karlsson f finnish a comprehensive grammar

Finnish A Comprehensive Grammar Finnish: A Comprehensive Grammar presents a fresh, accessible and thorough description of the language, concentrating on the real patterns of use in modern Finnish The book moves from the sound system through morphology and word classes to a detailed analysis of sentence structures and semantic features Key features include: •  particular focus on examples from spoken Finnish reflecting current usage •  grammatical phenomena classified as common or rare •  appendices identifying stems and sequences of endings •  English-Finnish contrasts highlighted throughout Finnish: A Comprehensive Grammar is an essential reference for the intermediate and advanced learner and user of Finnish Fred Karlsson is Adjunct Professor of Finnish at the University of Helsinki, Finland Routledge Comprehensive Grammars Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages: Bengali Burmese Cantonese Catalan Chinese Danish Dutch Greek Indonesian Japanese Kazakh Modern Welsh Modern Written Arabic Panjabi Slovene Swedish Turkish Ukrainian Finnish Other titles in this series can be found at www.routledge.com/languages/ series/SE0550 Finnish A Comprehensive Grammar Fred Karlsson First published 2018 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Edix, Inc The right of Fred Karlsson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Karlsson, Fred, author Title: Finnish : a comprehensive grammar / Fred Karlsson Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2017 | Series: Routledge comprehensive grammars | Includes index Identifiers: LCCN 2017014269 (print) | LCCN 2017016553 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315743547 (E-book) | ISBN 9781138821033 (hardback : alk paper) | ISBN 9781138821040 (pbk : alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Finnish language—Grammar Classification: LCC PH135 (ebook) | LCC PH135 K34 2017 (print) | DDC 494/.54182421—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017014269 ISBN: 978-1-138-82103-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-82104-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-74354-7 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sans by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents Prefacexiii Notational conventions and abbreviations xv Chapter 1  Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 The relation of Finnish to other languages Finnish and Finland, past and present The basic characteristics of Finnish What are the special difficulties? Chapter 2  Pronunciation and sound structure 2.1 Letters and sounds 2.2 Vowels and consonants 2.3 Short and long sounds 2.4 Diphthongs 2.5 Syllables 2.6 Rhythm, word stress patterns and intonation patterns 2.6.1 Rhythm 2.6.2 Word stress patterns 2.6.3 Intonation patterns and accentuation 2.7 Vowel harmony 2.8 Major dialectal differences in pronunciation Chapter 3  Word structure 3.1 3.2 3.3 Nominals and their inflectional endings Finite verb forms and their endings Non-finite verb forms and their endings 1 13 13 15 19 21 22 23 23 24 26 28 31 33 34 40 45 v Contents Chapter 4  Two important sound alternations 4.1 4.2 Consonant gradation of p, t, k 4.1.1 The types of consonant gradation 4.1.2 The rules of consonant gradation 4.1.3 Applying the basic rule to nominals 4.1.4 Applying the rules to verbs 4.1.5 Additional comments 4.1.6 The most common words with consonant gradation Vowel changes before i endings Chapter 5  The declension of nominals 5.1 5.2 5.3 vi 5.4 49 49 50 51 54 57 59 60 63 69 Nominals inflected on the basic form 71 5.1.1 Tunti nominals with short final -i 71 5.1.2 Talo nominals with short final ‑u, ‑o, ‑y, ‑ö 74 5.1.3 Kala nominals with short final -a 75 5.1.4 Isä nominals with short final -ä 78 5.1.5 Nominals with final