Emotional and cognitive overload the dark side of information technology

EMOTIONAL AND COGNITIVE OVERLOAD We live in a world of limitless information With technology advancing at an astonishingly fast pace, we are challenged to adapt to robotics and automated systems that threaten to replace us Both at home and at work, an endless range of devices and Information Technology (IT) systems place demands upon our attention that human beings have never experienced before, but are our brains capable of processing it all? In this important new book, an in-depth view is taken of IT’s under-studied dark side and its dire consequences on individuals, organizations, and society With theoretical underpinnings from the fields of cognitive psychology, management, and information systems, the idea of brain overload is defined and explored, from its impact on our decision-making and memory to how we may cope with the resultant ‘technostress’ Discussing the negative consequences of technology on work substitution, technologically induced work-family conflicts, and organizational design as well as the initiatives set up to combat these, the authors go on to propose measurement approaches for capturing the entangled aspects of IT-related overload Concluding on an upbeat note, the book’s final chapter explores emerging technologies that can illuminate our world when mindfully managed Designed to better equip humans for dealing with new technologies, supported by case studies, and exploring the idea of ‘IT addiction’, the book concludes by asking how IT processes may aid rather than hinder our cognitive functioning This is essential reading for anyone interested in how we function in the digital age Anne-Franỗoise Rutkowski is Professor in Management of Information at Tilburg University Her research interests include information overload, decision-making, emotion, and the materiality of algorithms Her background is in psychology Her research has been published in Decision Support Systems, IEEE Computer, IEEE Software, Journal of Surgical Endoscopy, and MIS Quarterly Carol S Saunders is affiliated with the University of South Florida She has received the LEO Award from the Association of Information Systems (AIS) and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Organizational Communication & Information Systems Division of the Academy of Management She served or is serving on numerous editorial boards, including a three-year term as Editor-in-Chief of MIS Quarterly Her articles appear in topranked management, information systems, computer science, and communication journals She currently is the AIS Vice President of Publications This page intentionally left blank EMOTIONAL AND COGNITIVE OVERLOAD The Dark Side of Information Technology Anne-Franỗoise Rutkowski and Carol S Saunders First published 2019 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business â 2019 Anne-Franỗoise Rutkowski and Carol S Saunders The right of Anne-Franỗoise Rutkowski and Carol S Saunders to be identied as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-1-138-05333-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-05335-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-16727-5 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Taylor & Francis Books CONTENTS List of Illustrations Acknowledgements Information Technology’s Dark Side: IT-related Overload and IT-Addiction vi vii The Brain and Paradigms of the Mind 17 Individual Differences in Experiencing IT-related Overload 37 Information Technology as a Resource: From the Bright to the Dark Side of Addiction 58 Dark Side of Information Technology at the Organizational Level 76 Measures of IT-related Overload 99 Leveraging the Positive Side of IT Glossary References Index 118 134 142 166 ILLUSTRATIONS Figures 1.1 The blender