Minds Online Minds Online TEACHING EFFECTIVELY WITH TECHNOLOGY MICHELLE D MILLER Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 2014 Copyright © 2014 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First Printing Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Miller, Michelle D., 1968– Minds online : teaching effectively with technology / Michelle D Miller pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978- 0- 674-36824-8 (alk paper) Computer-assisted instruction Internet in education Educational technology Teaching— Computer network resources Learning, Psychology of I Title LB1028.5.M548 2014 371.33—dc23 2014006755 For my father, Thomas Clay Miller, Jr Contents Preface ix Chapter 1: Is Online Learning Here to Stay? Chapter 2: Online Learning: Does It Work? 19 Chapter 3: The Psychology of Computing Chapter 4: Attention Chapter 5: Memory 42 64 88 Chapter 6: Thinking 117 Chapter 7: Incorporating Multimedia Effectively Chapter 8: Motivating Students 165 Chapter 9: Putting It All Together Notes 237 Acknowledg ments 269 Index 273 196 148 Preface I N 1978, most kids had never seen a computer up close, let alone been allowed to touch one But stashed away in a back room of my elementary school there was a PLATO terminal, a device designed to present interactive tutorials on mathematics, typing, foreign languages, and the like We students each got just one hour a week of PLATO time, and for figuring out how to get started or work through the lessons, we were pretty much on our own Even so, for me, a tenyear-old seriously bogged down in fifth-grade math, this was a novel and utterly engaging experience I credit it with setting me on a lifelong path of curiosity about minds, machines, and learning PLATO’s 16-by-16 touch-screen grid enabled direct and intuitive communication between user and computer, and it was able to show not just text but also blocky, single-color graphics It spent each of my one-hour sessions patiently presenting round after round of a petstore-themed game designed to teach fractions PLATO was even capable of flashing a little wit, admonishing “Shelly, you have a fish on your finger!” when I failed to drag and drop exactly one-third of my goldfish inventory into a customer’s order Luck and an unusually well-funded school district made me one of the few people of my generation who experienced cutting-edge instructional technology from the student perspective Now nearly four decades later, you’d be hard pressed to find an educational institution that doesn’t use instructional technology in one form or another Within higher education, the impact has been especially N OT E S TO PA G E S – 265 26 C S Dweck (2007), The perils and promises of praise, Educational Leadership 65(2): 34–39 27 Ibid 28 A Rattan, C Good, and C S Dweck (2012), “It’s OK—not everyone can be good at math”: Instructors with an entity theory comfort (and demotivate) students, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48(3): 731–737, doi:10 1016/j.jesp.2011.12.012 29 C S Dweck (2007), The perils and promises of praise, Educational Leadership 65(2): 34–39 30 J Aronson, C B Fried, and C Good (2002), Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38(2): 113 31 A R Artino (2008), Promoting academic motivation and self-regulation: Practical guidelines for online instructors, Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning 52(3): 37–45, doi:10.1007/s11528- 008- 0153-x 32 A R Artino and J M Stephens (2009), Academic motivation and selfregulation: A comparative analysis of undergraduate and graduate students learning online, Internet & Higher Education 12(3/4): 146–151, doi:10.1016/j iheduc.2009.02.001 33 I E Allen, J Seaman, and C Sloan (2007), Online Nation: Five Years of Growth in Online Learning (retrieved from http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/online _nation) 34 G C Elvers, D J Polzella, and K Graetz (2003), Procrastination in online courses: Per for mance and attitudinal differences, Teaching of Psychology 30(2): 159–162 35 Ibid 36 N Michinov, S Brunot, O Le Bohec, J Juhel, and M Delaval (2011), Procrastination, participation, and per for mance in online learning environments, Computers & Education 56(1): 243–252, doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010 07.025 37 D H Schunk and B J Zimmerman (1997), Social origins of selfregulatory competence, Educational Psychologist 32(4): 195 38 A R Artino (2008), Promoting academic motivation and self-regulation: Practical guidelines for online instructors, Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning 52(3): 37–45, doi:10.1007/s11528- 008- 0153-x 39 Ibid 