diphthong or long vowel 79 Nominals with short final ‑i or ‑e and separate inflectional stem 80 5.2.1 Kivi nominals, inflectional stem in ‑e, partitive -A 81 5.2.2 Kieli nominals, inflectional stem in ‑e, partitive -tA 83 5.2.3 Vesi nominals, inflectional stem in ‑te, partitive -tA 84 5.2.4 Perhe nominals with short final -e86 Nominals with a final consonant and separate inflectional stem 87 5.3.1 Ihminen nominals 87 5.3.2 Ajat>us nouns 88 5.3.3 Taivas nominals 89 5.3.4 Hyv>yys nominals 91 5.3.5 Ava>in nominals 93 5.3.6 Työ>tön nominals 94 5.3.7 Askel nominals 95 5.3.8 Lyhyt nominals 95 5.3.9 Adaptation of new borrowed nouns 96 Singular and plural 96 Chapter 6  The conjugation of verbs 6.1 6.2 6.3 Infinitive endings Inflectional stems 6.2.1 Anta-a verbs 6.2.2 Saa-da verbs 6.2.3 Tul-la and nous-ta verbs 6.2.4 Huomat-a verbs 6.2.5 Tarvit-a verbs 6.2.6 Lämm>et-ä verbs Personal endings and agreement of person Chapter 7 Interplay between Finnish morphology and syntax 7.1 Parts of speech 7.2 Phrases 7.3 Syntactic functions of phrases in clauses 7.4 Cases and adpositional phrases are markers of syntactic functions 7.5 Syntactic functions, phrases and clauses elaborated Chapter 8  Phrases 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Phrase types The noun phrase 8.2.1 Structure 8.2.2 Agreement within the noun phrase 8.2.3 Functions of the noun phrase 8.2.4 Complexity of the noun phrase The adjective phrase The numeral phrase Adpositional phrases The adverb phrase The infinitive phrase The participle phrase Chapter 9  Simple clauses 9.1 9.2 9.3 Clause types Clauses with basic order subject + verb Clauses with basic order verb + subject 100 Contents 101 103 103 104 105 107 109 110 110 116 116 117 117 118 118 121 121 122 122 125 127 129 130 134 136 137 138 138 140 140 142 144 vii Contents 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 Free adverbials, questions, negation, word order variations Clauses without subject Negative clauses Questions and answers 9.7.1 Questions with -kO (‘yes-no’ questions) 9.7.2 Question-word questions (‘wh-’ questions) Minimal examples of simple clause types Chapter 10  Complex sentences 10.1 Types of complex sentences 10.2 Complex sentences with subordinate clauses 10.3 Complex sentences with infinitive and participle phrases 10.4 Nominalization 10.5 Repeated embedding of subordinate clauses, non-finite phrases and nominalizations 10.6 Structure of the predicate Chapter 11  The nominative case 11.1 Nominative singular and plural 11.2 Use of the nominative 11.2.1 The nominative marking subjects, objects and predicate complements 11.2.2 Special uses of the nominative Chapter 12  The partitive case 12.1 Formation of the partitive 12.1.1 Partitive singular 12.1.2 Partitive plural 12.2 Use of the partitive 12.2.1 Partitive subject 12.2.2 Partitive object 12.2.3 Partitive predicate complement 12.2.4 The partitive in expressions of quantity 12.2.5 The partitive with adpositions 12.2.6 Special uses of the partitive viii 147 148 150 153 153 156 158 161 161 163 165 167 169 171 174 175 176 176 180 181 181 181 184 188 188 191 196 198 200 200 Chapter 13  The genitive case and total objects 202 13.1 Formation of the genitive 13.1.1 Genitive singular 13.1.2 Genitive plural 13.2 Use of the genitive 13.3 The total object 13.3.1 Total object and partitive object 13.3.2 Total object endings 13.4 Quantity adverbials taking object cases 202 202 203 208 211 211 213 218 Chapter 14  Possessive endings 14.1 Possessive endings in nouns 14.2 Possessive endings in other parts of speech 14.3 Ways of expressing ownership (possession) Chapter 15  The six local cases 15.1 Inessive 15.2 Elative 15.3 Illative 15.4 Adessive 15.5 Ablative 15.6 Allative 15.7 Directional verbs 15.8 Place names 220 220 226 227 228 229 232 237 242 246 249 252 253 Chapter 16  