Ebook Learning & teaching with technology: principles and practices – Part 1

Ebook Learning & teaching with technology: principles and practices – Part 1 presents the following content: Chapter 1 Model facilitated learning; Chapter 2 Implicit theories of learning and change: their role in the development of e-learning environments for higher education; Chapter 3 Designing graphical, interactive simulations to model scientific problem solving; Chapter 4 Optimizing domain knowledge representation with multimedia objects;...

LEARNING & TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY LEARNING & TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY principles and practices Edited by Som Naidu London and Sterling, VA First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2003 by Kogan Page Limited This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licences issued by the CLA Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned addresses: 120 Pentonville Road London N1 9JN UK www.kogan-page.co.uk 22883 Quicksilver Drive SterlingVA 20166–2012 USA © Individual contributors, 2003 The right of the individual contributors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 ISBN 0-203-41689-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-44291-1 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 7494 3776 (Print Edition) British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Learning and teaching with technology: principles and practices/ edited by Som Naidu p cm.—(Open and distance learning series) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7494-3776-6 Telecommunication in higher education Education, Higher—Effect of technological innovations on Learning, Psychology of I Naidu, Som, 1952– II Series LB2342.75 L43 2003 378.1′ 33–dc21 2002152260 Contents Notes on contributors vii Series editor’s foreword xiii Acknowledgements Introduction Som Naidu xv Part I Content representation Model facilitated learning Marcelo Milrad, Michael Spector and Pål Davidsen 11 Implicit theories of learning and change: their role in the development of e-learning environments for higher education Peter Goodyear and Chris Jones 25 Designing graphical, interactive simulations to model scientific problem solving Laurie Ruberg and John Baro 38 Optimizing domain knowledge representation with multimedia objects Kinshuk and Ashok Patel 50 Part II Activation of learning Using interactive video-based multimedia to scaffold learning in teacher education John Baird 64 Using authentic patient encounters to engage medical students in a problem-based learning curriculum Mike Keppell, Kristine Elliott, Gregor Kennedy, Susan Elliott and Peter Harris 78 v Virtual learning in cultural studies: matching subject content and instructional delivery Lee Wallace, Annamarie Jagose and Cathy Gunn Replicating practice complexities—multimedia innovation in social work education Stuart Evans and Phillip Swain 90 105 Part III Providing socialization support Technology and second language learning through socialization Robert Debski 120 10 Developing social presence in online course discussions Karen Swan 136 11 Socialization through CMC in differently structured environments Peter Smith and Elizabeth Stacey 154 12 Collaboration and community through simulation/roleplay Karen Murphy and Yakut Gazi 166 Part IV Assessment of learning outcomes 13 Broadening assessment strategies with information technology Catherine McLoughlin 181 14 Applying assessment principles and expanding the focus of assessment to enhance learning online Alex Radloff and Barbara de la Harpe 195 15 The use of online assessment in stimulating a deeper approach to learning Carol Johnston 206 16 Cognitive apprenticeship learning—ensuring far transfer of knowledge through computer-based assessment Ashok Patel, Kinshuk and David Russell 217 Part V Providing feedback 17 A feedback model and successful e-learning Yiping Lou, Helena Dedic and Steven Rosenfield 232 vi 18 Interactivity and feedback as determinants of engagement and meaning in e-learning environments Rod Sims 243 19 Fundamentals for structuring feedback in an online learning environment Christopher K Morgan 258 Commentary On learning and teaching with technology: principles and practices Andrew Higgins 270 Index 273 Notes on contributors John Baird is from the Faculty of Education at the University of Melbourne His research interests are in the use of interactive, video-based multimedia to stimulate teacher learning using metacognition, guided reflection, and situated cognition Address: Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia E-mail: j.baird@edfac.unimelb.edu.au John Baro is from NASA Classroom of the Future Program, Wheeling Jesuit University, USA He develops multimedia instructional material for elementary through high school math, science, and social studies curriculum Address: NASA Classroom of the Future Program, Center for Educational Technologies, Wheeling Jesuit University, USA E-mail: jabaro@cet.edu Pål Davidsen is from the Department of Information Science, University of Bergen, Norway He will be acting as president (effective 2003) of the System Dynamics Society His current areas of research include System Dynamics (SD) and SD-based Interactive Learning Environments (ILEs) Address: Department of Information Science, University of Bergen, Norway E-mail: davidsen@ifi.uib.no Robert Debski is from the Horwood Language Center at the University of Melbourne, where he coordinates and teaches courses, supervises postgraduate students, and conducts research in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) His research is currently focused on the methodology and directions of inquiry in CALL, reading and writing hypertext by second language students, and the significance of technology for the maintenance of indigenous and community languages Address: Horwood Language Centre, University of Melbourne, E-mail: r.debski@hlc.unimelb.edu.au Helena Dedic is from the Department of Physics, Vanier College, Canada Her current research interests include: physics education, mathematics education, computer-mediated learning, and the effectiveness of simulations in post-secondary mathematics and science education Address: Vanier College, 821 Avenue Ste-Croix, St-Laurent, Canada E-mail: dedich@vaniercollege.qc.ca Kristine Elliott is from the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry & Health Sciences, the University of Melbourne, Australia Her extensive involvement in the viii conceptualization and development of triggers for medical problems, reflects a research focus on the use and design of