40 P R Pintrich, D A Smith, T Garcia, and W J McKeachie (1993), Reliability and predictive validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), Educational and Psychological Measurement 53(3): 801– 813, doi:10.1177/0013164493053003024 41 A R Artino (2008), Promoting academic motivation and self-regulation: Practical guidelines for online instructors, Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning 52(3): 37–45, doi:10.1007/s11528- 008- 0153-x; J L Whipp and S Chiarelli (2004), Self-regulation in a web-based course: A case study, Educational Technology Research and Development 52(4): 5–22, doi:10.1007 /BF02504714 266 N OT E S TO PA G E S – 42 A R Artino (2008), Promoting academic motivation and self-regulation: Practical guidelines for online instructors, Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning 52(3): 37–45, doi:10.1007/s11528- 008- 0153-x 43 M D Miller and B Scarnati (2013), Developing faculty capacity to support student success: The First Year Learning Initiative (talk presented at the Annual Sloan Consortium International Conference on Online Learning, Orlando, FL) 44 J McGonigal (2011), Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World (Amazon Kindle version) 45 M D Dickey (2005), Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popu lar computer and video games can inform instructional design, Educational Technology Research & Development 53(2): 67– 83, doi:10.1007/BF02504866; M Dickey (2006), Game design narrative for learning: Appropriating adventure game design narrative devices and techniques for the design of interactive learning environments, Educational Technology Research & Development 54(3): 245–263, doi:10.1007/s11423- 006-8806-y 46 K M Kapp (2012), The Gamifi cation of Learning and Instruction: GameBased Methods and Strategies for Training and Education (Amazon Kindle version) 47 Ibid 48 M Csikszentmihalyi (1997), Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life (New York: Basic Books) 49 J McGonigal (2011), Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World (Amazon Kindle version) 50 K M Kapp (2012), The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: GameBased Methods and Strategies for Training and Education (Amazon Kindle version) 51 Ibid 52 J McGonigal (2011), Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World (Amazon Kindle version) 53 Ibid 54 K M Kapp (2012), The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: GameBased Methods and Strategies for Training and Education (Amazon Kindle version) 55 Ibid PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER R Goldstein (2010), Major developments in undergraduate psychology, APS Observer 23:23–26; M Hebl, C Brewer, and L Benjamin (2000), Handbook for Teaching Introductory Psychology, vol (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) M D Miller and M E Rader (2010), Two heads are better than one: Collaborative development of an online course content template, Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 6:246–255 M Demir, M Birkett, K Dickson, and M Miller, eds (2012), Psychological Science in Action: Applying Psychology to Everyday Issues (San Diego: Cognella) N OT E S TO PA G E S – 2 267 American Psychological Association (2007), APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major (Washington, DC: APA) (retrieved from www apa.org/ed /resources.html) Adapted from M Demir, M Birkett, K Dickson, and M Miller, eds (2012), Psychological Science in Action: Applying Psychology to Everyday Issues (San Diego: Cognella) Acknowledgments T HI S BOOK SPR INGS from my experiences as a cognitive psychologist immersed in scholarship on the mind, brain, and learning It is built on the work of many brilliant researchers and theorists: Robert Bjork, John Bransford, Susan Ambrose, Mark McDaniel, H L Roediger, Nelson Cowan, Jeffrey Karpicke, Harold Pashler, Richard Mayer, Randi Martin, James Nairne, Daniel Simon, Keith Holyoak, Doug Rohrer, Mark Ashcraft, Alan Baddeley, and John Anderson, just to name a few who have influenced me the most It is an honor to translate their work for an audience of non-psychologists, and I hope I have done an adequate job of conveying the power of their discoveries My academic life began with Donald G MacKay, my mentor and graduate adviser He took an eager but scattered college student and patiently turned me into a trained scientist—while never forgetting the sense of wonder and fun that brought us to this field in the fi rst place Don once told me that research is essentially play behavior, and this science-as-play philosophy has given me the courage to keep going where