Osprey campaign 206 spartacus and the slave war 73 71 BC a gladiator rebels against rome

SPARTACUS AND THE SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC A gladiator rebels against Rome ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND ILLUSTRATOR started his career as a biochemist before joining the Royal Marines Having left the military, he went back to university and completed a BA and PhD in Ancient History at the University of Newcastle He was Assistant Director at the British School at Athens, Greece, and then a lecturer in Ancient History at the University of Edinburgh Nic is now a freelance author and researcher based in south-west France D R N I C FIELDS was born in Kent, UK, and attended art college in Cornwall He has had a life-long passion for illustration, and since 1985 has worked as a professional artist Steve has provided award-winning illustrations for renowned publishers Dorling Kindersley, where his interest in historical illustration began STEVE N O O N CAMPAIGN • 206 SPARTACUS AND THE SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC A gladiator rebels against Rome First published in 2009 by Osprey Publishing Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford 0X2 OPH, UK 443 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, USA E-mail: info@ospreypublishing.com © 2009 Osprey Publishing Limited All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers ARTIST'S N O T E Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for private sale The Publishers retain all reproduction copyright whatsoever All enquiries should be addressed to: Steve Noon, 50 Colchester Avenue, Penylan, Cardiff CF23 9BP, UK The Publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence upon this matter THE WOODLAND TRUST Osprey Publishing are supporting the Woodland Trust, the UK's leading woodland conservation charity, by funding the dedication of trees ISBN: 978 84603 353 e-book ISBN: 978 84908 081 Editorial by Ilios Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK (www.iliospublishing.com) Design: The Black Spot Index by Fineline Editorial Services Originated by PPS Grasmere Ltd Cartography: Bounford.com Bird's-eye view artworks: The Black Spot 09 10 11 10 A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library FOR A CATALOGUE OF ALL BOOKS PUBLISHED BY OSPREY MILITARY AND AVIATION PLEASE CONTACT: Osprey Direct, c/o Random House Distribution Center, 400 Hahn Road, Westminster, MD 21157 Email: uscustomerservice@ospreypublishing.com Osprey Direct, The Book Service Ltd, Distribution Centre, Colchester Road, Frating Green, Colchester, Essex, C07 7DW E-mail: customerservice@ospreypublishing.com www.ospreypublishing.com CONTENTS INTRODUCTION The origins of the revolt The First Slave War (135-132 BC) The Second Slave War (104-100 BC) CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS 146-60 B C 11 ROMAN SOCIAL ORDER 14 The slave system Piracy and the slave trade - Gladiators - men of the sword Oscan speakers OPPOSING COMMANDERS 27 OPPOSING ARMIES 34 OPPOSING PLANS 47 THE CAMPAIGN 52 Spartacus the Thracian Marcus Licinius Crassus The slave army The Roman army The Spartacan plan The Roman plan Defeat of the praetorian armies, 73 BC - Defeat of the consular armies, 72 BC The war with Crassus, 71 BC - The trap closes: River Silarus, 71 BC AFTERMATH 79 THE LEGACY OF SPARTACUS 83 A GUIDE TO PRIMARY SOURCES 88 Crucifixion The return to order Appian (b AD 95) Plutarch (c AD 46-120) Sallust (86-c 35 BC) BIBLIOGRAPHY 93 GLOSSARY A N D ABBREVIATIONS 94 INDEX 95 INTRODUCTION T h e year BC, the t h f r o m the f o u n d i n g o f R o m e , w i t n e s s e d the o u t b r e a k of a serious u p h e a v a l in Italy itself, a slave-society's w o r s t n i g h t m a r e c o m e true Rocca di Cerere (left) and Castello di Lombardia (right), looking south-east outside the Eurospin supermarket, Enna Cicero describes Enna as a town 'built on a lofty eminence, the top of which is a table-land, watered by perennial springs, and bound in every direction by precipitous cliffs' {Verrines 2.4.107) Besieged by Roman forces, Enna remained impregnable and only fell through betrayal from within (Fields-Carre Collection) T h i s w a s the g r e a t s l a v e u p r i s i n g led b y a c h a r i s m a t i c g l a d i a t o r n a m e d S p a r t a c u s F o r the m o d e r n r e a d e r his n a m e is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h justified rebellion, the u n d e r d o g d a r i n g t o fight b a c k N o t o n l y w a s he the p o s s e s s o r in T o m Wolfe's p h r a s e of 'the right s t u f f for a H o l l y w o o d e p i c , S p a r t a c u s a l s o b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t l e i t m o t i f t o typify the m o d e r n w a g e - s l a v e w h o r e b e l s a g a i n s t e c o n o m i c e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d s o c i a l inequality M o s t n o t e w o r t h y in this respect is the r a d i c a l g r o u p o f G e r m a n Socialists f o u n d e d in M a r c h by R o s a L u x e m b u r g a n d K a r l L i e b k n e c h t , the Spartakusbund (Spartacus League), w h o l i n k e d the S p a r t a c u s l e g e n d t o p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t the G r e a t W a r a n d the c u r r e n t e c o n o m i c order Similarly, in m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s , the b a l a c l a v a - c l a d Subcomandante M a r c o s , w h o d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p o k e s p e r s o n for the i n d i g e n o u s rebel m o v e m e n t in C h i a p a s , s o u t h e r n M e x i c o , has used Spartacus, alongside Ernesto ' C h e ' G u e v a r a , as a revolutionary icon for the p o p u l a r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t p o l i t i c a l , j u d i c i a l , s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c i n e q u a l i t i e s , the f o u r h o r s e m e n o f a n e n t r e n c h e d s t a t u s q u o , w h a t e v e r t h a t status q u o m a y be Enna, a general view westsouth-west from Rocca di Cerere At the time of the First Slave War, the town was the agricultural centre of one of the richest grain-producing plains of Sicily and also an important cult centre of Demeter (Ceres), the goddess of the earth, agriculture and grain Like the Syrian Atargatis, Demeter was a manifestation of the Great Mother (Fields-Carre Collection) E x a m p l e s c o u l d b e m u l t i p l i e d o f S p a r t a c u s a s s u m i n g a different s h a p e a c c o r d i n g t o the v i e w p o i n t o f the o b s e r v e r : a s i n d i v i d u a l h e r o , a s leader of a s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e b e l l i o n , a s p o t e n t i a l d e s t r o y e r o f R o m e a n d , of c o u r s e , a s i n s p i r a t i o n for future c l a s s s t r u g g l e A s it h a p p e n s , w e all h a v e o u r o w n p a r t i c u l a r v i s i o n o f S p a r t a c u s , b e it f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t o r a n t i q u a r i a n interest A