visual media for educational purposes Address: Faculty IT Unit, University of Melbourne, Australia E-mail: kaelli@unimelb.edu.au Susan Elliott is from the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry & Health Sciences, the University of Melbourne, Australia Sue has overall responsibility for the transformation of the medical curriculum into a problem-based learning curriculum Address: Faculty Education Unit, University of Melbourne, Australia E-mail:s.elliott@unimelb.edu.au Stuart Evans is from the Department of Social Work, University of Melbourne, Australia He has extensive practice and educational experience, particularly in relation to the use of technology in the teaching of interpersonal practice skills Address: Department of Social Work, University of Melbourne, Australia, 3010 E-mail: swe@unimelb.edu.au Yakut Gazi is from the College of Education at Texas A&M University Her research interests are in the construction of identity in online environments, computer-mediated communication, and Web-based instruction Address: Texas A&M University, 703 Harrington Tower, College Station, TX 77843– 4225, USA E-mail: yakut@tamu.edu Peter Goodyear is from the Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Lancaster University, UK Peter’s current research focuses on understanding the design of complex learning environments, teaching with the aid of new technology and technology-supported continuing professional development, seen as the collaborative construction of ‘working knowledge’ Address: Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK E-mail: p.goodyear@lancaster.ac.uk Cathy Gunn is Educational Technology Program Leader at the Center for Professional Development, University of Auckland Her current research interests in educational technology include quality assurance, staff development, gender issues and organizational change management Address: Center for Professional Development, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand E-mail: ca.gunn@auckland.ac.nz Barbara de la Harpe is from the Faculty of Education, Languages and Community Services, RMIT University Her research focus is on student learning and creating powerful learning environments that support learning, writing and generic skill development and assessment online Address: Faculty of Education, Language and Community Services, RMIT University, Building 220, Bundoora Campus, Plenty Road, Bundoora, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia E-mail: barbara.delaharpe@rmit.edu.au Peter Harris is from the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry & Health Sciences, the University of Melbourne, Australia He has been responsible for the development of a series of innovative interactive multimedia tutorials in ix physiology and is also active in experimental research in physiology and hypertension and in the development of digital imaging systems for microscopy Address: Faculty IT Unit, the University of Melbourne, Australia E-mail: pjharris@unimelb.edu.au Andrew Higgins is from the Flexible Learning Section ofThe Higher Education Development Center, University of Otago Address: 75 Union Place, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand E-mail: andrew.higgins@stonebow.otago.ac.nz Annamarie Jagose teaches in the English Department with Cultural Studies at the University of Melbourne She combines her interests in computerassisted learning with research in contemporary culture, media and everyday life Address: English with Cultural Studies, the University of Melbourne Email: arjagose@unimelb.edu.au Chris Jones is from the Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Lancaster University, UK Chris is interested in the connections between technology and social life and his recent research focused on understanding the roles and experiences of students and tutors in networked learning environments Chris is also interested in the politics of networked learning understood as both the formal politics expressed by government in policy initiatives and the micro politics involved in day-to-day interactions Address: Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology (CSALT), Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK E-mail: c.r.jones@lancaster.ac.uk Carol Johnston is from the Faculty of Economics and Commerce at the University of Melbourne Her research interests are in the areas of online assessment and feedback Address: Teaching and Learning Unit, Faculty of Economics and Commerce, the University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia E-mail: cgj@unimelb.edu.au Gregor Kennedy is from the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry & Health Sciences, the University of Melbourne, Australia His particular interest is in educational technology research and evaluation His research interests include students’ problem-based and self-directed learning and the role motivation plays in students’ learning processes Address: Biomedical Multimedia Unit, The University of Melbourne, Australia E-mail: gek@unimelb.edu.au Mike Keppell is from the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry & Health Sciences, the University of Melbourne, Australia Mike’s expertise lies in his ability to combine the operational and development tasks of educational software with the academic study of curriculum, instructional design and evaluation Specifically he focuses on processes involved in optimizing the instructional designer-subject matter expert interaction Address: Biomedical Multimedia Unit, the University of Melbourne E-mail: mkeppell@unimelb.edu.au TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 121 and how students learn through such practices is still unclear (Koschmann, 1996; Koschmann et al, 2002) The critics for instance point out the reliance of that approach on individual student and teacher variables (Debski and Gruba, 1998) and the student anxiety caused by technological instruments (Lewis and Atzert, 2000) The proponents argue that computer-supported collaborative learning can make L2 learning purposeful and meaningful, as networked machines help learners participate in social environments where their L2 can serve as a vehicle for carrying out ‘collective intentionality’ (Searle, 1995) ICT can also help build learning environments in which the process of reconstruction of social reality and identity in the L2 can be carried out Taking these premises as a point of departure, the aim of this chapter is to demonstrate how technology can effectively support various second language acquisition (SLA) approaches that feature social interaction as an important vehicle