curiosity takes me, even when the routes are unconventional When author James Lang publicly praised one of my “translational” works in the Chronicle of Higher Education in 2011, it was one of the proudest moments of my career— and one of the most fateful, 270 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS as it led directly to the creation of this book Lang is part of a new wave of authors and researchers pushing for fundamental transformation in how we think about college teaching I truly hope that this book further advances that important conversation Elizabeth Knoll, my editor at Harvard University Press, championed this book at every step of its creation, and without her leadership, it would simply not exist I’m also grateful to Elizabeth for recruiting a set of insightful, kind, and incredibly knowledgeable reviewers, whose feedback was indispensable for improving the manuscript Elizabeth’s encouragement carried me— a first-timer at book writing—through more episodes of self-doubt and confusion than I can count Through her thoughtful and rigorous editing of this and many other books, she has made an immense contribution to the scholarly literature on teaching and learning This book also wouldn’t exist but for the support of my husband, J Richard McDonald Besides being supremely effective on the home front, Rick is an accomplished professional in the field of instructional technology— and thus he is my most important sounding board for ideas on how technology can complement learning The concepts in this book took shape through many a conversation over dinner, laundry, coffee, and road trips Rick also contributed research assistance to several chapters, and graciously served as the subject of the “expert knowledge” demonstration featured in Chapter Having this kind of intellectual partnership built into the very foundation of one’s life is a rare gift, and I am grateful for it every day I enjoy robust support at my university “home” as well Northern Arizona University is a fertile environment for people who devote their lives to teaching and learning, and I have benefited from the passion, patience, and generosity of countless NAU faculty, staff, and administrators First and foremost, I owe thanks to Linda Shadiow, who recently retired as the director of faculty development at NAU It was Linda who encouraged me to take some of the essays I’d been writing for my graduate students and turn them into publications— a crucial first step toward writing this book Linda’s office also administers the President’s Distinguished Teaching Fellows program, which has offered me both the opportunity to col- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 271 laborate with NAU’s best teachers and financial support for research and dissemination NAU’s University College, and especially its dean, Karen Pugliesi, have also provided essential support for my work Karen believed in the book from the very beginning, cheering me on as I cleared each hurdle in the race to publication and providing me with the time, space, and institutional affirmation that I needed to get the project done I’m also grateful to the former dean of NAU’s College of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Michael Stevenson, for pushing me to prioritize writing this book when I felt pulled to pieces by competing demands And the NAU E-Learning Center, led by director Don Carter, has been a treasure trove of innovation, ideas, and support for exploring new frontiers in teaching with technology Collaborations with faculty colleagues have also been a source of strength throughout my time at NAU Blase Scarnati, the cocreator of NAU’s First Year Learning Initiative, has sparked my creativity in ways I couldn’t have imagined and —through FYLI—has challenged me to explore new ways to promote powerful, learner-centered pedagogies and course designs Elizabeth Brauer of NAU’s Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering is one of the most forward-thinking educators I know; she has shown me exactly how cognitive principles can enhance a challenging, well-designed course K Laurie Dickson, who is now NAU’s vice provost for curriculum and assessment, spearheaded the first scholarship of teaching and learning projects I ever worked on, opening up a whole new realm in which I could apply my training as a cognitive psychologist With Blase, Liz, and Laurie, I’ve brainstormed, visioned, number-crunched, problem-solved, written and rewritten—some of the hardest work of my life, but also the most fun I come by writing honestly, being the daughter of a journalist and a textbook author who surrounded