c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , himself a G r e e k a n d one of our three m a i n sources, S p a r t a c u s w a s 'much m o r e than one w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m his c o n d i t i o n , m o s t intelligent a n d c u l t u r e d , b e i n g m o r e like a G r e e k t h a n a T h r a c i a n ' (Crassus 8.2) T h e c o m m e n t implies that to a G r e e k intellect l i v i n g u n d e r t h e s u p e r p o w e r o f R o m e , S p a r t a c u s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e o v e r c o m e the n a t u r a l inferiority p r o d u c e d by the t w i n h a n d i c a p s o f f o r e i g n n e s s a n d servile s t a t u s b y sheer f o r c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y T h e historical S p a r t a c u s w a s r o u g h a n d heroic, a big, brave and greath e a r t e d m a n , a n d his r e p o r t e d a c t i o n s b e a r o u t his ability t o l e a d others a n d his ingenuity in battle B u t like s u c h a h e r o , v i e w s o n his s h o r t career a s a slave g e n e r a l o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n the i m p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f fiction t o the p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f f a c t ' S p a r t a c u s ' , a s M a r x f a m o u s l y w r o t e in a letter t o E n g e l s d a t e d F e b r u a r y , ' a p p e a r s t o b e the m o s t c a p i t a l fellow t h a t all of ancient h i s t o r y c a n s h o w for i t s e l f ( Correspondence 1846-95, , p 126) For m a n y , this will p e r h a p s s e e m like a n e x t r e m e view T h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y rebel Guerrillero' C h e G u e v a r a w a s a l s o a s t r o n g a d m i r e r of S p a r t a c u s T h e ' H e r o i c r e m a i n s a w e l l - k n o w n f i g u r e , w h e t h e r a d o r e d or reviled, t o millions a r o u n d the m o d e r n w o r l d A s a real m a n , n o t a u n i v e r s a l i c o n , he killed for a c a u s e , o r d e r e d p e o p l e t o kill for t h a t c a u s e , a d v o c a t e d w a r t o the d e a t h a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d m a d e the u l t i m a t e sacrifice for his beliefs D e a d m e n m a y tell n o t a l e s , b u t they c a n m a k e a l e g e n d In the ancient w o r l d S p a r t a c u s w a s a real s l a v e w h o r e b e l l e d , b u t w h o u l t i m a t e l y did n o t w i n Yet for all this, his c o n t i n u e d a p p e a r a n c e o n the battlefield s o a l a r m e d R o m e t h a t it m o b i l i z e d a punitive force e q u a l t o t h a t w i t h w h i c h C a e s a r w a s later t o c o n q u e r G a u l t o hunt h i m d o w n a n d kill h i m THE ORIGINS OF THE REVOLT T h e r e b e l l i o n o f s l a v e s in I t a l y u n d e r S p a r t a c u s m a y h a v e b e e n the b e s t o r g a n i z e d , b u t it w a s n o t the first o f its k i n d T h e r e h a d b e e n o t h e r r e b e l l i o n s of s l a v e s t h a t afflicted R o m e , a n d w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s w i s e e n o u g h t o p r o f i t by their m i s t a k e s All the s a m e , t h o u g h his r e b e l l i o n is easily the m o s t f a m o u s , it is i m p o r t a n t for u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t s t e a l i n g , p e t t y s a b o t a g e , or s i m p l y r u n n i n g a w a y , w e r e the m o r e u s u a l m o d e s o f r e s i s t a n c e e m p l o y e d by s l a v e s F u l l - b l o w n w a r s w e r e highly u n u s u a l Temple of Demeter (Tempio di Cerere), looking north-east from Torre Pisana, Castello di Lombardia It was here that Eunus and his followers from the eastern Mediterranean worshipped the Great Mother in her local form as Demeter Also it was from here, according to Cicero (Verrines 2.4.112), that Verres, the infamous Roman governor of Sicily, dared to take away her cult statue (Fields-Carre Collection) N e i g h b o u r i n g Sicily, a l a n d o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s , b u t chiefly G r e e k s , h a d b e c o m e R o m e ' s first o v e r s e a s p r o v i n c e in the w a k e o f the first l o n g s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t C a r t h a g e (First P u n i c War, - BC) B u t the s u b s e q u e n t r e v i v a l of C a r t h a g e t h a t led t o the s e c o n d s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t R o m e ( S e c o n d P u n i c War, - BC) b r o u g h t a l o g i c a l C a r t h a g i n i a n a m b i t i o n t o r e c o v e r its f o r m e r interests in Sicily a n d R o m e in effect w a s f o r c e d t o c o n q u e r the i s l a n d a n e w It w a s Sicily's e n o r m o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o s p e r i t y , e a r n i n g it by C i c e r o ' s d a y the n i c k n a m e ' R o m e ' s g r a n a r y ' (Verrines ) , t h a t w a s t o p r o v e the p r o v i n c e ' s greatest material asset to plundering R o m e Slavery of c o u r s e w a s n o t n e w to Sicily, b u t after the R o m a n r e c o n q u e s t the scale of slave o w n i n g o n the i s l a n d h a d i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , a p h e n o m e n o n D i o d o r o s , a Sicilian himself, m a k e s clear in his r e m a r k s ( - , , ) o n the c o n d i t i o n of the p r o v i n c e just p r i o r t o the first g r e a t s l a v e rebellion - the First Slave War LEFT Bronze statue of Eunus, Castello di Lombardia Scuola Regionale d'Arte Enna (1960) Eunus, the principal figure of the First Slave War, was a domestic slave who belonged to a certain Antigenes of Enna The rebel slaves of Enna declared Eunus their king, who then took a diadem and regal dress, called his female companion queen, and conferred on himself the Seleucid dynastic name of Antiochos (Fields-Carre Collection) RIGHT Via Roma 528, the site of Cicero's residence in Enna This commemorative plaque makes mention of his prosecution of Verres, the former governor of Sicily It is significant that early in his life Cicero had discovered the profound difference between justice and morality Justice was the tool of the strong, morality the illusion of the weak Thus, for him, slavery was just (Fields-Carre Collection) MARCO TULLIO CICERONE D I F E N S O R E DI ENNA E D E L I A SICILIA C N T R IL DEPREDATORE DI T E M P I ! CA10 I J C I N I O V E R R E C V E R N A T O R E ROMANO D E L L ' I S O L A OUESTO R1C0RD0 THE FIRST SLAVE WAR (135-132 B C ) D i o d o r o s w r i t e s ( , ) t h a t t h e s l a v e s , w h o h a d their o r i g i n s in the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , m o t i v a t e d b y their m i s e r a b l e living c o n d i t i o n s a n d the b r u t a l i t y w i t h w h i c h there w e r e t r e a t e d , h a d d i s c u s s e d rebellion before the v i o l e n c e a c t u a l l y e r u p t e d C o n v e n i e n t l y w e c a n d i v i d e it i n t o t w o t h e a t r e s of o p e r a t i o n , w e s t e r n a n d e a s t e r n , w h i c h reflect