Other cases 255 16.1 Essive 16.2 Translative 16.3 Abessive 16.4 Comitative 16.5 Instructive 255 258 262 263 264 Chapter 17  Numbers and numerals 17.1 Cardinal numbers 17.1.1 Inflection of cardinal numbers 17.1.2 Use of cardinal numbers Contents 266 266 266 270 ix Appendix Definitions of key concepts A infinitive abessive ablative absolute  superlative accusative adessive adjective adjective phrase adposition adverb adverb phrase adverbial agent   construction agreement 486 basic (and lexical citation form) of verbs, anta‑a ‘give’, hypät‑ä ‘jump’, tul‑la ‘come’ case ending of nominals, ‑ttA meaning ‘without’, raha‑tta ‘without money’ case ending of nominals, ‑ltA meaning ‘from’, pöydä‑ltä ‘from the table’ expressions such as mitä kaune‑i‑n, extremely beautiful’; see superlative case ending of some pronouns, ‑t marking the object, häne‑t ‘he/she’ (as object) case ending of nominals, ‑llA meaning ‘with’, raha‑lla ‘with money’ nominal part of speech expressing ‘property’, pitkä ‘long’, hyvä ‘good’, sininen ‘blue’ adjective plus its pre‑ and postmodifiers, (erittäin) pitkä ‘extremely long’ cover term for prepositions and postpositions mostly uninflected words for place, time, manner, etc., nyt ‘now’, hitaa>sti ‘slowly’, niin ‘so’ adverb plus its pre‑ and postmodifiers, (hyvin) nopea>sti ‘very fast’ syntactic function of nouns and adverbs, talo‑ssa ‘in a/ the house’, nyt ‘now’ adjective form of verb, Kalle‑n osta‑ma auto ‘a/the car which Kalle bought’ inflection of nominal according to case and number of the head noun, nä‑i‑ssä talo‑i‑ssa ‘in these houses’; finite verbs inflected according to the person of the subject, (minä) tule‑n case ending of nominals, ‑lle meaning ‘to, towards’, Leena‑lle ‘to Leena’ auxiliary ol‑la ‘to be’ and the negative verb e‑n, e‑t, ei, e‑mme, e‑tte, ei‑vät basic form nominative singular of nominals, +sade ‘rain’; A infinitive of verbs, +hypät‑ä ‘to jump’ cardinal number numerals such as yksi ‘one’, kaksi ‘two’, . . ., kolmekymmentäneljä ‘thirty-four’, . .  case ending indicates syntactic function and specific meaning of nominals, talo‑ssa ‘in the house’ clause sentence with one finite verb + its nominal phrases, Vauva nukku‑u ‘The baby sleeps’ clitic indicates emphasis, question, surprise, tule‑pa! ‘do come!’, kirja‑han ‘the BOOK!’ comitative case ending of nominals, ‑ine‑ ‘with, in the company of’, sisar‑ine‑ni ‘with my sister(s)’ comparative second grade of adjectives in comparison, suuri ‘big’ : suure‑mpi ‘bigger’ complement obligatory satellite of verbs and adpositions, Leena tule‑e ‘Leena comes’ (noun phrase) complex sentence contains at least one compound tense, negation, infinitive, participle or subordinate clause compound complex word consisting of other words, talous=tiede ‘economics, economic science’ compound tense perfect on tul‑lut ‘has come’, pluperfect ol‑i tul‑lut ‘had come’ compound verb form: combination of auxiliaries and main verb, e‑n oli‑si tul‑lut ‘I would not have come’ concord see agreement conditional mood sano‑isi‑n ‘I would come’, tul‑isi‑mme ‘we would come’ conjugation inflection of verbs; inflectional verb type links elements; coordinating ja ‘and’, mutta ‘but’; subconjunction ordinating jos ‘if’, että ‘that’ consonant bdfghjklmnprstvw cons gradation sound alternation in inflection, katto ‘roof’ : +kato‑n (gen sg.) contracted verb verbal inflection type, +hypät‑ä ‘to jump’ : hyppää‑n ‘I jump’ declension inflection of nominals; nominal inflection type, katto ‘roof’ : +kato‑n allative Appendix Definitions of key concepts 487 Appendix Definitions of key concepts definiteness demonstr  pronoun denominal noun denominal verb derivation derivational  ending derived form deverbal noun deverbal verb dialogue particles diphthong directional cases directional verb discourse particle divisible noun E infinitive