me with their love of the craft My late father, Tommy Miller, once told me to “cherish the words”— and although he didn’t get to see these particular words on paper, they are very much his legacy And my mom, Darla Miller, has been an inexhaustible source of not just motherly but also professional encouragement— offering advice, reading feedback, helping me get past all the inevitable setbacks, and much more than I can say Index Academically Adrift, 20 Academic dishonesty See Cheating Academic self-efficacy See Self-efficacy, academic Academic self-management skills See Self-management skills, academic Accessibility, 160–163, 164 Achievement motivation, 169–170 Adaptive memory framework, 97– 98 Adaptive testing See Quizzes: adaptive ADD See Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Agarwal, Anant, Ambrose, Susan, 22, 23–24 Amer, Beverly, 193 American Distance Education Consortium, 22 American Psychological Association, 79, 217 Americans with Disabilities Act, 161 American University, Amherst College, Analogical reasoning, 125–128, 226, 229; and online teaching, 135, 142–144 Analogies See Analogical reasoning Animations, 149, 156–157, 199; narrated, 153–154 Apollo 13, 122 Assessment of learning, 10, 202–203 Asynchronous learning activities, 25–26, 77, 136; in example syllabus, 210 Attention: defi nition, 65; neural basis of, 66; limitations on, 67– 68, 87; divided, 68, 84– 86, 87; individual differences in, 69; relationship to other cognitive processes, 70–71; and memory, 71–74, 90, 93; and developing academic skills, 74; and online learning, 76– 87 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 69, 74–76 Auditory learners See Learning styles, perceptual Automaticity, 69–70, 79– 80, 82, 198–199 Autonomy, and motivation, 169, 171, 173, 178 Availability heuristic, 120, 134 Baddeley, Alan, 92, 93 Beautiful Mind, A, 187 Best practices, online compared to traditional face-to-face teaching, 22–24 Birkett, Melissa, 207, 210 Blackboard learning management system, 81, 107, 219 Blended learning/blended course design, 6, 8, 49 Blindsight, 70 Bloom’s taxonomy, 38–39, 41 274 Boettcher, Judith, 21, 23–24 Bowen, William, Bransford, John, 21 Brauer, Elizabeth, 80, 81 Broida, John, 17 Bullen, Mark, 52 Burruss, George, 142 Cacioppo, Hillary, 52 Carnegie Mellon University, 7, 15, 115, 137, 197 Carr, Nicholas, 43, 44, 46 Case studies, 140–141, 191, 197, 201, 204, 205, 228 Causality Lab, 137, 197 Central executive, 93 Chabris, Christopher, 68, 69, 70 Change blindness phenomenon, 72–73; demonstrations of, 86 Cheating, 32–38; frequency in online versus face-to-face courses, 33–34; factors influencing, 33–34, 35–36; ways of measur ing, 34–35; methods for preventing, 36–38 Cheating Lessons: Learning from Academic Dishonesty, 35 Chickering, Arthur, 20 Chickering and Gamson’s Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, 21, 22–24 Cisco Systems, 159 Clickers See Student response systems Cocktail party effect, 71 Coglab simulation software, 12 Cognitive load, 82– 84, 213, 233 Cognitive optimization, in course design, 196–206 Collaborative learning See Group work Computer games See Game design principles Coombs, Norman, 161, 162 Coursera, 3, 4, Course redesign: philosophy and techniques, 12–13; NCAT models for, 13–15; evidence for improved outcomes, 15–16 Creativity, 123–125 Critical reading, 137, 220, 230 Critical thinking, 132–135, 218; improvements associated with course redesign, 15 INDEX Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 189, 190 Cues, in memory, 95, 97, 101, 104 Dark Knight Rises, The, 227 Deci, Edward, 168, 169 Decision making, 119–121 Deep processing See Depth of processing Demir, Melikşah, 207, 210 Depth of processing, 95– 96, 97, 226; and online teaching, 112–113; and self-reference, 113, 226; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 201 Desirable difficulty, 105–106 Devoley, Michael, 96 Diagrams, 149, 200; narrated, 153–154, 156–157, 199; in example syllabus, 211, 216 Dickey, Michele, 24–25 Dickson, K Laurie, 96, 207, 210 Digital natives: description of, 50–51; skepticism about, 52–53; implications for teaching, 53; and technical aspects of online learning, 53, 233 Discussion forums, 9; and Bloom’s taxonomy, 39; as predictors of overall course grade, 41; to build social cohesion, 41; and assigning “starter” and “wrapper” roles, 112–113, 201; using to build thinking skills, 144–147, 204, 219, 227; moderating, 146–147; and procrastination, 180; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 201, 202, 204, 205; in example syllabus, 225–227 Disinhibition, 60 Distributed practice See Spacing effect Diverse learners See