the b a s i c g e o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the i s l a n d O n e R o m a n q u a e s t o r w a s in c h a r g e of the w e s t e r n p a r t of the island, stationed at L i l y b a e u m , a n d another w a s stationed at Syracuse, on the e a s t c o a s t S l a v e h e r d s m e n d o m i n a t e d the w e s t e r n r e g i o n a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l s l a v e s d o m i n a t e d the g r a i n - p r o d u c i n g p l a i n s o f the e a s t T h e s l a v e s in the t w o h a l v e s of the i s l a n d a p p e a r t o h a v e risen u p separately - t h o s e in the e a s t u n d e r a s l a v e n a m e d E u n u s , by birth a S y r i a n f r o m A p a m e a , a n d t h o s e in the w e s t u n d e r a h e r d e r of h o r s e s n a m e d K l e o n , a Cilician f r o m the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s E u n u s ' w a s a m a g i c i a n a n d w o n d e r w o r k e r ' with a deep d e v o t i o n t o the S y r i a n m o t h e r g o d d e s s A t a r g a t i s ( A s t a r t e ) , while K l e o n ' h a d b e e n a c c u s t o m e d t o a life o f b a n d i t r y f r o m the t i m e he w a s a s m a l l c h i l d ' ( D i o d o r o s , ) It w a s h o p e d by the a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t the t w o g r o u p s of rebels w o u l d c o m e into conflict a n d tear e a c h other t o p i e c e s C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , however, the rebellion g a t h e r e d m o m e n t u m w h e n K l e o n a c k n o w l e d g e d the s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y o f E u n u s , a c t i n g a s g e n e r a l t o his k i n g , a n d their f o l l o w e r s c o m b i n e d t o f o r m a single c o h e r e n t f o r c e T h e r a p i d e s c a l a t i o n o f their s t r e n g t h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a b e t t e d by the s l a v e o w n e r s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o h a d e n c o u r a g e d violent b e h a v i o u r by a l l o w i n g their s l a v e h e r d s m e n t o feed a n d c l o t h e t h e m s e l v e s by s t e a l i n g w h a t they n e e d e d f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e o n the i s l a n d In a d d i t i o n , the r e s p o n s e of the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w a s l e t h a r g i c , a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e they g r e a t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d the s l a v e s ' ability t o o r g a n i z e a large-scale military c a m p a i g n M o r e o v e r , with m o r e s o u r c e s o n the S p a r t a c a n rebellion were not only w r i t t e n by t h o s e w h o o w n e d a n d h a t e d slaves, b u t c o n s i s t s o f n o m o r e t h a n a few p a s s a g e s in Livy, Plutarch, A p p i a n a n d Florus, less than , 0 w o r d s all told It s e e m s the w h o l e e p i s o d e w a s so humiliating that the less said a b o u t it the better T h e o n e e x c e p t i o n s e e m e d to h a v e been Sallust S o S p a r t a c u s w a s t o o m e n a c i n g a figure for the R o m a n s t o c o n s i d e r a w o r t h y o p p o n e n t let a l o n e s o m e o n e w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g Besides he w a s a s l a v e , g l a d i a t o r , a n d rebel, s o m e o n e w h o h a d n o business running a r o u n d being an epic-style h e r o H o w e v e r , later g e n e r a t i o n s a n d cultures w o u l d n o t s h a r e this dismissive attitude In , t w e n t y y e a r s b e f o r e the fall of the Bastille to the Parisian m a s s e s , Voltaire m a d e one of the first specific references to S p a r t a c u s in the c o n t e x t o f the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of a r m e d resistance t o u n j u s t o p p r e s s i o n In w o r d s that w o u l d later be e c h o e d in the A m e r i c a n D e c l a r a t i o n of I n d e p e n d e n c e , Voltaire referred t o the rebellion led by S p a r t a c u s a s 'a just war, indeed the only j u s t w a r in h i s t o r y ' (Correspondance generale Marx's attention had been drawn to Spartacus by two significant events of his own time, namely the American Crisis, as the civil war was referred to in Europe, and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82), the romantic rebel who was engaged in liberating Sicily and southern Italy from foreign domination This is his bust in the public garden at the foot of Torre di Federico ll°, Enna (Fields-Carre Collection) 84 - , Letter , ) A s leader of the Pbilosophes, Voltaire's b a t t l e cry, w h i c h he s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f his s i g n a t u r e o n letters, w a s 'Ecrasez l'infame!', ' C r u s h the i n f a m o u s ! ' T h e I n f a m o u s , t o h i m , w e r e t h o s e w h o e x e r c i s e d i n t o l e r a n c e a n d p e r s e c u t i o n , bigotry, unfair privilege, believed in superstitions, a n d p u r s u e d the e m p t y folly o f war A t the t i m e , the so-called A g e of R e a s o n , m e n w h o w e r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s s l a v e s a n d h a d never been o p p r e s s e d or d o w n t r o d d e n let a l o n e s l a v e s , in other w o r d s the w e l l - m e a n i n g intellectuals of the d a y , u s e d the i m a g e o f the a r m e d rebel s l a v e S p a r t a c u s t o think a b o u t , d e b a t e , a n d p r o m o t e their o w n v i s i o n s of liberty for the freeborn citizens of the n e w l y risen n a t i o n - s t a t e s Yet the m o s t striking e x a m p l e o f this s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n o n m u s t be t h a t f u r n i s h e d b y S a i n t D o m i n g u e , the F r e n c h c o l o n y t h a t o c c u p i e d the w e s t e r n p a r t o f the C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d o f H i s p a n i o l a , w h e r e rebel slaves a n d f r e e d m e n led b y T o u s s a i n t L ' O u v e r t u r e w e r e a b l e t o a c h i e v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y f r e e d o m by c r e a t i n g a n e w state fully i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m E u r o p e a n d o m i n a t i o n A s e l f - e d u c a t e d s l a v e freed s h o r t l y b e f o r e the u p r i s i n g in , the utterly e x t r a o r d i n a r y T o u s s a i n t j o i n e d the b l a c k rebellion t o liberate the slaves a n d b e c a m e its o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g e n i u s H e h a d r e a d C a e s a r ' s commentarii, for i n s t a n c e , w h i c h h a d g i v e n h i m s o m e i d e a of politics a n d the military art a n d the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m First defeating the S p a n i s h , a n d then siding with t h e m t o t r o u n c e the B r i t i s h , T o u s s a i n t finally f o r c e d the F r e n c h t o the n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e , a n d t h u s H a i t i , a s it w a s n o w c a l l e d , b e c a m e the