elative enclitic particle essive existential clause finite verb form first infinitive 488 the category of definite versus indefinite pronouns such as tämä ‘this’, tuo ‘that (one)’ noun derived from noun by a derivational ending, hiki ‘sweat’ > hiki-nen ‘sweaty’ verb derived from noun by a derivational ending, teltta ‘tent’ > teltta‑ile‑e ‘camps’ (sg3) formation of new independent words by derivational endings, kahvi ‘coffee’ > kahvi‑la ‘café’ see derivation see derivation noun derived from verb, luke‑ ‘read’ > luke >minen ‘(the activity of) reading’ verb derived from verb, aja‑ ‘drive’ > aj >ele-n ‘I drive around’ comments on something the speaker says, ahaa (really), jaa (really), vai niin (oh really) combination of two vowels in the same syllable, tai ‘or’, tie ‘road’, sö‑i ‘ate’, yö ‘night’ elative ‑stA, illative ‑Vn ~ ‑hVn ~ ‑seen ~ ‑siin, ablative ‑ltA and allative ‑lle verbs governing directional cases, etsi‑ä avain‑ta tasku‑sta ‘look for the key in the pocket’ comments in spoken language, kas ‘surprise’, joo ‘yes’, jaa ‘really’ its referent has no recognizable parts, maito ‘milk’, puu ‘wood’, rakka‑us ‘love’ non-finite verb form, sano‑e‑n ‘saying’, sano‑e‑ssa‑ni ‘when I am saying’ case ending of nominals, ‑stA ‘out of’, talo‑sta ‘out of the house’ see clitic case ending of nominals, ‑nA ‘as’, ‘time’, torstai‑na ‘on Thursday’, opettaja‑na ‘as teacher’ introduces new topic, Kadu‑lla on auto ‘There is a car in the street’ inflected in person, tule‑n ‘I come’, tule‑t ‘you come’, he tul‑isi‑vat ‘they would come’ see A infinitive see MINEN infinitive Usein kuule‑e, että . .  ‘One often hears that . . . ’ case ending of nominals, sg ‑n, pl ‑(d)en ~ ‑tten, Kalle‑n auto ‘Kalle’s car’ illative case ending of nominals, ‑(h)Vn, -seen ‘into’, ‑siin, talo‑on ‘into the house’ imperative mood sano ‘say!’ (sg2), sano‑kaa ‘say!’ (pl2), sano‑kaa‑mme ‘let us say’ (pl1) inalienable possession, Venee‑ssä on masto ‘The boat inalienable has (lit In the boat is) a mast’ indefinite pronoun joku ‘someone’, jokin ‘something’, (ei) mikään ‘nothing’, jompikumpi ‘either’ indefiniteness see definiteness indicative mood unmarked basic mood for verbs without ending; see also conditional mood, imperative mood, potential mood Tule-n ‘I come’ inessive case ending of nominals, ‑ssA ‘in’, talo‑ssa ‘in a/the house’ non-finite verb form; see A infinitive, E infinitive, MA infinitive infinitive infinitive stem sano‑a ‘say’, saa‑da ‘get’, tul‑la ‘come’, +hypät‑ä‑ ‘jump’, tarvit‑a ‘need’ inflectional stem of nominals, käsi ‘hand’ : käte‑, +sade ‘rain’ : satee‑, hyv>yys ‘goodness’ : hyv>yyte‑ instructive mostly plural case ending of nominals, (‑i)‑n ‘with, by’, +kaik‑i‑n voim‑i‑n ‘by all means’ interrog pronoun kuka ‘who’, mikä ‘what’, kumpi ‘which one’, minkälainen ‘what sort’ variations in speech melody over utterances for the purintonation pose of accentuation intransitive verb verb without grammatical object, ol‑la ‘to be’, juos‑ta ‘to run’, asu‑a ‘live’ invariable plural see plurale tantum irresultative action see resultative action length significant distinction between short and long sounds, tuli ‘fire’ : tuuli ‘wind’ : tulli ‘customs’ letters iệuoaptkdgshvjlrmn long sounds see length MA infinitive non-finite verb form, luke‑ma‑ssa:sta:an:lla:tta ‘reading, from reading, to read’, etc fourth infinitive generic clause genitive Appendix Definitions of key concepts 489 Appendix Definitions of key concepts 490 main stress see stress MINEN infinitive mene>minen; Sinne ei ole mene>mis‑tä ‘One must not go there!’ modifier optional satellite of head in phrase, (vanha) auto mood indic syö ‘eats’ : imp syö‑kää ‘eat!’ : cond sö‑isi ‘would eat’ : pot syö‑ne‑e ‘probably eats’ morphology derivation of new words, and inflection (use of endings) of words for syntactic purposes alternation: sound alternation in inflection, käsi ‘hand’ morphophon : käte‑en illat sg : käde‑n gen sg negation verb e‑n, e‑t, ei, e‑mme, e‑tte, ei‑vät, e‑n tule ‘I not come’, he ei‑vät tule ‘they not come’ negative sentence sentence with negation verb + main verb, E-n tule ‘I not come’ the vowel [ə] neutral vowel nominal cover term for nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns nominalization derivation of nominals from verbs, tule‑ ‘come’ > tule>vais>uus ‘future’ nominative case, basic form of nominals, no ending in the singular, ‑t in the plural, talo ‘house’ : talo‑t ‘houses’ non-divisible noun a whole that cannot be divided into parts that retain the quality of the whole, auto ‘car’ non-finite verb infinitives and participles noun part of speech, uto ‘car’, nainen ‘woman’, rakka>us ‘love’, tule>minen ‘coming’ noun phrase noun plus its pre- and postmodifiers, (vanha) auto (jonka ost‑i‑n) ‘the old car I bought’ number inflectional category singular : plural, auto ‘car’ : auto‑t ‘the cars’ : auto‑j‑a ‘cars’ (indef.) numeral part of speech, yksi ‘one’, kolme ‘three’ kaksi=toista ‘twelve’, kolme=sata‑a ‘three hundred’ numeral phrase has a numeral as head, kolme auto‑a ‘three cars’, viisi he‑i‑stä ‘five of them’ NUT participle sano‑nut ‘said’ (active) NUT/TTU pcp sano‑nut ‘said’ (active) and sano‑ttu (passive) object syntactic function of noun phrase, Leena ost‑i auto‑n ‘Leena bought a car’ obligation verbs such as täyty‑y ‘must’ with genitive subjects, Minu‑n täyty‑y men‑nä ‘I must go’ adjectives expressing order, ensimmäinen ‘first’, toinen ‘second’, kolma‑s ‘third’ orthography principles for writing a language participial constr +Nä‑i‑n Leena‑n tule‑va‑n ‘ I saw Leena come’ participle non-finite verb form, head of a participle phrase, sano‑va ‘saying’, sano‑nut ‘having said’ partitive case ending of nominals, ‑(t)(t)A ‘some’, kahvi‑a ‘coffee’, maa‑ta ‘land’, +sade‑tta ‘rain’ passive ‘indefinite person’ in verbal inflection, sano‑ ‘say’ : sano‑ta‑an ‘one says, it is said’ past participle see NUT participle past tense ending ‑i, tule‑ ‘come’ : tul‑i‑n ‘I came’, hyppää‑ ‘jump’ : hyppäs‑i‑n ‘I jumped’ perfect tense currently relevant past time, on sano‑nut ‘has said’ person inflectional category for verbs, tule‑n ‘I come’ (sg1) : tule‑t ‘you come’ (sg2), etc personal ending ‑n, -t, -V, ‑mme, ‑tte, ‑vAt; he tule‑vat ‘they come’ personal pronoun minä ‘I’, sinä ‘you’ (sg2), hän ‘she/he’, me ‘we’, te ‘you’ (pl2), he ‘they’ phoneme sound type, class of sounds perceived by natives as one unit, the various Finnish h-sounds phrase headword with its complements and modifiers, (vanha) auto ‘(old) car’ pluperfect tense action before some past point of time, ol‑i sano‑nut ‘had said’ plural ending ‑t in nominative and ‑i in other cases, kirja‑t ‘the books’, kirjo‑i‑ssa ‘in (the) books’ plurale tantum noun occurring only in the plural, hää‑t ‘wedding’ : hä‑i‑ssä ‘in the wedding’ possessive clause Leena‑lla on auto ‘Leena has a car’ possessive ending -ni, ‑si, ‑nsA, ‑mme, ‑nne; häne‑n kirja‑nsa ‘his/her book’ poss suffix: see possessive ending postmodifier kuppi (kahvi‑a) ‘a cup (of coffee)’ postposition takana ‘behind’; postpositional phrase talo‑n takana ‘behind the house’ potential mood rare verbal mood expressing possibility, sano‑ne‑e ‘may say’ (sg3) pred complement Leena on nainen ‘Leena is a woman’ predicate noun see predicate complement ordinal number Appendix Definitions of key concepts 491 Appendix Definitions of key concepts 492 predicative premodifier see predicate complement optional modifier of headword in phrase, (vanha) auto ‘old car’, (hyvin) pieni ‘very small’ preposition ilman ‘without’ prep phrase ilman raha‑a ‘without money’ present participle see VA participle and present tense present tense unmarked tense, (me) tule‑mme ‘we come’ (marked only for