approach to understanding overload 3.1 Emotional-Cognitive Model of Overload (ECOM) 5.1 Information Technology Dark Side Diamond 5.2 Work-life balance continuum (adapted from Sarker, Xiao, Sarker & Ahuja, 2012) Tables 1.1 Comparison of brain overload in blenders and people 3.1 Summary of issues in processing and output for expert versus non-expert 5.1 Summary of the Information Technology dark side diamond 6.1 Operationalization of IT-related overload with item loadings 6.2 Operationalization of memories of past cognitive and emotional overload with item loadings Boxes 3.1 Chris and Alix 3.2 Example application of the Emotional-Cognitive Overload Model 5.1 Anna and David 45 77 84 50 97 108 109 37 51 76 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The acknowledgement section is a tangible way of showing my gratitude to all my co-authors referred to in this book Specially, Carol, thank you for being my friend and the strongest link in my chain of publication It was another great adventure writing this book together Also, Michiel, thank you for being the powerful link in both my publications and life A special note to Les Wold for reviewing some of the physiological jargon A token of my gratitude goes to my colleague and friend Piet Ribbers, who has provided me with continuous support during the last 20 years Lauren, Louis: I hope one day you will forget about technologies for a few days… only In one of my magic Mary Poppins bags, you will find five old paperback copies of Marcel Pagnol’s work Overload yourself, read them ALL to my mother, Marie-Franỗoise, ton château en papier, and to my father, Wlodzimierz, who taught me all that matters I would like to thank the Schöller Foundation for recognizing me as a Fellow in 2012 The award came at a low point in my academic career and served as important validation for my work on the negative consequences of overload My only regret is that Frau Schöller, who made this award possible, will not be able to see this fruit of her generosity I remember fondly our discussion over coffee in her office in Nürnberg I also want to thank my wise counselor, lifelong sweetheart, chief cheerleader/supporter and best friend, Rusty He spent many hours discussing the topics covered in this book with me and editing two chapters Finally, I would like to thank my very supportive family: Kristin, Russell, and Janel This page intentionally left blank INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY’S DARK SIDE IT-related Overload and IT Addiction Charles Darwin (1871)– a naturalist best known for his contributions to the science of evolution– wrote, “It has often been said that no animal uses any tool” (p 51) Darwin challenged this 19th-century statement through his own observations and those of his colleagues For example, Darwin noted that Asian elephants would repel flies by waving a branch in their trunks Interestingly, the elephants would first fashion the branch into a tool by removing side branches or shortening the stem Earlier, Savage and Wyman (1843–1844) reported that chimpanzees in their natural habitat use stones to crack fruits They also devise sticks for hunting prosimians Later, Köhler (1917/1925) observed that big apes restructure their environment to reach food Thus, wild animals adapt tools to make them more efficient and use them to enhance their chances of survival It is indeed more efficient for the elephant to have the right tool for chasing flies away than relying on the length of his trunk Yet, animals not exhibit the full scope of intelligence observable in humans Evolutionary research has related the use of tools with the development of hominid brains (Wrangham, 1994; Carvalho, Cunha, Sousa, & Matsuzawa, 2008; Sanz & Morgan, 2013) Our early hominid ancestors, such as Ardipithecus, were capable of making simple tools (Panger, Brooks, Richmond, & Wood, 2002; Roche, Blumenschine, & Shea, 2009) Neanderthals displayed their abilities in handling complex Paleolithic tools for their survival Through evolution, the better early hominids designed and handled complex tools, the smarter and fitter they became Early hominid’s use of tools, like ours today, was goal-driven and made it possible to accumulate exogenous resources and conserve endogenous ones Misused tools or valuable resources? 