first i n d e p e n d e n t b l a c k state o u t s i d e A f r i c a In , only three y e a r s after H a i t i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , the British ( a n d A m e r i c a n s ) e n d e d their A t l a n t i c s l a v e t r a d e T o u s s a i n t h i m s e l f , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t t o e n j o y the fruits o f his l a b o u r s T r e a c h e r o u s l y s e i z e d a n d b u n d l e d off t o F r a n c e b o u n d like a c o m m o n c r i m i n a l , he w a s t o die m i s e r a b l y in a d u n g e o n a t F o r t - d e - J o u x high in the Jura Mountains It w a s K a r l M a r x ( 8 - ) w h o b r o u g h t S p a r t a c u s i n t o the c e n t r e s t a g e of R o m a n history, a n d it w a s the O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n t h a t e l e v a t e d h i m i n t o a c o n s c i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r w i t h a definite s o c i a l p r o g r a m m e F r o m t h a t d a t e h i s t o r y t o o k h i m u p , never t o let h i m g o R e v o l u t i o n , s a y s M a r x , is the l o c o m o t i v e o f history E v e n in its n e a t e s t s e n s e , ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r ' refers t o the c o n q u e s t o f p o l i t i c a l p o w e r b y the u s e o f a r m e d f o r c e If it f a i l s , it r o u t i n e l y b e c o m e s , in the j a r g o n o f v i c t o r y , a ' r e v o l t ' o r a ' r e b e l l i o n ' R e v o l u t i o n is the s o u r c e of legal r i g h t , b u t r e b e l l i o n is a d i s o r d e r p r o m o t e d by a g r o u p of d i s s a t i s f i e d p e r s o n s in o r d e r t o g r a b , f r o m t h o s e in p o w e r , b o t h the political s i n e c u r e s a n d the e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e s T h e c o m m o n o u t c o m e is n o m o r e t h a n a c h a n g e o f h a n d s in the d i v i d i n g u p o f p r e r o g a t i v e s a n d p e r k s Yet a s a fully d e v e l o p e d c o n c e p t r e v o l u t i o n is a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o n largely b e c a u s e it is s o c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t w o a s p e c t s o f m o d e r n i t y - i n d u s t r i a l i s m a n d i m p e r i a l i s m In every cult t h e r e is a n e l e m e n t of the u n t r u e a n d the i r r a t i o n a l In the c a s e o f S p a r t a c u s , t h a t e l e m e n t is the identification o f his r e b e l l i o n w i t h a c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t a t s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n Before S p a r t a c u s j o i n e d the p a n t h e o n o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y h e r o e s (or entered i n t o the c o n s u m e r m a r k e t p l a c e , for t h a t m a t t e r ) , he w a s a s l a v e , a g l a d i a t o r , a rebel a n d a n i n s p i r a t i o n a l leader T h e R o m a n slave w a r s , w h i c h b e l o n g t o the s e c o n d a n d first centuries BC, p r o b a b l y reflect the big c h a n g e s g o i n g o n in the R o m a n e c o n o m y a n d of c o u r s e society at the t i m e C e r t a i n l y these three w a r s s h o w a m a s s i v e e x p l o s i o n o f slave discontent, but they were n o t revolutionary m a s s m o v e m e n t s in a n y sense, the o p p r e s s e d slaves a n d free p r o l e t a r i a t fighting for their o w n political s p a c e in civil society as it w e r e M a r x e x p l a i n e d a n d predicted all social conflicts w e r e enduring class w a r s , b u t it w a s Lenin w h o actually d e v e l o p e d the idea of a class struggle in antiquity between slave a n d m a s t e r - subsequently repeated by Stalin but, ironically, a view n o t a l w a y s s h a r e d by M a r x Yet of g r e a t significance is the fact that n o o n e m a r c h e d under the b a n n e r ' d o w n with slavery' d u r i n g these w a r s , o n the c o n t r a r y they w e r e r e b e l l i o n s a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l m a s t e r s o r rebellions by individuals w h o n o longer w a n t e d t o be e n s l a v e d In t r u t h , the have-not slaves a n d p r o l e t a r i a t did n o t rise u p t o get their s h a r e Francois Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture (c 1744-1803), Haitian patriot and martyr, the 'black Spartacus' who led his people to freedom and independence Taking heart from the French Revolution, the concepts of Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite were manifest in Toussaint's political make-up Little known in the Anglo-Saxon world, his valiant life and tragic death are the topic of one of Wordsworth's finest sonnets (Ancient Art & Architecture) In the U n i t e d S t a t e s the l e f t - w i n g n o v e l i s t H o w a r d F a s t , w h o w a s i m p r i s o n e d for his p o l i t i c a l v i e w s , s a w S p a r t a c u s a s the a f f i r m a t i o n o f m a n ' s ability in all e r a s to resist d e h u m a n i z a t i o n G r e a t l y e n c o u r a g e d by the w r i t i n g s of R o s a L u x e m b u r g , w h o h a d very definite views a b o u t f r e e d o m , the u n d e r l y i n g t h e m e o f F a s t ' s n o v e l Spartacus is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , n a m e l y t h a t n o tyranny, r e g a r d l e s s of its p o w e r , c a n u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a i l o v e r the f o r c e of m a n ' s p a s s i o n for f r e e d o m U s i n g the little t h a t w a s k n o w n a b o u t S p a r t a c u s a s a b a s i s , e v e n g o i n g s o far a s t o t e a c h h i m s e l f L a t i n (pity for h i m the m a i n s u r v i v i n g s o u r c e s w e r e written in G r e e k ) , H o w a r d F a s t m o u l d e d the g l a d i a t o r rebel i n t o a m y t h i c a l h e r o , a m e s s i a n i c f i g u r e e n g a g e d in a n e p i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e t o o v e r t h r o w R o m e in o r d e r t o r e s t o r e a l e g e n d a r y G o l d e n A g e o f p r i m i t i v e tribal c o m m u n i s m s a i d t o h a v e e x i s t e d in s o m e d i s t a n t e p o c h p r i o r t o the a d v e n t of h u m a n e x p l o i t a t i o n T h e m o d e r n r e a d e r h a s a d e v e l o p e d , scientific v i e w of history, t h a t is t o say, w e a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o v e all w i t h w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d T h e s t o r y o f the G o l d e n A g e , a very e a r l y a n d a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l m y t h of a lost p a r a d i s e , w h e n p e o p l e lived in h u m b l e c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h n o technology, n o art or c u l t u r e , a n d n o w a r , w a s never i n t e n d e d t o be h i s t o r i c a l F o r F a s t , h o w e v e r , strict a d h e r e n c e t o t h e k n o w n h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s w a s less i m p o r t a n t t h a n the t i m e l e s s m o r