person’ pronoun personal minä ‘I’, demonstrative tämä ‘this’, indefinite joku ‘somebody’, etc question Leena‑ko tul‑i? ‘Was it Leena who came?’, Kuka tul‑i ‘Who came?’ referent object that word points to, for beer the beer in a (certain) bottle, or beer in general reflexive pronoun itse ‘self’ relative clause auto, jo‑n‑ka ost‑i‑n ‘a/the car which I bought’ relative pronoun joka ‘who’, mikä ‘which’ resultative action Kalle ampu‑i linnu‑n ‘Kalle shot (and killed) a/the bird’ root minimal stem without any endings, talo ‘house’, sano‑ ‘say’ second infinitive see E infinitive< sentence clause that may contain compound tenses, negation, infinitives, participles, subord clauses short sounds short as opposed to long sound, tuli ‘fire’ (all sounds short) simple sentence equal to clause singular implicit ‘one, 1’, as opposed to plural ‘many’, kirja ‘book’, rakka >us ‘love’ sounds concrete manifestations of phonemes; see phoneme stem see infinitive stem and inflectional stem stress emphasizing a syllable in a word, or a word in an utterance strong grade takki ‘coat’ : +taki‑n; see also cons gradation subject most important syntactic function of noun phrase in clause, Leena nukku‑u ‘Leena sleeps’ suffix ending superlative third grade of adjectives in comparison, paksu ‘thick’ : paksu‑in ‘thickest’ syllable one vowel (or diphthong) + preceding and following consonant, park.ki.paik.ka ‘parking lot’ syntax regularities of phrase structure, clause structure and sentence structure temporal constr hänen tul‑le‑ssa‑an sisään ‘when she/he came in’ tense present sano‑n ‘I say’, past sano‑i‑n ‘I said’, perfect ole‑n sano‑nut ‘I have said’, pluperfect Ol-i-n sano-nut ‘I had been saying’ third infinitive see MA infinitive transitive clause clause with a direct object, Leena ost‑i auto‑n ‘Leena bought a/the car’ translative case ending of nominals, ‑ksi ‘change’, vanha‑ksi ‘(grow) old’ TTAVA participle passive perfect participle, sano‑tta‑va ‘that must/can be said’ VA participle active sano‑va ‘saying’, passive sano‑tta‑va ‘that must/ can be said’ verb part of speech, centre of a simple clause, juos‑ta ‘run’, Leena juoks‑i kotiin ‘Leena ran home’ verb chain halua-a ui-da ‘wants to swim’ verb union conventional pair of ol‑la and a participle or infinitive, Ol‑i‑n kuol‑la ‘I almost died’ vowel change sound change in inflection, kala ‘fish’ : kalo‑j‑a ‘fish’ (part pl.) vowel combination of two vowels which is not a diphthong,  combination ia, io, ua, yä vowel harmony vowels from the sets /u o a/ and /y ö ä/ not occur in the same simple word weak grade alternative in consonant gradation, katto ‘roof’ : kato‑lla ‘on the roof’ word order syntactic means of distinguishing between old and new information Appendix Definitions of key concepts 493 Appendix Material for studying Finnish as a foreign language Grammars Hakulinen, Auli, Vilkuna, Maria et al., Iso suomen kielioppi Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2004 White, Leila, A Grammar Book of Finnish Finn Lectura, 2011 Textbooks, exercise books, vocabularies Aaltio, Maija-Hellikki, Finnish for Foreigners 1–2 Otava, 2008 Abondolo, Daniel, Colloquial Finnish The Complete Course for Beginners Routledge, 2012 Aho, Eija, Huhtaniemi, Aino & Nikonen, Mari, Fonetiikkaa suomen kielen oppijoille Finn Lectura, 2016 Ahonen, Lili & Nieminen, Taija, Kuulostaa hyvältä – Sounds good Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2014 Bessonoff, Salli-Marja & Hämäläinen, Eila, Tilanteesta toiseen A Finn‑ ish Course Helsingin yliopiston suomen kielen, suomalaisugrilaisten ja pohjoismaisten kielten ja kirjallisuuksien laitos, 2008 ———, Tilanteesta toiseen Harjoituskirja Exercises Helsingin yliopiston suomen kielen, suomalaisugrilaisten ja pohjoismaisten kielten ja kirjallisuuksien laitos, 2010 ———, Aletaan ja jatketaan! Suomen kielen