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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 14 algorithms 91, 120–122, 124, 125, 128 Amazon 123 American Academy of Pediatrics 74 amount illusion 7, 8, 45, 49, 52, 53, 57 Amsterdam 121 amygdala 25, 29 anaesthesiology 9, 90, 91 anxiety 14, 29, 30, 32, 43, 60, 62, 63, 67–71, 74, 75, 80, 88, 107, 116, 117 apps 3, 74, 108, 120, 121, 126–129 Aral, Sinan 101 Archytas of Tarentum 92 Ardipithecus Aristotle 18, 31, 125 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 15, 23, 33, 92, 93, 119, 122 Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (MIT) 92 Asimov, Isaac 93, 124 associative models 21, 23, 29, 74, 118 automation 78, 90–92, 96, 98, 111, 130 autonomic nervous system 24, 112, 113 auto-reply 4, 34 Barcelona 121 behaviourism 20–25, 30–35, 69, 74 big bang 131 big data 119–122, 128, 130–133 ‘Big Five’ personality traits 31, 70, 116 Biotechnology 126 BlackBerry 75, 88 blender metaphor 5–8 bottlenecks 7, 27, 42, 44, 46, 105 Bower, G.H 29, 30, 43, 63, 69, 71, 107, 118 brain chip implants 126 brain injuries 25 brain load 2, 4, 8–10, 44, 46–51, 105, 110 brain overload 2, 3, 5–8, 11, 12, 18, 22, 23, 26, 34, 35, 43, 44, 46, 47, 51, 60, 126 Brain Reward System (BRS) 21, 25, 31–33, 66, 68, 72, 119, 127 Brisbane, Australia 121 Broadbent, D 23, 26–28, 32, 42 Brookstone 121 Bryson, Bill 99, 100, 107, 118, 131 Buckinghamshire, Penn 130, 131 burnout 11, 43, 45, 51, 52, 79, 84, 86, 97, 124 Cannon, W.B 20, 24 Capek, Karel 92 Caplan, S.E 69, 72, 75 Carr, Nicholas 2, 89 Cawood, Andrew 81 Center for Internet Addiction 68 Central Nervous System (CNS) 24, 35 cerebral circuit 25 cerebral cortex 24 chunking 6, 7, 9, 10, 23, 27, 32, 34, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 50 Index 167 cognitive absorption 110, 116 cognitive load 41, 42, 80, 105, 106 cognitive overload 45, 1–133 cognitivism 8, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30–35, 38, 40–44, 57, 65, 110, 124 collaborative filtering 131 communication overload 39, 40, 105, 108 computationist models 23 congruence 9, 22, 23, 29, 32, 46, 49, 52, 63, 71, 111, 112, 114, 116 constructs 28, 42, 71, 72, 100, 101, 103–106, 108, 109, 112, 116, 132 contingency boundedness 45, 52, 53, 57 Damasio, A 25, 26, 30, 44, 102, 110 Darwin, Charles 1, 102 Da Vinci® Surgical System 95 Davis, R.A 71, 72, 75 deadlines 55 decision support systems (DSS) 38 de la Contamine, Charles Marie 99, 100 depression 13, 14, 52, 68, 69, 71–73 Descartes, René 18, 101 deskilling 91 Devol, George 92 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) 14, 70, 71 Diderot 19, 101 digital footprint 122 Disneyland 120 driverless cars 91 Ebbinghaus, H 19 Edison, Thomas 15 ego 32, 65, 70, 73, 74, 119, 128 email overload 4, 128 Emotional-Cognitive Overload (ECO) 6, 11, 44, 46, 48, 49, 52 Emotional-Cognitive Overload Model (ECOM) 5, 6, 12, 15, 35, 38, 44–46, 50–55, 57 emotions 8, 9, 12, 19, 20, 25, 29, 31–33, 35, 40, 43, 44, 46, 55, 57, 63–65, 67, 70, 75, 93, 118, 124, 127 Enterprise Cognitive Computing (ECC) 76, 77, 91, 92 episodic memory 28, 29, 45, 48, 50, 64, 116 ethics 2, 67, 122, 124–127 Everest, George 99 evolution 1, 15, 22, 27, 92, 119 experts 4, 6, 8, 10, 31, 32, 35, 45, 47–52, 81, 91, 106, 111, 113 explicit memory 28 eye-tracking 115 Facebook 56, 67, 68, 70, 72–74, 88, 109, 