a l t r u t h t h a t w a s i m p l i c i t in the l e g e n d o f 85 S p a r t a c u s A m y t h , after all, d o e s n o t i m p a r t f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t is p r i m a r i l y a g u i d e t o i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o u r - it e x p l o r e s o u r d e s i r e s , o u r fears, our longings, a n d provides a narrative that r e m i n d s u s w h a t it m e a n s t o be h u m a n It is n o t yet o u t o f d a t e Yet b e c a u s e m o s t o f u s n o l o n g e r u s e m y t h , O c c i d e n t a l m o d e r n i t y being the child of r e a s o n , m a n y o f u s h a v e lost all sense of w h a t it is C o m p a r e d with Fast's upbeat novel, where S p a r t a c u s is the e m b o d i m e n t o f the l o v e o f life h o w e v e r a w f u l life i s , A r t h u r K o e s t l e r ' s n o v e l takes a rather m o r e melancholic approach K o e s t l e r , w h o w a s b o r n in B u d a p e s t in , h a d b e e n a n a c t i v e m e m b e r o f the C o m m u n i s t Party a n d h a d f o u g h t in the S p a n i s h C i v i l War, b e i n g c a p t u r e d by F r a n c o ' s r e b e l s a t o n e p o i n t a n d i m p r i s o n e d under sentence of death H e w a s d i s i l l u s i o n e d a n d e m b i t t e r e d b y the s h o w trials a n d left the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (or K P D , C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f G e r m a n y ) , the s u c c e s s o r o f the Spartakusbund On April Fool's Day 1865, Marx's eldest daughter, Jenny, presented her father with a survey asking him his likes and dislikes; favourite food (fish), favourite colour (red), etc To the question about his heroes, Marx replied 'Spartacus and Kepler' Yet the philosopher's admiration for the gladiator was a modern sentimentfreedom for him entailed release from commercial labour (Ancient Art & Architecture) H i s n o v e l , The Gladiators, w h i c h w a s written a t the t i m e his c o m r a d e s w e r e b e i n g s e n s e l e s s l y p u r g e d , is a b o u t h o w r e v o l u t i o n s t u r n b a d M a n ' s inability t o unite is divinely o r d a i n e d a n d i n e v i t a b l e , a n d t h u s S p a r t a c u s is p o r t r a y e d a s b e i n g f o r c e d by c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o sell o u t A g r a m m a r i a n a n d a r h e t o r i c i a n c a l l e d Z o z i m o s is given a cynical speech: And I tell you, it is dangerous to combine so much power in the fist, and so many lofty reasons in the head, of one single person In the beginning the head will always order the fist to strike from lofty reasons; later on the fist strikes of its own accord and the head supplies the lofty reasons afterwards; and the person does not even notice the difference That's human nature my lad Many a man has started out a friend of the people and ended up as a tyrant; but history gives not a single example of a man starting out as a tyrant and ending up as a friend of the people Therefore I tell you again: there is nothing so dangerous as a dictator who means well (The Gladiators, 1999, p 204) In o t h e r w o r d s , the e n d r e s u l t w a s a l w a y s the s a m e , n a m e l y a n a u t o c r a t i c , centralized g o v e r n m e n t , h e a d e d u p by a ruthless dictator T h e dictator, m a k i n g a m o c k e r y o f e l e m e n t a r y h u m a n r i g h t s , h a d t o be o b e y e d , n o m a t t e r w h a t he t o l d s o m e b o d y t o d o A s w i t h all d i c t a t o r s h i p s , it w a s o n l y all right for t h o s e at the t o p B u t S p a r t a c u s h a d t o o m u c h c o m p a s s i o n for his followers t o t a k e s u c h a r o u t e , s o he d o o m s his r e v o l u t i o n t o c e r t a i n d e f e a t T h e failure o f a r e v o l u t i o n s o often d e r i v e s a s m u c h f r o m the w e a k n e s s a n d m i s t a k e s of the r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a s it d o e s f r o m the s t r e n g t h o f their o p p o n e n t We leave t o the p o l i t i c a l p u n d i t s o f c y n i c a l w i s d o m the d u b i o u s p l e a s u r e o f p o i n t i n g o u t ( f r o m the h i n d s i g h t o f the t h - c e n t u r y S o v i e t e x p e r i e n c e ) t h a t p e r e n n i a l c h e s t n u t t h a t ' r e v o l u t i o n s a l w a y s e a t u p their c h i l d r e n ' F a s t m a y h a v e believed in the nobility o f the h u m a n spirit, n o t s o J a m e s L e s l i e M i t c h e l l M i t c h e l l f o u n d a n a t u r a l a t t r a c t i o n t o the s t o r y o f the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n a n d , w r i t i n g u n d e r his S c o t t i s h p s e u d o n y m o f ' L e w i s 86 G r a s s i c G i b b o n ' , he p r o d u c e d Spartacus in 3 a t the height o f the G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n A s a D i f f u s i o n i s t , M i t c h e l l believed civilization w a s a blight, o v e r t a k i n g originally free a n d h a p p y h u m a n i t y f r o m the E g y p t i a n pyramid-builders o n w a r d s , bringing to p e o p l e w h o w e r e a l r e a d y living full a n d i m a g i n a t i v e lives s e t t l e m e n t , culture, a s well a s p r o p e r t y , c o m p u l s i o n , w a r , t y r a n n y , religion, a n d m e n t a l e n s l a v e m e n t T h e n o v e l is a telling indictment of men's inhumanity to those over w h o m they h a v e t o t a l c o n t r o l Since the c o n s e n s u s o f o u r a n c i e n t a u t h o r s is t h a t S p a r t a c u s d i e d in b a t t l e , his e l e v a t i o n t o the c r o s s c a n have no p u r p o s e other than to evoke c o m p a r i s o n with t h a t other f a m o u s f r e e d o m fighter, the N a z a r e n e S l a i n by o p p r e s s o r s , his d e a t h t h u s a c q u i r e s a n a u r a o f sanctity a n d he h i m s e l f b e c o m e s a s o r t o f p r o t o - C h r i s t , a secular M e s s i a h In this r e s p e c t it is interesting t o n o t e that G i b b o n ' s n o v e l b e g i n s a n d e n d s o n the s a m e n o t e : 'It w a s the S p r i n g t i m e in Italy, a h u n d r e d y e a r s b e f o r e the c r u c i f i x i o n o f C h r i s t ' In d e a t h t h e g a u n t a n d bearded Che Guevara bore an uncanny resemblance to a sacrificed C h r i s t , w h i c h h e l p e d create a n i m a g e o f h i m as a m a r t y r a n d p r o p h e t L i k e S p a r t a c u s , C h e G u e v a r a b e c a m e a m o r e p o t e n t s y m b o l in d e a t h t h a n he h a d ever been in life M e n ( a n d w o m e n , for t h a t m a t t e r ) d o n o t die w h e n their life a n d e x a m p l e c a n s e r v e a s a g u i d e to others T h e intelligentsia of the Soviet U n i o n h a d a n e a r - o b s e s s i o n w i t h S p a r t a c u s as a 'world revolutionary figure' T h e t w o decades between 3 a n d f o r m e d a p e r i o d w h e n the c o l l e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l t h i n k i n g o f the S o v i e t intelligentsia, f