Accessibility Divided attention, 68, 87; discouraging, in students, 84– 86, 234 Duke University, Dweck, Carol, 174, 175, 176 “Early and often” assessment, 185, 214, 233 EdX, Ego depletion See Willpower Ehrmann, Steven, 12, 20 Email: and the difficulty of conveying emotional tone, 29, 59– 60; negative bias in, 59– 60 INDEX Emotion, effect on memory, 96– 97, 219, 220, 230; involving in teaching, 110–112; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 201 Encoding, in memory, 91 Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, 226 Evolution of memory See Adaptive memory framework Expertise: and memory, 99–102, 221; and analogical reasoning, 127–128; and problem solving, 128–129, 221 Exploring Psychology, 210 Extraneous cognitive load, 82, 83, 87, 106, 200 Extrinsic motivation, 168–169 Facebook See Social networking Feedback, to students, 21, 80, 108, 199; using to build metacognitive abilities, 132; and motivation, 173; and mindset, 175; and flow states, 190; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 203 First Year Learning Initiative, 184–188 Fixed mindset See Mindset Flaming See Hostility in online communication Florida Gulf Coast University, 15 Flow, theory of, 189–191 Foer, Joshua, 95 Game design principles, 24–25, 188–195, 201, 216, 228, 232 Gamification See Game design principles Germane cognitive load, 82, 83 Group work, 204; managing online, 141–142, 204 Growth mindset See Mindset Halpern, Diane, 133, 134 Harvard University, Higher thought processes See Thinking Hodge, Gordon, 17 Holloway, Richard, 109, 110 Hostility in online communication, 59– 62 How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School, 21, 102 HyLighter, 137, 197 iClicker classroom response system, 12 Ill-defi ned problems, 123 275 Illustrations, seductive, decorative, and instructive, 154–155 Imagery See Visual imagery, in memory Immediate memory, 89, 92– 93 Inattentional blindness effect, 67– 68; demonstrations of, 86 Inception, 187 Insight problems, 123 Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 138 Interleaving effect, 104–105; applied to online teaching, 109–110; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 200 Intrinsic cognitive load, 82– 83 Intrinsic motivation, 168–169, 230; role in promoting creativity, 124; and grades, 173; example in an online course, 178 Introduction to Psychology: course redesign projects, 16–18, 107; online version of, 84; popularity, as a course, 207; sample syllabus for, 209–234 jMap system for mapping cause and effect, 137 Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 207 Judgment, 119–121 Kahneman, Daniel, 120 Kinesthetic learners See Learning styles, perceptual Knowledge, 226, 227; preexisting, importance of for learning and memory, 21–22; and online learning, 22, 113–114; and memory, 99, 101–102; illustration of in experts, 100; orga nization of, 102, 221; and problem solving, 128–129; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 202 Koller, Daphne, Lang, James, 35, 36, 37, 88 Leaderboard, 193–194, 206 Learning activities, in planning a cognitively optimized course, 199–203 Learning analytics, 115, 116 Learning objectives, in planning a cognitively optimized course, 197–199 Learning styles, perceptual, 150; criticism of, 150–153, 163 276 Lecture: limited effectiveness of, 10–11; deemphasizing, 15 Lilienfeld, Scott, 133, 134, 135 Long-term memory, 91; theories of, 94– 96; capacity of, 94; role of cues in, 95 Lord of the Rings, The, 227 Low-stakes frequent assessments: as cheating deterrents, 36; for improving self-efficacy, 36, 183; for promoting engagement, 40; interspersed with lecture or text, 78; and memory, 90; and motivation, 181, 183, 184, 203; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 205 Mack, Arien, 67, 68 Making Online Teaching Accessible: Inclusive Course Design for Students with Disabilities, 161 Massed practice See Spacing effect Massive open online courses (MOOCs), 2– 6, 8, 21; as a disruptive force, 3–5; characteristics of, 3; limitations of, 3–4, 21; and “unbundling,” 4–5 Mastery learning, 80, 199 Mathematics learning: and anxiety, 74; and interleaved practice, 104–105; and reasoning abilities, 120–121; and analogical reasoning, 127–128; accessibility of online materials for, 162 Mayer, Richard E., 153, 154, 161 Mazur, Eric, 11, 21 McDonough, Ian, 143 McGonigal, Jane, 188, 190, 192 Memento, 187 Memory: and attention, 71–73, 90, 93; theories of, 89, 91– 98; and repeated exposure, 89– 90; and active engagement, 90; and pursuit of goals, 93; and human evolution, 97– 98; individual differences in, 99; applied research in, 98–106; and online learning, 106–116 MERLOT