118, 129 facial temperature 112 fatigue 2, 4, 13, 25, 39, 43, 55, 111, 112 Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) 62, 63, 66, 80 Federal Aviation Administration 92 filtering 7, 8, 26, 27, 40, 42, 44–46, 73, 75, 81, 125, 126, 131 Fisher, Sir Ronald Aylmer 132 flow 23, 28, 37, 55, 61, 62, 111, 112 Folkman, S 65 France 76, 86, 99, 130 Freud, Sigmund 32, 33, 65, 66 Frost, Robert 77, 128 full working memory model 27 functionalism 19, 20, 22, 63 Functional Magnetic Resonances Imaging (fMRI) 115, 116 functional neuroimaging techniques 26, 115 Galbraith, J.R 54, 78 Galton, Sir Francis 102 galvanic skin response (GSR) 100, 113, 114 gamification 119, 120, 128 Gardner, H 18, 19, 23, 31, 101 General Motors (GM) 92, 94 germ theory 17, 18 Great Trigonometrical Survey 99 Harris, Tristan 2, 75, 128 Hawking, Stephen 119 Health Information Technology (HIT) 90, 91, 95, 120, 124 hemispherical specialization 38 hemispheric encoding 116 heuristics 23, 32, 35, 41, 47, 48, 63, 64 Hipparchus of Nicaea 100 homeostasis 24, 25, 36, 47, 64, 66, 111, 112 Honda 92 Hoyle, Fred 131 hyperconnectivity 13, 61, 62, 119 id 65 iDisorders 2, 62, 68, 69, 71, 73 implicit memory 28 individual differences 7, 9, 31, 37, 44, 46, 52, 53, 55, 102–104 industrial revolution 81 information processing (IP) 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 49, 53 information processing capacity (IPC) 31, 32, 34, 39–41, 43, 44, 54, 56, 78, 79, 82, 89 168 Index Instagram 67, 72, 73 interactive cognitive subsystems (ICS) 30 International Space Station 123 Internet 3, 12–14, 58–61, 66–72, 74, 86–88, 98, 106, 107, 119, 121, 132 Internet of Things 121, 132 introspection 19, 102, 115 IQ tests 103 IT addiction 1–3, 5, 7, 12–15, 22, 35, 61, 62, 66–72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 86–89, 98, 128–130 IT-related overload 1, 2, 4, 13, 15, 20, 33, 34, 36–57, 77–79, 82, 87, 89, 99–117, 128, 129, 131 Jacoby, J 35, 41, 42, 105, 109 James, W 19, 20, 63 Kant, Immanuel 18, 19, 23, 32, 101, 102 Kiva Systems 123 Knight Rider 93 Kohlberg, L 124, 125 Köhler, W Krugman, Paul 89 Kuhn, T.S 18 Lambton, William 99, 100 Laparoscopic Surgical Skills (LSS) 113–115 laughter 65–66 Laws of Robotics (Asimov) 93 Lazarus, R.S 65 Leavitt, H.J 77 Leonardo da Vinci 92 ‘Like’ buttons 118, 119, 129 limbic system 24–26, 28, 32, 66, 116 LinkedIn 73, 88 Lister, Joseph 17 logic theory 23 loneliness 59, 67–69, 71–73 long-term memory (LTM) 25, 28, 29, 34, 41, 42, 45–49, 63, 69, 74 Luddites 89, 90 lying 13, 22 management information systems (MIS) 38–42 Mason, R.O 38, 43 mentalism 31, 32 metabolic equivalent of tasks (METs) 100, 113, 114 Metz, Rachel Miller, G.A 9, 23, 27, 34, 40, 44 mind–body supervenience 18–20, 23, 24, 26, 32, 66, 101, 119 mindfulness 2, 4, 15, 34, 74, 75, 83, 98, 122, 125, 126, 128–130, 132, 133 mind-gut 19, 32, 35, 110 minimally invasive surgery 110 Minnesota experiments 38 Mitroff, J 38, 43 mobile mindset study 67 modal model 27–29 Mohan, Geoffrey 73 monochronicity 55 multitasking 12–14, 50, 56, 57, 67, 73, 91, 106 Myers-Briggs personality types 38 nanotechnology 126 narcissism 31, 35, 68, 70, 72, 73, 102, 127 natural selection 102 Neanderthals 1, 15 need for cognition (NFC) 47, 48, 53, 107, 116 neo-Luddites 89 net generation 13, 14, 56, 57, 70 Netherlands 11, 48, 53, 58, 60, 76, 91, 121, 127 neurohormones 25 neuroticism 31, 116 Newton, Sir Isaac 118 Nexus A.I 121 Nielsen 81 non–experts 10, 48–50, 111 Norman, D.A 27, 28 objective time 55 objectivity 47, 55, 101–105, 109, 111, 116 Occupational Safety and Health Administration 93 online baby system (OBS) 58–64, 66–68, 71, 72, 74, 75 organizational design 54, 77–79, 81, 85, 88, 96–98, 129 Outlook 126 over-connectivity 31, 58, 68, 72 oxytocin 24, 25, 66, 72 paradigm shifts 18, 19, 101 Paradise Pier hotels 120 PARO 123, 124 Pasteur, Louis 17 