o l l o w i n g l e a d e n hints in directives i s s u e d by C o m r a d e S t a l i n , w a s d o m i n a t e d by the d o c t r i n e t h a t the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n h a d b e e n a c l a s s struggle b e t w e e n the o p p r e s s e d a n d their o p p r e s s o r s , a conflict b e t w e e n the 'slave-owner class' and 'politically-aware slaves' Then along c a m e J o s e p h V o g t a n d a b a n d of fellow G e r m a n a c a d e m i c s f l a u n t i n g a n anti-Soviet banner O b v i o u s l y f i n d i n g fault w i t h the S t a l i n i s t v i e w t h a t S p a r t a c u s led a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a r m e d s t r u g g l e t h a t o v e r t u r n e d the d o m i n a t i o n o f the c l a s s s y s t e m of the t i m e , V o g t a n d his n a t i o n a l i s t c h u m s w e r e k e e n t o p r e s e n t a m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c v i e w o f s l a v e r y ; t h o u g h the institution w a s m o r a l l y w r o n g , w a s it really that b a d after all? S u c h c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s fitted in nicely w i t h the c o n t e m p o r a r y climate of C o l d - W a r rhetoric a n d helped c o m b a t the c o m m u n i s t use of the S p a r t a c a n rebellion a s a m e a n s o f e n n o b l i n g a n d e n c o u r a g i n g the class struggle a g a i n s t m o d e r n c a p i t a l i s m O n his side o f the I r o n C u r t a i n V o g t t u r n e d a w a y f r o m the nastier a s p e c t s o f s l a v e r y by highlighting the p r a c t i c e o f m a n u m i s s i o n , w e t - n u r s i n g , p a t r i a r c h a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d the like For James Leslie Mitchell (Lewis Grassic Gibbon), a lifelong follower of Marx and a successful historian of early civilization, Spartacus allowed him to focus on his fiercely held beliefs in the nature of society, the freedom of the individual, and the inevitable collapse of civilization He published Spartacus in 1933, two years before his sudden death at the age of 34 (The Grassic Gibbon Centre) S t a n d i n g a g a i n s t this a n t i - c o m m u n i s t - c u m - h u m a n i s t i c a p p r o a c h w a s M o s e s Finley w h o a n n o u n c e d , in his t y p i c a l l y u n c o m p r o m i s i n g f a s h i o n , t h a t in the final a n a l y s i s the s l a v e w a s a p i e c e o f m o v a b l e p r o p e r t y a n d e v e n if granted certain privileges these were unilateral grants f r o m an individual m a s t e r a n d n o t a right t h a t r e c o g n i z e d the s l a v e a s a h u m a n b e i n g T o u s e the h a p p i n e s s o f s o m e t o offset the m i s e r y o f o t h e r s (surely the v a s t m a j o r i t y ) w a s pointless 87 A GUIDE TO PRIMARY SOURCES T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t written s o u r c e s for a n y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the S p a r t a c a n rebellion are the a c c o u n t s by the R o m a n historian Sallust, the G r e e k biographer P l u t a r c h , a n d the G r e e k h i s t o r i a n A p p i a n Plutarch's Life of Crassus (8-11) p r o v i d e s the f o l l o w i n g s k e l e t o n of events: • • T h e g a r r i s o n o f C a p u a is o v e r c o m e T h e p r a e t o r G l a b e r ( P l u t a r c h s i m p l y calls h i m C l o d i u s ) w i t h , 0 t r o o p s is d e f e a t e d • V a r i n i u s enters the s t o r y : his l e g a t e F u r i u s is r o u t e d (with , 0 m e n ) a s is his f e l l o w p r a e t o r C o s s i n i u s ( s u r p r i s e d by S p a r t a c u s ) , then V a r i n i u s himself S p a r t a c u s t a k e s V a r i n i u s ' h o r s e M e a n w h i l e G e l l i u s , o n e o f the c o n s u l s , falls o n a c o n t i n g e n t ( P l u t a r c h s p e c i f i c a l l y c a l l s it the G e r m a n c o n t i n g e n t ) f r o m the s l a v e a r m y a n d d e s t r o y s it L e n t u l u s , the o t h e r c o n s u l , is in t u r n d e f e a t e d by S p a r t a c u s , w h o sets off for the A l p s , w h e r e he c o n f r o n t s a n d r o u t s C a s s i u s (with , 0 m e n ) the g o v e r n o r o f G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a • • • • • • • C r a s s u s , d e c i m a t i n g the s u r v i v o r s o f M u m m i u s ' l e g i o n s , e s t a b l i s h e s firm l e a d e r s h i p w h i l e S p a r t a c u s h e a d s s o u t h for L u c a n i a a n d the s e a ; b a r g a i n s w i t h C i l i c i a n p i r a t e s b u t is b e t r a y e d by t h e m S p a r t a c u s e s t a b l i s h e s h i m s e l f in B r u t t i u m ; C r a s s u s t r a p s the s l a v e a r m y w i t h a fortified t r e n c h ; d i s s e n t in the s l a v e c a m p C r a s s u s b e g i n s t o fear the r e t u r n o f P o m p e y M e a n w h i l e , S p a r t a c u s e s c a p e s w i t h o n e - t h i r d o f his a r m y t h r o u g h C r a s s u s ' b a r r i e r o n a s n o w y , s t o r m y night T h e s l a v e s , internally d i v i d e d a n d w e a k e n e d by d e s e r t i o n , a r e b e a t e n o n c e (Plutarch m e n t i o n s the force u n d e r C a s t u s a n d G a n n i c u s , the latter he calls C a i u s C a n i c i u s ) a n d h e a d for the m o u n t a i n s o f Petelia S p a r t a c u s t u r n s o n his p u r s u e r s a n d r o u t s t h e m , s e r i o u s l y w o u n d i n g the q u a e s t o r S c r o f a (Skropbas in P l u t a r c h ' s G r e e k ) T h e final b a t t l e in L u c a n i a ; S p a r t a c u s is c u t d o w n w h i l e trying t o r e a c h a n d kill C r a s s u s B y u s i n g a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n s f r o m S a l l u s t a n d A p p i a n , a fuller, m o r e v i b r a n t picture of the rebellion is feasible Sallust's Historiae, for instance, p r o v i d e s a n insight i n t o the r e l e v a n c e of the rebellion t o the m a c h i n a t i o n s of the S e n a t e a n d its i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s , v o l a t i l e a t b e s t e s p e c i a l l y s o w h e n w e c o n s i d e r the c l a s h of e g o s t h a t w e r e C r a s s u s a n d P o m p e y U n f o r t u n a t e l y for u s , h o w e v e r , the Historiae, c o m p o s e d s o m e y e a r s after the e v e n t , a n d t h u s a r g u a b l y the m o s t o r i g i n a l s o u r c e o n the r e b e l l i o n , r e m a i n s o n l y in tantalizing f r a g m e n t s B u t then A p p i a n ' s Bellum civilia, his b o o k s d e a l i n g w i t h the civil w a r s o f the R e p u b l i c , a r e i n t a c t a n d offer u s ( 1 - ) s o m e d r a m a t i c details: • • T h e occupation of M o u n t Vesuvius T h e n a m e s of O e n o m a u s a n d C r i x u s • • T h e sacrifice o f R o m a n p r i s o n e r s t o the manes o f d e a d C r i x u s T h e n e a r - a t t a c k o n R o m e ( n o t in P l u t a r c h ) i n e x p l i c a b l y a b a n d o n e d M o r e o v e r , A p p i a n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the