oppikirja Helsingin yliopiston suomen kielen, suomalaisugrilaisten ja pohjoismaisten kielten ja kirjallisuuksien laitos, 2011 494 ———, Harjoitellaan! Harjoituksia oppikirjaan Aletaan ja jatketaan! Helsingin yliopiston suomen kielen, suomalaisugrilaisten ja pohjoismaisten kielten ja kirjallisuuksien laitos, 2012 Gehring, Sonja & Heinzmann, Sanni Suomen mestari 1–2 Finn Lectura, 2016 Gehring, Sonja, Heinzmann, Sanni, Päivärinne, Sari & Udd, Taija, Suomen mestari Finn Lectura, 2014 Appendix Material for studying ­Finnish Gehring, Sonja, Heinzmann, Sanni & Päivärinne, Sari, Suomen mestari Finn Lectura, 2016 Hämäläinen, Eila, Suomen harjoituksia Olli Nuutisen oppikirjaan Suo‑ mea suomeksi Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2009 ———, Suomen harjoituksia Olli Nuutisen oppikirjaan Suomea suomeksi Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2006 Heikkilä, Satu & Majakangas, Pirkko, Hyvin menee! Suomea aikuisille Otava, 2010 Jarva, Vesa & Nurmi, Timo, Oikeeta suomee Suomen puhekielen sana‑ kirja Gummerus, 2006 Kielitoimiston sanakirja 1–3 Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus, 2006 Kotilainen, Lari & Varteva, Annukka, Mummonsuomi laajakaistalla WSOY, 2006 Leney, Terttu, Teach Yourself Complete Finnish Hodder Education, 2010 Lepäsmaa, Anna-Liisa & Silfverberg, Leena, Suomen kielen alkeisoppikirja Finn Lectura, 2010 Lieko, Anneli, Chesterman, Andrew & Silfverberg, Leena, Finnish for translators Finn Lectura, 2007 Nuutinen, Olli, Suomea suomeksi Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2012 Also cf Hämäläinen, Eila ———, Suomea suomeksi Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2008 Pajunen, Anneli, Suomen verbirektiosta University of Turku Publications in General Linguistics 1, 1999 Silfverberg, Leena, Harjoituskirja suomen kielen jatko-opetusta varten Finn Lectura, 2007 ———, Suomen kielen jatko-oppikirja Finn Lectura, 2008 ———, Harjoituskirja suomen kielen perusopetusta varten Finn Lectura, 2009 495 Appendix Material for studying ­Finnish Silfverberg, Leena, White, Leila & Sovijärvi, Sini, Supisuomea Finn Lectura, 2006 Vähämäki, Börje & von Wolff, Stuart, Mastering Finnish Aspasia Books, 2004 White, Leila, From Start to Finnish A Short Course in Finnish Finn Lectura, 2012 Information on digital and language-technological ­m aterials www.ling.helsinki.fi/~fkarlsso/finnish_materials.html 496 Index A infinitive 100 – 10 abessive 262 – 3, 359 – 60 ablative 246 – 9 absolute superlative 391 accusative 211 adessive 242 – 6, 359 – 60 adjective 130 – 4, 384 – 8 adjective phrase 130 – 4 adposition 117 – 18, 121, 136 adpositional phrase 117 – 18, 136 – 7, 396 – 9 adverb 137 – 8, 392 – 8 adverb phrase 137 – 8 adverbial 147 – 8, 218 – 20, 229, 234, 252 agent construction 379 – 82 agreement 110 – 15, 125 – 7 allative 249 – 52 answer 153 – 6 basic form 174 – 5, 343 – 4 cardinal number 266 – 72 case ending 34 – 7, 174 – 265 clitic 38, 411 – 17 comitative 263 – 4 comparative 384 – 92 complement 117 – 27 complex sentence 161 – 73 compounding 438 – 3 concord see agreement conditional 42, 315 – 18 conjugation 100 – 15 conjunction 406 – 10 consonant 15 – 19 consonant gradation 49 – 63 contracted verb 107 – 9 converb 165 – 7, 343 – 9, 353, 359 declension 69 – 96 definiteness 188 – 200 demonstrative pronoun 277 – 99 denominal noun 420 – 5 denominal verb 432 – 3 derivation 417 – 37 deverbal noun 425 – 30 deverbal verb 430 – 2 dialogue particle 411 diphthong 21 – 2 directional verb 252 – 3 discourse particle 410 – 11 divisible noun 174 – 5 E infinitive 349 – 54 elative 232 – 7, 356 – 7 enclitic particle see clitic ending 5 – 8 essive 255 – 8 existential clause 144 – 5 finite verb form 40 – 5 Finno-Ugric languages 1 – 3 first infinitive see A infinitive fourth infinitive see MI NEN infinitive generic clause 148 – 9, 329 