pathological internet use (PIU) 13, 14, 67–72, 74, 75 pattern recognition 27, 42 Pavlov, Ivan 21 Peacock–Edwards, Rick 35 Pearson correlation test 113 Index 169 peripheral nervous system (PNS) 24 personality traits and disorders 8, 22, 24, 31, 32, 34, 47, 48, 53, 61, 67–70, 75, 102, 103, 110, 116, 117 pertinence 6–10, 27 ,29, 37, 40, 42–46, 48, 49, 52, 54, 57, 63, 75, 92, 93, 119, 121, 123, 126 phantom vibration syndrome 2, 73 phenomenological sociology 102 pilots 8, 35, 126 Platform for Privacy Preferences 123 polychronicity 55, 56 Popper, K 18, 101, 102, 107, 130 positron emission tomography 26, 115 prefrontal cortex (PFC) 25, 26, 28, 32, 102, 115, 116 prior experience of ECO (PECO) 48–50, 53 privacy 73, 90, 122, 123, 127, 130 psychoanalysis 31, 32, 64, 70 psychometrics 102–105, 107, 113 Puerperal Fever 17 qualitative overload 39, 43, 104, 105 quantum computing 122 requests to use IT 11 Revelle, W 31 Robots 78, 89, 90, 92–96, 98, 119, 123–125, 123, 128, 129, 133 Rosenstein, Justin 118, 119, 128 Royal Dutch Shell 121 Savage, T.S schemata 19, 23, 26–29, 34, 41–45, 48, 49, 53, 57, 63–65, 69, 101, 107, 117, 126 scientific revolution 18 second brain 35, 110 self-driving 91, 124 self-serving attribution bias 49, 108, 109 semantic memory 28, 29, 48 Semmelweis, Ignaz 17, 18 SenseWear BodyMedia system 113 sensory memory 27, 28 Seoul 121 September 11 attacks (9/11) 66 seven (magical number) 9, 27, 34, 40, 41 Sherer, K.R 20 short-term memory (STM) 28, 42, 45 Simbionix LAP Mentor 113 smart farming 122 smartphones 2, 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 37, 51, 57, 58, 67, 73, 75, 88, 91, 121, 128, 129, 132 social networking systems (SNS) 3, 12, 14, 66, 69–74, 86, 98, 128 social phobia 14, 69 Songdo City 122 South Africa 94 South Korea 122, 130 Spitzer, M 73 Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) 103 Star Trek: The Next Generation 93 Steve Jobs schools 73 stimulus–response (S–R) 21, 22, 24, 63 subjective time 55 subjectivity 20, 30, 55, 101, 102, 104, 109, 111, 114, 116 superchunking 10, 27, 32, 47, 116, 117 supervenience 18–20, 23, 24, 26, 32, 34, 36, 64, 66, 73, 89, 101, 107, 110, 116, 119, 131 suppressed emotions 64 Survey of India see Great Trigonometrical Survey Sweller, J 34, 42, 47, 105, 106 task-switching 28, 52, 54, 56, 57, 67, 80, 82, 87 technophilia 61, 69, 73, 129 technophobia 61 techno-strain 89 technostress 2, 11, 12, 14, 39, 50, 61, 78, 86, 87, 89, 97, 98, 126, 128 Tesla 124 Thermoview 8300 camera 111 three worlds theory (Popper) 101 time management 74 tools 1–3, 15, 39, 79, 91, 92, 98, 106, 111, 115, 116, 119 transcranial magnetic stimulation 126 trauma 25, 63–65 triangulation 99, 100, 110, 112–117 Turkle, S 68 Twitter 5, 73, 88, 109 Uber 120, 121 underload 7–9, 49, 95, 104 United States of America (USA) 27, 77, 91–94, 122, 130 valence 7, 9, 21, 29, 30, 43, 46, 50–52, 64, 65, 74 Vallor, Sharon 124 Watson, J.B 20 Waugh, Andrew Scott 99 170 Index withdrawal 12–14, 35, 66, 68, 61, 88 working day 77, 82, 83, 88 work-family conflict 16, 83–85, 87, 88, 97, 129 working memory (WM) 26–30 work-life balance 16, 76, 78, 81–86, 98, 128, 132 Work-Life Balance campaign 85 Wundt, Wilhelm 19 Wyman, J Young, Kimberley 68 ... IT-related Overload 37 Information Technology as a Resource: From the Bright to the Dark Side of Addiction 58 Dark Side of Information Technology at the Organizational Level 76 Measures of IT-related Overload. .. necessary to battle the dark side of IT Brain overload The dark side of IT has exponentially increased in the last half-century as a result of the introduction of new digital tools such as the Internet,... Operationalization of memories of past cognitive and emotional overload with item loadings Boxes 3.1 Chris and Alix 3.2 Example application of the Emotional- Cognitive Overload Model 5.1 Anna and David