database of teaching materials, 108, 140, 159, 198, 202 Metacognition, teaching, 131–132 Metacognitive strategies See Metacognition, teaching Mindset, 174–177, 203; and online teaching, 183–184 INDEX MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Modality principle, 155 MOOCs See Massive open online courses (MOOCs) Moodle learning management system, 78, 107, 108 Moonwalking with Einstein, 95 Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), 182 Motivating students See Motivation Motivation: and emotions, 165–166; applied to online teaching, 167, 177–184; classic research on, 168–172; and college students, 172–177; and mindset, 174–177, 183–184; and diverse motivational styles, 181–182; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 203 Multimedia: using to enhance case studies, 141; example use in a course, 148–149; costs and risks of, 149; theory, 153–155, 156, 163; and access for people with disabilities, 160–163, 164; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 199, 201; in example syllabus, 211 Multimedia Learning, 153, 155 Multimedia principle, 153, 157 Multimedia theory, 153–155, 156, 163 Multitasking, short- and long-term effects of, 47–49; managing in teaching, 49; educating students about, 50, 86, 87, 199 Musée Mecanique, 188 Myers, D.G., 210 Nairne, James, 94, 97, 98 Narcissism, 54, 55, 57 Narration, 153–154 National Center for Academic Transformation (NCAT), 12–13; models for redesign, 13–15 National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 140, 205 Need for cognition, 169–170, 181 Neff, Linda, 144, 146 Next Generation Learning Challenge, 13 Nickerson, Raymond, 62 Non-insight problems, 123 INDEX Northern Arizona University, Novices See Expertise O, The Oprah Magazine, 223 Online discussions See Discussion forums Online learning: flexibility of, 9, 26, 40; ability to encourage increased study time, 20; and opportunities for practice, 20, 80, 135, 136; and preexisting knowledge, 22; and synchronous versus asynchronous coursework, 25–26; contrasted to traditional face-to-face teaching, 25–30; and student preparedness to use technology, 26–27; and reading skills, 27–28; and the need to explain course structure and requirements, 28; and social distance, 29; evidence for effectiveness, 30–32; and intellectual complexity, 38–39; and the ability to promote memory, 107 Open Learning Initiative (OLI), 7, 115–116 O’Regan, J.K., 72 Packet Tracer simulation program, 159 Palmer, James, 216 Peer teaching assistants, 187–188, 206 PhET (Physics Education Technology) Project, 158–159 Pinker, Steven, 45 Pintrich, Paul, 173 Plagiarism detection, tools for, 37 Polack, Trent, 191 PowerPoint, criticism of, 10 Prensky, Marc, 50 Pretraining principle, 155 Problem-based learning, 138–140, 197, 204, 205 Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse, 140, 198 Problem solving, 122–125 Procrastination, 178, 179–181, 212, 214, 233; discouraging in a cognitively optimized course, 205 Psychological Science in Action: Applying Psychology to Everyday Issues, 210, 220 Putnam, Robert, 55 277 Quizzes: repeatable, 17, 18, 107, 191, 202, 231; auto-graded, 21, 199, 203; adaptive, 22, 202, 203; syllabus, 27, 205, 233; interspersed with online text, 77, 199, 203; interspersed with lecture, 77–78; effect on exam grades, 96; importance of for memory, 107–109, 217, 221; for promoting transfer, 132; frequent, 200, 212, 231; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 201, 202, 203; in example syllabus, 211, 212 Rader, Michael, 84, 207 Radio, compared to the Internet, 42–43 Rationale system for argument mapping, 136, 197 Reading skills, 27–28 Reality is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World, 188, 191 Reasoning, 119–121, 216; scenarios used for teaching, 138–142, 219, 220 Red Balloons Project, 13 Redundancy effect, 154 Rehearsal, in memory, 91, 92 Rensink, Ronald, 72 Representativeness heuristic, 120, 134 Retrieval, in memory, 91, 95 Richland, Lindsey, 143 Rock, Irving, 67, 68 Rubrics, 17, 182, 187, 203, 204 San Jose State University, Scaffolding, 102, 115, 116, 138, 186, 207, 209, 223 Scarnati, Blase, 184, 185 Seaman, Jeff, 5, 19 Second Life, 12 Segmenting principle, 155 Self-determination theory, 168–169, 171–172, 178 Self-disclosure, in online environments, 60, 61 Self-efficacy, 170, 179, 187; academic, 172–173, 182–183 Self-efficacy, academic, 172–173, 182–183 Self-management skills, academic, 182 Self-reference, and memory, 113, 226 Self-regulated learning, 182 Sensory memory, 91 Sethi, Kiran Bir, 111 278 Shadowing task, 71 Shallow processing See Depth of processing Short-term memory, 89, 91, 92 Signaling principle, 