of language learning The subsequent part of this chapter presents several SLA concepts illuminating the role of social interaction in the L2 classroom These notions are viewed here as complementary, addressing the central issue at different levels and from differing standpoints, and together better capable of explaining the role of social interaction for language development This is followed by a description of the Project-Oriented Computer-Assisted Language Learning (PrOCALL) project conducted in the School of Languages at the University of Melbourne (Debski, 2000), taking social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) as its theoretical base and exploiting social computing as a medium of L2 learning In the final part, several themes explaining the significance of modern technology for situating language learning in social contexts are discussed In summary, the chapter provides evidence that ICT can facilitate L2 pedagogy based on sociallyoriented SLA theory by: • • • • • • enabling activity functioning as a catalyst for social interaction; supporting negotiation of meaning in communication; increasing learner audience awareness and agency; aiding development of cross-cultural skills; changing power relations; supporting identity development Examples drawn from various studies of the PrOCALL classrooms are used to illustrate these themes Where possible, this evidence is triangulated with the results of other studies Socialization and language learning Different perspectives on second language acquisition accentuate the importance of social interaction for L2 learning; these are discussed below 122 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT Interactionist SLA Interactionist SLA emphasizes the significance of environments supporting the resolution of communicative breakdowns and negotiation of meaning for promoting learning (Gass, 1997; Long, 1983; Pica, 1994; Swain and Lapkin, 1998) Negotiation of meaning occurs when learners engaged in interactions experience difficulties in understanding each other (Long, 1983) Speakers resort to it in order to put the exact communicative message across (Swain and Lapkin, 1998) This concept is derived from the input hypothesis (Krashen, 1981, 1985) stating that learner output modified through negotiation of meaning provides comprehensible input to learners as well as feedback on their production (Gass, 1997) Thus, negotiation of meaning assists learners in producing comprehensible input and output, and draws their attention to their interlanguage and to different target language forms (Gass, 1997) Learner attention or ‘noticing’ also facilitates learning (Schmidt, 1990) The concepts of noticing and negotiation of meaning bring together the cognitive and the social to form the foundation of the prevailing view of second language learning More recent interactionist positions stress the significance of naturalistic social discourse for creating situations that abound in opportunities to learn through negotiation of meaning and noticing L2 learning tasks should thus provide opportunities for consensus building, planning, discussing controversy and outcomes, and all linguistic functions present in naturalistic goal-oriented discourse An important underlying assumption is that learning is facilitated by use of the target language in content-rich and purposeful ways while an active awareness of the forms and functions of language used is maintained (Schmidt, 1990) Such opinions close the gap between interactionist SLA theory and views of SLA inspired by sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978, 1981; Wertsch, 1985) Socio-interactive SLA theory Socio-interactive SLA theory is a more holistic perspective on L2, one that includes consideration of the learning task as well as of the complexity of individual and social conditions surrounding it According to the sociointeractive approach, L2 learner constructs first emerge at the intrapsychological, social level supported by the process of scaffolding (Bruner, 1975) and only later at the inter-psychological platform through the processes of internalization To better explain interaction, researchers have thus begun to study how L2 learners collaborate with one another as they work on language learning tasks and projects Studies demonstrate that learners working collaboratively can guide themselves through linguistically complex tasks that would be far too complex for them if they were working individually (Donato, 1994; Ohta, 1995) In such a view, the boundaries between individual interacting learners become somewhat unclear, as they produce jointly owned language in TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 123 response to goal-oriented activity Language development can be viewed as a form of gradual socialization among individuals By drawing onVygotsky’s (1978) assumption that mental activity is organized through socially constructed artefacts, socio-interactive SLA emphasizes the significance of collaborative, goal-oriented learning Interacting groups of learners generate contingencies or affordances (van Lier, 2000) that can be turned into learning that is socially situated and meaningful Socio-interactive approaches also draw our attention to how social activity is mediated by various tools Internet mediation thus not only carries learning activity, but also interacts with it by changing learning conditions Researchers argue that Internet mediation changes student speech behaviour, for example by affecting power relations and creating in them a greater sense of freedom to express controversial opinions (Thorne, 1999; Warschauer, 1996) or removing barriers caused by shyness (Kern, 1995) Van Lier (2000) allies socio-interactive SLA with ecological theory His approach presumes that language cannot be reduced to a system of simpler phenomena, since at every level of linguistic complexity new properties emerge that cannot be broken down into those of lower levels It also assumes that the social activity of the learner does not facilitate learning but in fact constitutes learning Consequently, language learning is not a process of representing linguistic objects in the brain We not ‘own’ language, we learn to live in it.The ecological perspective on SLA ‘places a strong emphasis on contextualizing language into other semiotic systems, and into the contextual world as a whole’ (van Lier, 2000, p 259) What ramifications does this theory have for the creation and study of language learning environments? Language is learnt in semiotically rich environments such as natural social contexts Such environments