b r e a k o u t f r o m C r a s s u s ' t r a p in B r u t t i u m is full a n d v i g o r o u s H i s d e s c r i p t i o n of the final b a t t l e , w h i c h c o s t S p a r t a c u s his o w n life, is a l s o vivid T h e r e a g a i n , b e f o r e the c o n c l u d i n g c l i m a x Plutarch h a s S p a r t a c u s sacrifice his s u p e r b w h i t e stallion O f c o u r s e the t w o G r e e k writers c o m p o s e d their a c c o u n t s a b o u t t w o centuries after the rebellion o c c u r r e d , while all three c a m e f r o m the privileged elites o f their day S a l l u s t w a s a R o m a n s e n a t o r retired f r o m active politics, Plutarch a n d A p p i a n w e a l t h y G r e e k a r i s t o c r a t s w i t h c l o s e political ties t o the i m p e r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t , a n d naturally n o n e of t h e m h a d m u c h s y m p a t h y for s l a v e s Indeed, we m u s t r e m e m b e r that these writers viewed the S p a r t a c a n rebellion a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a h i c c u p in the g r a n d s c h e m e o f t h i n g s N o t o n e a c c o u n t w a s w r i t t e n by a s l a v e or a f o r m e r s l a v e , a n d b e c a u s e the r e b e l s h a v e left n o s t a t e m e n t s of their a s p i r a t i o n s a n d i n t e n t i o n s , their v i e w o f events m u s t r e m a i n i r r e c o v e r a b l e T h u s it h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t the i n f o r m a t i o n w e h a v e c o m e s f r o m n o n - s l a v e s o u r c e s , m e n w h o r a t i o n a l i z e d the b e h a v i o u r of the rebel s l a v e s in their o w n w a y , a n d , a s in all t h i n g s h u m a n , f r o m a f a r events are i m a g i n e d m o r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d less i n t e r t w i n e d , yet everything l o o k s different c l o s e t o O n l y o u r three m a i n a u t h o r s a r e listed in the p a g e s t h a t follow F u r t h e r details a b o u t these a u t h o r s , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t other s o u r c e s , is m o s t conveniently available in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd edition) In the following notes 'Penguin' d e n o t e s Penguin C l a s s i c s , a n d ' L o e b ' d e n o t e s L o e b Classical Library T h e L o e b editions, which are published by H a r v a r d University Press, display a n English t r a n s l a t i o n of a text n e x t t o the original l a n g u a g e APPIAN (b A D 95) A p p i a n ( A p p i a n u s ) w a s a n A l e x a n d r i a n G r e e k w h o r o s e t o h i g h office in his native city, a n d a p p e a r s t o h a v e p r a c t i s e d l a w in R o m e , w h e r e he p l e a d e d c a s e s b e f o r e the e m p e r o r s H a d r i a n a n d A n t o n i n u s P i u s H e c o m p o s e d his Roman Affairs (Romaika) s o m e t i m e d u r i n g the reign o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s , a t the height o f the p e r i o d t h a t E d w a r d G i b b o n a p t l y l a b e l l e d 'the g o l d e n a g e of the A n t o n i n e s ' A p p i a n ' s t a r g e t a u d i e n c e w a s the c u l t u r e d G r e e k - s p e a k i n g privileged elite o f the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w h o h a d l o n g b e e n n o t m e r e l y affected by R o m a n r u l e , b u t a l s o d e e p l y i n v o l v e d w i t h its w o r k i n g s S o m e o f its m e m b e r s h a d a l r e a d y b e c o m e R o m a n s e n a t o r s a n d e v e n c o n s u l s , w h i l e m a n y m o r e , like A p p i a n himself, h a d benefited f r o m i m p e r i a l p a t r o n a g e B u t a l t h o u g h R o m e h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a s e c u r e w o r l d order, it r e m a i n e d a f o r e i g n p o w e r , its h i s t o r y g e n e r a l l y little u n d e r s t o o d o r a p p r e c i a t e d by m e n w h o h a d b e e n b r o u g h t u p o n the G r e e k c l a s s i c s a n d did n o t s u b s c r i b e t o quite the s a m e v a l u e s a s their p o l i t i c a l m a s t e r s T w e n t y - f o u r b o o k s in l e n g t h , A p p i a n ' s a c c o u n t o f R o m a n h i s t o r y is essentially a narrative of conquest and struggle, and therefore a narrative o f w a r H i s f u n d a m e n t a l a i m is t o p a i n t a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the R o m a n s t o the v a r i o u s n a t i o n s w h o m they b r o u g h t u n d e r their sway T h i s l e a d s h i m t o b r e a k u p his n a r r a t i v e in s u c h a w a y t h a t e a c h b o o k d e a l s w i t h the i n t e r a c t i o n o f R o m e a n d a p a r t i c u l a r ethnic g r o u p N o n e t h e l e s s , he f o l l o w s a fairly c l e a r c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e , p l a c i n g the b o o k s in the o r d e r in w h i c h the v a r i o u s p e o p l e s first c l a s h e d w i t h the R o m a n s T h e r e is a L o e b t r a n s l a t i o n o f w h a t s u r v i v e s o f A p p i a n ' s w o r k a s a w h o l e , while a P e n g u i n e d i t i o n e n t i t l e d The Civil Wars a d m i r a b l y c o v e r s the p e r i o d f r o m 3 BC d o w n t o B C , t h a t is, f r o m the t i m e w h e n T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s w a s c l u b b e d t o d e a t h b y his p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s t o the terrible civil conflicts f o l l o w i n g the m u r d e r o f C a e s a r b y his s o - c a l l e d f r i e n d s , a n d t h u s i n c l u d e s the c h a p t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n PLUTARCH (c A D 46-120) F r o m C h a i r o n e i a in B o i o t i a , the h u g e l y l e a r n e d a n d prolific P l u t a r c h ( L u c i u s [?] M e s t r i u s P l u t a r c h u s ) w a s a n a r i s t o c r a t i c G r e e k w h o m o v e d in the cultured R o m a n circles o f his d a y , a n d m a y h a v e held s o m e i m p e r i a l p o s t s u n d e r the e m p e r o r s T r a j a n a n d H a d r i a n H e a l s o s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r of the college of p r i e s t s a t D e l p h i G r e e c e w a s t h e n a c o m f o r t a b l e , d e m i l i t a r i z e d b a c k w a t e r of the R o m a n e m p i r e a n d A t h e n s itself, w h e r e he s t u d i e d p h i l o s o p h y a s a y o u n g m a n , a self-satisfied u n i v e r s i t y t o w n a n d c u l t u r a l c e n t r e N o m a t t e r they h a d b e e n d e a d for c e n t u r i e s , A t h e n s w a s still the city o f P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e , a n d for a n y p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y a n d a c a d e m i c a l l y inclined s t u d e n t it h a d s t a t u s , c l a s s , a n d a r e p u t a t i o n t h a t o t h e r p l a c e s o f l e a r n i n g c o u l d never e q u a l H i s Parallel Lives (Bioi paralleloi) is a n e x t r e m e l y useful s o u r c e for R o m a n ( a n d G r e e k ) h i s t o r y , a s he c