155 SimMan nursing simulation device, 118 Simon, Daniel, 68, 69, 70 Sims, The, 158 Simulations, 157–160, 163–164, 228 Small stakes assessments See Low-stakes frequent assessments Sniffy the Virtual Rat, 160, 198, 228–229 Social distance, 29 Social media See Social networking Social networking: drawbacks of, 54; and narcissism, 54, 55, 57; association with poor academic per for mance, 56; motivations for using, 56; and interpersonal confl ict, 57; privacy settings for, 57–58; implications for teaching, 56–58; as a model for encouraging frequent engagement with online material, 180–181 Social presence, 29 Southern New Hampshire University, Spacing effect, 103–104, 214; applied to online teaching, 109–110; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 200 Spatial contiguity principle, 155 Star Wars, 227 Steinberg, Darrell, Storage, in memory, 91, 95 Stroop effect, 65, 67 Structural elements, of problems, 122–123; role in critical thinking, 133, 134 Student effort: as the basis for student success, 20; emphasis on as a best practice, 23; student underestimation of requirements in online courses, 40; and desirable difficulty, 105–106; and motivation, 174; and mindset, 175 Student response systems, 12, 17, 27, 77 Summative assessment, 80, 126 Sung, Eunmo, 154 Supersize Me, 156 Synchronous learning activities, 25–26, 40, 77, 85, 199 Taylor, Jill Bolte, 111 Technical guidance, student need for, 26–27, 53 INDEX Technical problems: and student expectations, 9; preventing, 9, 30; potential to disrupt the course, 29–30 Technology: ubiquity in higher education, 1; cost savings associated with, 7– 8; student demand for, 8– 9; availability of, 11–12; importance in course redesign, 16, 18; student skills in using, 26–27, 52–53, 200; student attitudes toward, 52; and communication, 58– 62; and cognition, 62– 63 TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) talks, 10, 111, 201 Tedesco, Laura, 156 Temporal contiguity principle, 155 Test banks, 17, 106, 107 Testing effect, 102–103, 232; applied to online teaching, 107–109; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 202–203 Tests See Quizzes Text, alternatives to in online courses, 27–28 The Invisible Gorilla: And Other Ways Our Intuitions Deceive Us, 68 The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains, 44 Thinking: classic research on, 119–128; applied research on, 128–132 ; critical, 132–135, 218; and online learning, 135–147; reinforcing through collaborative learning with peers, 204 Third-shift problem, 40 Thought See Thinking Thrun, Sebastian, Timed homework attempts, 81– 82, 199 Tomar, Dave, 33 Transfer, of learning, 129–132; in planning a cognitively optimized course, 198 Transfer-appropriate processing, 96, 217 Tversky, Amos, 120 Twigg, Carol, 12 Udacity, Undergraduate learning assistants See Peer teaching assistants University of Colorado, 158 University of Delaware, 140, 198 University of Idaho, 15 University of New Mexico, 17, 107 279 INDEX University of Oxford, 148 University of Phoenix, University of Southern Maine, 17, 107 University of Tennessee-Knoxville, 15 University of Texas at Austin, 160 U.S Department of Education: meta-analysis of online learning, 30–31; report on effectiveness of multimedia, 149–150 VAK learning styles See Learning styles, perceptual Vanderbilt University, 140 Video: used to teach technology, 27; used to tie emotions to course material, 110–111, 201; used for teaching material, 149; narrating, for accessibility, 162; testimonials, 206 Video games See Game design principles Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University), 15 Visual imagery, in memory, 95 Visual learners See Learning styles, perceptual Well-defi ned problems, 123 Wellen, Richard, Wernsing, Tara, 156 Whiteboard technique, 138–139 Wieman, Carl, 12, 21 Wikis, 58–59, 105, 110, 112, 201, 205; in example syllabus, 217–220 Wikispaces.com, 59, 112 Willpower, 170–171, 180 Wilson, Jack, Wirtz, Derrick, 207 Woodruff, Chad, 207 Working memory, 89; and attention, 73–74; theory of, 92– 93; capacity of, 94; and analogical reasoning, 128; and animations, 156 .. .Minds Online Minds Online TEACHING EFFECTIVELY WITH TECHNOLOGY MICHELLE D MILLER Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England... Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Miller, Michelle D., 1968– Minds online : teaching effectively with technology / Michelle D Miller pages cm Includes bibliographical references... brain in the context of technology in college courses, enriching your ability to create innovative and effective learning experiences online and off Minds Online Chapter Is Online Learning Here