will provide opportunities for meaningful linguistic action and help language emerge out of semiotic activity involving language, social norms, gesture, artistic creativity, etc SLA, acculturation and identity Social and cultural distance between the learner and the target language group is regarded as a predictor of success in L2 learning Traditionally, learner motivation and personality interact with this predictor, either inhibiting or enhancing the learning process (Schumann, 1976, 1978) Peirce (1995) argues that social distance is a phenomenon that is dynamically constructed, and she considers power relations as a decisive factor in this process She also holds that SLA needs to develop a concept of the language learner as having a complex social identity that must be understood with reference to larger inequitable social structures 124 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT Figure 9.1 The Global Learning Environment (GLEn) Networked, project-oriented L2 classrooms The PrOCALL project restructured units within eight language courses at the University of Melbourne to integrate large-scale projects created and published by students in a technologically rich environment Within these units, projectoriented negotiations, online research, computer-mediated communication (CMC) with local and overseas partners, and Web creation and publishing replaced or complemented syllabus-driven role-playing, composition writing and discussion Supported by the Global Learning Environment (Figure 9.1), this transformation involved classes in Chinese, ESL, French, German, Indonesian, Japanese and Russian The motivation for the PrOCALL project can be traced back to the early teaching experiments conducted by John Barson at Stanford University Barson organized a series of inter-university collaborations involving French students at Stanford, Harvard and the University of Pittsburg (Barson, 1991; Barson et al, 1993) Those early implementations of computer-supported project-oriented L2 learning relied on several fundamental principles: • Engaging students in broad-scale collaborative activity is conducive to language learning Repeated opportunities to link communicative acts to meaningful situations will result in enhanced language retention and availability for application in similar real-life situations TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 125 • Learning must be meaningful to the learner Students must take responsibility for designing, selecting and executing their tasks Interaction in an environment where students manage their own affairs contributes to language learning • In a project-oriented CALL class, the role of the teachers is to initiate activity and interaction, and to help students sustain a level of engagement leading to the successful completion of work • The syllabus is conceived as a schedule of activity, which is negotiated and sensitive to the relationships evolving between the learners in the context of project work • Technology has an important role to help implement the proposed model by extending the boundaries of the classroom, which are now limited only by network configurations, and customizing access to and through learning material by hyperlinking and guided browsing (Barson et al, 1993) The PrOCALL implementation was accompanied by an evaluation/research project conducted by an independent evaluator, postgraduate students and the teachers themselves The research focused on a variety of themes, such as patterns of target language use (Tanaka, 2000), management of student anxiety (Lewis and Atzert, 2000), influence of the Internet on student interpretation of the target language culture (Andrews, 2000), development of linguistic skills (Ewing, 2000), and learner factors influencing successful uptake of sociocollaborative CALL (Smith, 2000) Although most of the PrOCALL classes have undergone significant re-creation (Debski, 2000), overall the project has had a positive impact on second language study at Melbourne University and projectoriented learning with technology is still part of several curricula Smaller-scale ‘sociocollaborative’ (Meskill, 1999) projects have in recent years been conducted by other teachers and researchers in all parts of the world Barson and Debski (1997) report on a project where students of Polish at Stanford and Jagiellonian University, Poland, collaborate using email to create Web pages about their respective campuses Kubota (1999) describes a semesterlong project in which students work in dyads to write research papers on Japanese culture, later published on the Web with images and links Zhao (1996) designs an online magazine with his students Kramsch et al (2000) analyse authorship online in a study of Hong Kong immigrants in California high schools Makalapua and Hawkins (1997) discuss the significance ofWeb-based project-oriented L2 learning for the Hawaiian revitalization programme at the University of Hawaii L2 learning through socialization enabled by technology This part of the chapter describes the socialization features of L2 interaction observed in the PrOCALL classrooms The focus is on how various technologies interacted with L2 learning by supporting negotiation of meaning, the use of 126 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT Table 9.1 Frequency of rhetorical relationships arising from classroom discourse (Based on Ewing, 2000) rhetorical structures, practice of literacy in forms specific to the target culture, changing power relations and impacting identity development Web-based projects as catalysts for social interaction Ewing (2000) discusses the potential of project-oriented work with technology to provide students with an environment where they can use and develop linguistic skills in Indonesian that are not available in conventional classrooms He records, transcribes and codes discourse generated by students working on computer-based projects and contrasts it with interaction transpiring a conventional teacher-led classroom, where introduction of material/problem is followed by a discussion The most striking differences in his comparison are the rhetorical moves in the PrOCALL and conventional classrooms (Table 9.1) These rhetorical moves arise when hearers or readers perceive a relation between two units of a discourse, such as elaboration or cause (Mann and Thompson, 1986) The feature of ‘elaboration’, where concepts in one part of the interaction are further specified in another part, was the most frequent rhetorical move in the conventional, lecture/discussion classroom Ewing attributed this to the controlled progression