genitive 202 – 20 illative 237 – 42, 357 – 9 imperative 42 – 3, 318 – 23, 452 inalienable possession 146, 240 indefinite pronoun 286 – 96 indefiniteness see definiteness indicative 42, 314 – 15 inessive 229 – 32, 349 – 53, 355 – 6 infinitive see A infinitive; E infinitive; MA infinitive infinitive stem 103 – 10 inflectional stem 71 – 96, 103 – 10 instructive 264 – 6, 353 – 4, 359 – 60 interrogative pronoun 283 – 6 intonation 26 – 8 intransitive 142 – 3, 159, 227 497 Index invariable plural see plurale tantum irresultative action 192 – 4 length 19 – 21 letters 13 – 15 long sounds 19 – 21 MA infinitive 162, 166, 172, 354 – 60 main stress 24 – 6 MINEN infinitive 360 – 1 mood 314 – 25 morphology 5 – 7, 116 – 21 morphophonological alternation 11, 34, 49 – 68 negation 150 – 3, 155, 161 – 2, 172, 192, 308 – 13 neutral vowel 17 nominal 12, 33 – 49 nominalization 129, 164 – 71 nominative 174 – 80 non-divisible 174 – 5 non-finite verb form 33 – 4, 45 – 9, 169 – 71 noun 34 – 41, 174 noun phrase 122 – 30 number 35 – 8, 125 – 7 numeral 34 – 40, 266 – 73 numeral phrase 134 – 6 NUT participle 45 – 8, 368 – 70 NUT/TU participle see NUT participle object 117 – 20, 176 – 80, 191 – 6, 211 – 20 order of endings 34, 43, 46 ordinal number 273 – 6 orthography 13 – 15 participial construction 370 – 7 participle 362 – 70 particle 410 – 11 partitive 181 – 201 passive 328 – 43 past participle see NUT participle past tense 300 – 5 perfect tense 305 – 8 person 110 – 15 personal ending 110 – 15 personal pronoun 278 – 80 phoneme place name 253 – 4 pluperfect tense 308 plural 96 – 9 plurale tantum 126 possessive clause 144 – 5 possessive ending 220 – 7 498 possessive suffix see possessive ending postmodifier 122 – 3 postposition 136 – 7, 399 – 406 postpositional phrase 136 – 7, 399 – 406 potential 42, 323 – 5 predicate complement 176 – 80, 196 – 8 predicate noun see predicate complement predicative see predicate complement premodifier 122 – 3 preposition 136 – 7, 398 – 9 prepositional phrase 136 – 7, 398 – 9 present participle see VA participle present tense 299 – 300 pronoun 277 – 98 pronunciation 13 – 32 quantity see definiteness question 153 – 8 reciprocal pronoun 279 – 80 referative construction see participial construction reflexive pronoun 279 – 80 relation to other languages 1 – 3 relative clause 122, 131 – 3, 138, 164, 168, 296 – 9, 379 – 82 relative pronoun 296 – 9 resultative action 212 – 13 root 34 – 57 second infinitive see E infinitive short sounds 19 – 21 simple clause 140 – 60 singular 96 – 9 sounds 13 – 23 stem see infinitive stem; inflectional stem stress 24 – 8 strong grade see consonant gradation subject 117 – 20, 127 – 8, 134 – 5, 142 – 6, 176 – 80, 188 – 91, 208 – 9 suffix superlative 388 – 91 syllable 22 – 3 syntax 116 – 18 temporal construction 377 – 9 tense 299 – 314 third infinitive see MA infinitive transitive verb 117 translative 258 – 62 TTAVA participle 330, 363 Uralic languages VA participle 362 – 8 verb agreement 110 – 15 verb chain 162 – 7, 171 – 3, 343 – 5 verb union 162, 167, 171 – 3, 354 – 7, 382 – 3 vowel 15 – 19 vowel change 63 – 8 vowel combination 21 – 2 vowel harmony 28 – 31 Index weak grade see consonant gradation word order 140 – 50 word structure 33 – 48 499 ... important terms A adjective abess abessive case ablat ablative case acc accusative case adess adessive case adv adverb advl adverbial AdvP adverb phrase allat allative case AP adjective phrase... six words are all pronounced differently and have distinct meanings: takka fireplace taakka burden takka -a fireplace (partitive case) taakka -a burden (partitive case) taka back takaa from behind... vowel, e.g appelsiini ‘appelssiini’, arkeologia ‘arkkeologia’, graafinen ‘graaffinen’, parlamentaarinen ‘parlamenttaarinen’, shampoo ‘samppoo’, sinfonia ‘sinffonia’ The alphabetical order of letters