex systems Equally necessary, and the focus of this part of the book, is the art, ... and part science Part I of this book further develops the art and extends the central role of heuristics Part II introduces five important domains that contribute to the understanding of that art