of interaction in the conventional classroom, expressed as a series of elaborations used to build on what has been said previously On the other hand, the distribution of rhetorical features in the PrOCALL classroom discourse was more balanced, with all the rhetorical moves except for ‘elaboration’ ‘more present’ in this setting This greater range of rhetorical features presumably better resembles naturalistic activity-oriented interaction, although it is still unclear to what extent it can be attributed to the catalytic presence of computers (cf Piper, 1986; Seedhouse, 1995) TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 127 It is quite evident however that collaborative Web page creation requires the use of complex interaction, described by van Lier as ‘and dynamic’ In such interaction, to use his description of social interaction at the computer, ‘gestures, pictures and objects all blend with language in the communicative context, and even first language can be seen as a semiotic system that supports emerging second language use’ (van Lier, 2000, p 256; see also Brooks et al, 1997; Nathan, 2000) This remark allows seeing in a somewhat different light the extensive use of English in the PrOCALL classrooms, a feature often considered as problematic and running counter to the principles of project-oriented CALL (Debski, 2000) More research is required on the role of the first language for second language development in PrOCALL situations Negotiation of meaning in computer-mediated communication In her study of the patterns of target language use in a Japanese class participating in the PrOCALL project, Tanaka (2000) describes instances of negotiation of meaning and peer correction In this class, a Web discussion forum was set up for the Australian students to communicate with partners in Japan and discuss issues relevant to their Web-based projects Negotiation of meaning in the target language was observed in social interactions around computers as well as on the screen The excerpt in Table 9.2 is from a discussion that took place on the Web forum between SA, a native Japanese speaker (NS), and AN, a nonnative speaker (NNS) in Australia, working on a project on martial arts A lot is going on in this short interaction Negotiation of meaning and learning occur at lexical, pragmatic and cross-cultural levels First, the NNS uses an incorrect word in Japanese for ‘stereotype’ (l) The NS does not understand the word or perhaps understands it but prompts the NNS to use the correct form (4) This triggers the NNS to correct the word (5) and to provide an extensive explanation of what he means by it The NNS also reflects on the different meanings of the phrases ‘significance of martial arts’ and ‘image of martial arts’ and on how this may have led to the misunderstanding (6) The students also manage to explain to one another the meaning of martial arts in Japan and Australia (2, 3) Throughout this interaction, the learners prompt themselves by asking questions and expressing different opinions provoking discussion (4, 6, 8) The medium, by virtue of being asynchronous and written, assists the students in providing thoughtful and focused responses (Sengupta, 2001) Interactions such as these are evidence that negotiation of meaning, considered a positive condition of SLA, can be effectively supported by asynchronous computermediated communication (Blake, 2000; Sotillo, 2000; Toyoda and Harrison, 2002) 128 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT Table 9.2 Excerpt from a Web forum interaction between a native (NS) and a non-native (NNS) Japanese speaker (English translation) (Based on Tanaka, 2000) Audience awareness and agency Goal-oriented L2 language use was the cornerstone principle of the PrOCALL classrooms How exactly to realize this guideline, however, was largely left to the individual classrooms and students A number of students embarked on personally meaningful and motivating projects oriented towards electronic communities on the Web Student audience awareness emerged as a strong theme in the data collected during the PrOCALL project, although the student projects were directed towards different audiences ranging from the global Web audience to family members and friends in Australia and overseas This is illustrated by many student interviews: ‘I did find that writing Web page is totally different from writing normal Japanese essays so I had to change the style of writing so that it would be interesting to the reader…’ (Ai, Japanese class) ‘We had to try to find various bits of information and relate it back to our topic and with that we created our own Web site which can, hopefully, be used by other people around the world I definitely think that our Web site could be useful for a lot of people studying history.’ (Mike, German class) TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 129 ‘I’ve got friends in Japan as well and it’s nice to show them the page They are friends I made in Japan.’ (Louise, Japanese class) The fact that Web writing is done for a real audience was on a couple of occasions brought home to the students in a sudden and somewhat surprising way In 1998, a German class received an email from an irritated policeman in response to a student’s Web page containing allegations of xenophobia in the German police force Two years later, another PrOCALL class received an email from an irate Web citizen with a threat that he would sue one of the students for plagiarism The citizen was appeased by the student, the author was given proper credit for his work, but the ethical issue ofWeb publishing became a matter of discussion for the whole class Apart from instilling in students the feeling of authorship, contingencies like these also created opportunities for second language use in response to authentic communicative needs (van Lier, 2000) An important task for teachers is to create situations that abound in contingencies, to notice opportunities for goal-oriented language use and assist their students in responding to these opportunities and turning them into learning events Kramsch et al (2000) argue that authorship is closely related to the concept of agency: that is the power to make meaningful action Agency was gained in the PrOCALL classes by a number of students who oriented their work towards electronic communities on the Web Students not only were aware of their audience but also believed that their work had potential to impact the world outside the classroom Jasper, a student of French, sees the pages created by his class as contributions to overcoming the colonization of the new electronic world by the English language: ‘students are creating Web pages to diversify what’s available on the Web and also to overcome the colonization of the English language… It’s really like claiming land in cyberspace if you like’ Another student, Luke, experienced living in Indonesia and became profoundly interested in Indonesian culture He was shocked by the hardships of living there and at the same time genuinely impressed by the continued effort of the Indonesian people to maintain a communal lifestyle with dignity Luke created a Web project on child labour in Indonesia intending to air this issue to the wide Internet audience When asked about the purpose of his page, he said: ‘basically to raise the issue, just to get people to think about it and to say there is a problem and that people, normal people should have some responsibility as well’ Luke tried to make his Web page simple by avoiding technical terms, as he wanted to appeal to a broad worldwide audience Development of cross-cultural linguistic awareness Debski (2000) in his analysis of the recreation of the PrOCALL innovation gives an example of a student who expresses concern about how communication tools were used in his Japanese class The students were asked to email assigned 130 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT partners and inquire about the topics of their Web-based projects This is how Mark reacted to this task: ‘Also, in terms of emailing people on the Web forum that was good in principle, but at our level, we know a lot of Japanese people And if you say to us to email someone on this kind of thing, I’d rather email someone I know Maybe that’s a Japanese thing You tend more to spend the initial stages working on the relationship and then you work on what you are going to together, whereas the way it worked here, from the outset you were asking questions, which seemed very unnatural.’ (Mark, student of Japanese) (Debski, 2000) Mark feels uncomfortable asking his Japanese partner questions without the customary Japanese introductions The electronic medium facilitates direct and prompt contacts, yet the student experiences a dilemma as he is not sure how to transfer behaviour characteristic of face-to-face communication to electronic interaction The student’s intuitive apprehension finds support in recent research in crosscultural computer-mediated communication (CMC) Sugimoto and Levin (2000) discuss the electronic literacy practices in the US and Japan and describe several differences between the norms of email writing in the two countries The researchers report, for example, that although email messages are colloquial in both countries, many US messages start with ‘Hi, how are you doing?’ while many Japanese open their email stating their name and affiliation, for example: ‘This is Takagi @ Waseda University’ They also discuss the differences in the use of emoticons and conclude that although their general function is similar, the specific forms and uses are different Similar to other media, email undergoes acculturation: it interacts with the message in order to mirror the specific sociocultural contexts in which it is used, a process well described by Gottlieb (2000) in her study of word-processing in Japan The PrOCALL classes gave the students an opportunity to reflect on how they should apply the linguistic norms and customs of the target cultures in their use of the electronic media They supported the development of student skills in the use of the new electronic genres in the target languages and cultures Such sociolinguistic knowledge well complemented the support the Internet traditionally provides for the learning of cultural content (Andrews, 2000; Mueller-Hartmann, 2000; Osuna and Meskill, 1998) Distribution of power and identity development Recent research describes CMC as having an equalizing effect on students (Harasim, 1990) In L2 learning contexts, it has been proven that shy students tend to participate more in networked discussion and the ratio between teacher-talk and student-talk improves (Kern, 1995; Warschauer, 1996) On the other hand, TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 131 teachers decide whether they can be contacted by email, whether to permit or restrict free online discussion and access to certain resources, making electronic networks instruments of either liberation or control (Warschauer and Lepeintre, 1997) It is evident that CMC influences power relations between various stakeholders in the learning/teaching process The role of CMC as a liberating gateway to information and authentic social networks is particularly amplified in the case of languages and cultures that are politically oppressed or isolated A student of Indonesian in one of the PrOCALL classrooms praised the class for helping her develop a more authentic view of what Indonesians think about their government: ‘I found discussion groups with people criticizing the government The press over there is very controlled by the government so the Internet is another option that I can really know what the people think and feel about the government.’ (Odo, Indonesian class) The significance of technology as a factor affecting power relations and assisting identity development has recently been present in discussions of language revival and maintenance in different parts of the world Almasude (1999) describes the new communications technology as a powerful force helping to preserve the identity of the Amazigh people of North Africa and the Thmazight language Before the Internet, the Amazigh identity was a local issue for the various isolated subgroups, as the countries of North Africa censured information on the Amazigh culture Through online discussion, the researcher argues, the isolated groups began perceiving themselves as members of one language culture and started making plans for implementing the Thmazight language in education, technology and science Similarly, Warschauer (in press) describes the significance of the Internet for the Hawaiian revitalization programme in a tertiary setting Interacting in Hawaiian in cyberspace provided language students with the opportunity to strengthen their sense of individual and collective identity He concludes that the most important role of the Internet for language maintenance is in helping people see an endangered language as part of their future This note is also present in Nathan's (2000) study of Aboriginal participation in the WWW in Australia Conclusions In this chapter we have considered the significance of modern technology for situating language learning in social contexts and for implementing learning through social interaction, as advocated by current SLA theory For this purpose, we have looked at evidence coming from various project-oriented classrooms utilizing networked computers as a tool supporting learning through interaction Several cautious conclusions can be drawn from these analyses 132 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT Web-based projects act as a catalyst for social interaction Research demonstrates that classroom communication engendered by Web projects contains a wide range of rhetorical features, resembling naturalistic interaction Today’s computers provide space where manipulation and movement of electronic objects intertwines with language use driven by negotiation and collaborative planning However, to date little evidence has been collected linking second language development directly to collaborative work at the computer In view of the ecological perspective on SLA, new research must be undertaken describing how second language development can be related to navigation through and manipulation of electronic signs on the computer screen Such research could perhaps benefit from mixing observation and discourse analysis with methods developed in software usability studies, such as screen capture, eye tracking and input logging to obtain the clearest possible image of activity at the computer There is a growing body of evidence that CMC supports negotiation of meaning, a positive condition of second language acquisition The medium assists students in providing thoughtful and focused responses, as interaction is chronicled and student contributions are placed next to one another inviting critical analysis There are many aspects of the effect of CMC on L2 speakers that require further investigation For example, we need to know more about how flexibly L2 speakers respond to a change of bandwidth (Swan, Chapter 10, this volume) Web-based projects often instil in students the feeling of authorship much more vivid than generally experienced in traditional classrooms Students are challenged to weigh their Web contributions prudently, as these become part of a widely available store of information and affect stakeholders in various social processes Such authentic communicative situations create opportunities for contingent goal-oriented L2 use An important task for teachers is to assist their students in responding to these opportunities in order to turn them into learning events, for example by facilitating ‘noticing’ or providing the discrete linguistic units the students may need The new media affect the distribution of power in educational environments, both at the micro level of the classroom and the macro level of state policy Research shows, for example, that shy students tend to participate more in computer-mediated interaction and the voice of the teacher becomes less overwhelming Web-based interaction can assist the development of cultural and social identity in language learners by increasing in them cross-cultural awareness and extending access to language resources and social networks This last aspect is of particular importance to learners of oppressed and/or threatened languages Communication technologies have become a means of expression for oppressed voices that is less subject to government control than newspapers, radio and television More research is required on the role ICT plays in the learning and teaching of indigenous and minority languages around the world TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 133 References Almasude, A (1999) The new mass media and the shaping of Amazigh identity, Revitalizing Indigenous Languages, eds J Reyhner, G Cantoni, R N St Clair and E P Yazzi, pp 117–28, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ Andrews, C (2000) Project-oriented use of the World Wide Web for teaching and learning culture, Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal, 13 (4–5), pp 357– 76 Barson, J (1991) The virtual classroom is born: what now?, in Foreign Language Acquisition and the Classroom, ed B Freed, pp 365–83, D C Heath, Lexington Barson, J and Debski, R (1997) Calling back CALL: technology in the service of foreign language learning based on creativity, contingency, and goal-oriented activity, in Telecollaboration in Foreign Language Learning, ed M Warschauer, pp 49– 68, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa Manoa, HI Barson, J, Frommer, J and Schwartz, M (1993) Foreign language learning using email in a task-oriented perspective: an inter-university experiment in communication and collaboration, Journal for Science Education and Technology, 2, pp 565–83 Blake, R (2000) CMC: a window on L2 Spanish interlanguage, Language Learning and Technology , (1), pp 120–36 Brooks, F B, Donato, R and McGlone, J V (1997) When are you going to say ‘it’ right? Understanding learner talk during pair-work activity, Foreign Language Annals, 30 (4), pp 524–41 Bruner, J S (1975) The ontogenesis of speech acts, Journal of Child Language, 2, pp 1–19 Debski, R (2000) Exploring the re-creation of a CALL innovation, Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal, 13 (4–5), pp 307–32 Debski, R and Gruba, P (1998) A qualitative survey of tertiary instructor attitudes towards project-based CALL, Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal, 12 (3), pp 219– 39 Debski, R, Gassin, J and Smith, M (eds) (1997) Language Learning through Social Computing, Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (Occasional Papers No 16) Donato, R (1994) Collective scaffolding in second language learning, in Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research, eds J P Lantolf and G Appel, Ablex Press, Norwood, NJ Ewing, M (2000) Conversations of Indonesian language students on computer-mediated projects: linguistic responsibility and control, Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal, 13 (4–5), pp 333–56 Gass, S M (1997) Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ Gottlieb, N (2000) Word-processingTechnology in Japan: Kanji and the keyboard, Curzon, Surrey Harasim, L (1990) On-line Education: Perspectives on a new environment, Praeger, New York Kern, R (1995) Restructuring classroom interaction with networked computers: effects on quality and quantity of language production, Modern Language Journal, 79 (4), pp 457–76 134 PROVIDING SOCIALIZATION SUPPORT Koschmann, T (1996) Paradigm shifts in instructional technology: an introduction, in CSCL: Theory and Practice of an Emerging Paradigm, ed T Koschmann, pp 1– 23, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ Koschmann, T, Hall, R and Miyake, N (eds) (2002) CSCL 2: Carrying forward the conversation, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ Kramsch, C, A’Ness, F and Lam, W S E (2000) Authenticity and authorship in the computermediated acquisition of L2 literacy, Language Learning and Technology, (2), pp 78–104 Krashen, S (1981) Effective second language acquisition: insights from research, in The Second Language Classroom: Directions for the 1980s, eds J E Alitis, H B Altman and P M Alatis, Oxford University Press, Oxford Krashen, S (1985) The Input Hypothesis: Issues and implications, Longman, Harlow Kubota, R (1999) Word processing and WWW projects in a college Japanese language class, Foreign Language Annals, 32 (2), pp 205–18 Lewis, A and Atzert, S (2000) Dealing with computer-related anxiety in the projectoriented CALL classroom, Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal, 13 (4– 5), pp 377–95 Long, M (1983) Native-speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input, Applied Linguistics, (2), pp 126–41 Makalapua, K and Hawkins, E (1997) Incorporating technology into a Hawaiian language curriculum, in Teaching Indigenous Languages, ed J Reyhner, pp 151–7, Northern Arizona University Flagstaff, AZ Mann, W C and Thompson, S A (1986) Relational propositions in discourse, Discourse Processes, (1), pp 57–80 Meskill, C (1999) Computers as tools for sociocollaborative language learning, in CALL: Media, design and applications, ed K Cameron, Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse Mueller-Hartmann, A (2000) The role of tasks in promoting intercultural learning in electronic learning networks, Language Learning and Technology, (2), pp 129– 47 Nathan, D (2000) Plugging in indigenous knowledge: connections and innovations, Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2, pp 39–47 Ohta, A S (1995) Applying sociocultural theory to an analysis of learner discourse: learner-learner collaborative interaction in the zone of proximal development, Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6, pp 93–121 Osuna, M M and Meskill, C (1998) Using the World Wide Web to integrate Spanish language and culture: a pilot study, Language Learning and Technology, (2), pp 71– 92 Peirce, B N (1995) Social identity, investment and language learning, TESOL Quarterly, 29 (1), pp 9–31 Pica, T (1994) Research on negotiation: what does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes and outcomes?, Language Learning, 44 (3), pp 493– 527 Piper, A (1986) Conversation and the computer: a study of the conversational spinoff generated among learners of English as a foreign language working in groups, System, 14 (2), pp 187–98 Schmidt, R (1990) The role of consciousness in second language learning, Applied Linguistics, 11 (2), pp 129–58 Schumann, J (1976) Social distance as a factor in second language acquisition, Language Learning, 26, pp 135–43 TECHNOLOGY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 135 Schumann, J (1978) The acculturation model for second language acquisition, in Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching, ed R C Gringas, pp 27– 50, Centre for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC Searle, J (1995) The Construction of Social Reality,The Free Press, New York Seedhouse, P (1995) Communicative CALL: focus on the interaction produced by CALL software, ReCALL, (2), pp 20–28 Sengupta, S (2001) Exchanging ideas with peers in network-based classrooms: an aid or a pain?, Language Learning and Technology, (1), pp 103–34 Smith, M (2000) Factors influencing successful student uptake of socio-collaborative CALL, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13 (4–5), pp 397–415 Sotillo, S M (2000) Discourse functions and syntactic complexity in synchronous and asynchronous communication, Language Learning and Technology, (1), pp 82– 119 Sugimoto, T and Levin, J A (2000) Multiple literacies and multimedia: a comparison of Japanese and American uses of the Internet, in Global Literacies and the World Wide Web, eds G E Hawisher and C L Selfe, pp 133–53, Routledge, London Swain, M and Lapkin (1998) Interaction and second language learning: two adolescent French immersion students working together, The Modern Language Journal, 82 (3), pp 320–37 Tanaka, N (2000) Patterns of target language use in a Japanese project-oriented CALL class Master of CALL dissertation, University of Melbourne Thorne, S (1999) An activity theoretical analysis of foreign language electronic discourse Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA Toyoda, E and Harrison, R (2002) Categorization of text chat communication between learners and native speakers of Japanese, Language Learning and Technology, (1), pp 82–99 van Lier, L (2000) From input to affordance: social-interactive learning from an ecological perspective, in Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning, ed J P Lantolf , pp 245–59, Oxford University Press, Oxford Vygotsky, L S (1978) Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Vygotsky, L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions, in The Concept of Activity in Soviet Psychology, ed J V Wertsch, Sharpe, Armonk, NY Warschauer, M (1996) Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom, CALICO Journal, 13 (2), pp 7–26 Warschauer, M (2000) Language, identity, and the Internet, in Race in Cyberspace, eds B Kolko, L Nakamur and G Rodman, Routledge, New York Warschauer, M and Lepeintre, S (1997) Freire’s dream or Foucault’s nightmare? Teacherstudent relations on an international computer network, in Language Learning through Social Computing, eds R Debski, J Gassin and M Smith, pp 69– 89, Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (Occasional Papers No 16) Wertsch, J V (ed) (1985) Culture, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Zhao, Y (1996) Language learning on the World Wide Web: toward a framework of network-based CALL, CALICO Journal, 14 (l), pp 37–51 .. .LEARNING & TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY LEARNING & TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY principles and practices Edited by Som Naidu London and Sterling, VA First published in Great Britain and the United... ‘process’, System Dynamics Review, (1) , pp 13 3–4 Gibbons, A S (20 01) Model-centered instruction, Journal of Structural Learning, 1 4– 15 , pp 51 1–4 0 Jackson, S, Krajcik, J and Soloway, E (2000) Model-IT:... to support learning, System Dynamics Review, 16 (2), pp 13 5–4 8 Merrill, M D (20 01) First principles of instruction, Journal of Structural Learning, 1 4– 15 , pp 45 9–6 8 Milrad, M (20 01) Supporting