o l l e c t e d m u c h d e t a i l a n d v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s H o w e v e r , P l u t a r c h c a n b e fairly u n c r i t i c a l H i s m a i n a i m is t o m o r a l i z e a b o u t the n a t u r e o f t h e m a n , this k e e n i n t e r e s t in i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g y b e i n g c o u p l e d w i t h a n e q u a l l y k e e n eye (as S h a k e s p e a r e w a s t o a p p r e c i a t e ) for a d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n Yet it s h o u l d b e s a i d t h a t P l u t a r c h d o e s m a k e a fair s t a b in s o m e o f the Lives, w h i c h w e r e w r i t t e n in p a i r s o f G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s o f s i m i l a r e m i n e n c e a n d then a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the t w o , at p r o d u c i n g s o m e s o r t o f h i s t o r y T h u s , for i n s t a n c e , A g e s i l a o s is c o m p a r e d w i t h P o m p e y a n d N i k i a s w i t h C r a s s u s T h e Lives, o f w h i c h there are p a i r s a n d f o u r t h a t h a v e b e e n left u n p a i r e d , a r e a v a i l a b l e in v a r i o u s P e n g u i n a n d Loeb volumes SALLUST (86-c 35 B C ) S a l l u s t ( C a i u s S a l l u s t i u s C r i s p u s ) , w h o held v a r i o u s p u b l i c offices in R o m e a n d later a g o v e r n o r s h i p in A f r i c a , w a s a p a r t i s a n o f C a e s a r a n d a n o p p o n e n t o f P o m p e y H e w a s b o r n in A m i t e r n u m , a p r o v i n c i a l t o w n in the S a b i n e h i g h l a n d s o f c e n t r a l Italy, a n d d u r i n g the e a r l y y e a r s of his political career he b e c a m e i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e populares, a m o n g w h o m C a e s a r w a s the m o s t p r o m i n e n t A popularis w a s an aristocratic populist w h o tended to bypass the S e n a t e by enlisting the s u p p o r t o f the t r i b u n e s o f the p e o p l e a n d t h r o u g h t h e m of the p e o p l e a t l a r g e H e p a s s e d t h r o u g h the j u n i o r m a g i s t r a t e s o f a s e n a t o r i a l career, b e c o m i n g a q u a e s t o r a r o u n d 5 B C , a n d , in B C , he w a s elected a s o n e o f the t r i b u n e s o f the p e o p l e T w o y e a r s later he w a s e x p e l l e d f r o m the S e n a t e by the c e n s o r s for a l l e g e d i m m o r a l i t y ; m u c h t h a t w a s s a i d a b o u t h i m b y his e n e m i e s w a s m e r e m a l i c i o u s g o s s i p A y e a r o r s o later, h o w e v e r , the i n f l u e n c e o f C a e s a r e n a b l e d h i m t o b e e l e c t e d t o a s e c o n d q u a e s t o r s h i p a n d t o re-enter the S e n a t e S a l l u s t c r o s s e d the R u b i c o n w i t h C a e s a r , a n d d u r i n g the y e a r s t o BC he loyally s e r v e d h i m a s a n officer in v a r i o u s c a m p a i g n s o f the civil w a r , w a s elected p r a e t o r , a n d w a s installed by the d i c t a t o r a s g o v e r n o r o f A f r i c a N o v a , a p r o v i n c e j u s t f o r m e d f r o m the k i n g d o m o f t h e p r o - P o m p e i a n I u b a o f N u m i d i a S a l l u s t is s a i d t o h a v e fleeced the p r o v i n c i a l s i g n o m i n i o u s l y a n d t o h a v e b e e n s a v e d f r o m c o n v i c t i o n o n l y b y the g o o d g r a c e o f his p a t r o n , t o w h o m he a p p a r e n t l y g a v e a s i z e a b l e b a c k h a n d e r C e r t a i n l y he d i d very well by C a e s a r , o w n i n g a g r a n d villa a t T i b u r ( T i v o l i ) a n d a s p l e n d i d p a r k a t R o m e , the c e l e b r a t e d horti Sallustiani, w h i c h the h i s t o r i a n l a v i s h l y e m b e l l i s h e d f r o m his o w n p u r s e A recently resurfaced section of the Via Appia in Rome, photographed in the 1950s Built on a monumental scale, Roman roads combined practical utility with visually impressive statements of power They also provided direct, well-maintained routes along which the legions could move with ease (Library of Congress) A s a h i s t o r i a n S a l l u s t is b e s t k n o w n for his t w o Iugurthinum, s u r v i v i n g m o n o g r a p h s , the Bellum w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the w a r b e t w e e n R o m e a n d the N u m i d i a n k i n g I u g u r t h a f r o m 1 t o BC, a n d the Bellum Catilinae, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the u n s u c c e s s f u l r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the R o m a n R e p u b l i c in BC In the late forties BC, h a v i n g set a s i d e the s w o r d for the p e n after t h e d e a t h o f C a e s a r , S a l l u s t a l s o w r o t e a c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y o f R o m e in five b o o k s , w h i c h c o v e r e d t h e e v e n t s f r o m the r e b e l l i o n o f M a r c u s A e m i l i u s L e p i d u s in BC a t least d o w n t o the y e a r BC if n o t BC, the y e a r the o p p o r t u n i s t i c coalition b e t w e e n P o m p e y , C r a s s u s , a n d C a e s a r , the so-called first t r i u m v i r a t e , w a s f o r m e d It is k n o w n t h a t the S p a r t a c a n rebellion w a s included, but unfortunately o n l y a f e w set s p e e c h e s a n d letters a n d a q u a n t i t y of s h o r t n a r r a t i v e f r a g m e n t s o f the Historiae survive T h e r e a r e all s o r t s o f r e a s o n s w h y t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r b i t s a n d p i e c e s r a t h e r t h a n a n y o t h e r s s u r v i v e the centuries, a m o n g s t them pure chance Another of Sanesi's illustrations for Giovagnoli's Spartaco, this time depicting Spartacus sacrificing his horse before the final showdown with Crassus Frequently reprinted after its initial publication, as well as translated into many other languages, this historical masterpiece also provided the basis for the first cinematic portrayals of Spartacus, produced in the fledgling nation of Italy just prior to World War I (Reproduced from R Giovagnoli, Spartaco, Rome, 1874) 92 S a l l u s t m a y h a v e p r o v e d t o be a p o o r soldier, but he w a s c e r t a i n l y t o b e c o m e f a m o u s a s a writer o f influential style K e e n t o illustrate t o his r e a d e r s h i p the decline a n d c o r r u p t i o n of the R o m a n s t a t e , w h i c h he a s c r i b e s t o the r e f i n e m e n t a n d r i c h e s c r e a t e d by the w a r s of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, S a l l u s t w r i t e s in a highly i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o m e w h a t artificial style, m o s t l y in s h o r t , terse s e n t e n c e s , p a c k e d full o f i d e a s t h a t he s e e m s i m p a t i e n t t o e x p r e s s H e is f o n d o f a n t i t h e s i s , i m i t a t i n g here the G r e e k style o f T h u c y d i d e s , w h o m he g r e a t l y a d m i r e d , b u t a v o i d s s y m m e t r y a n d s m o o t h n e s s , even t o the p o i n t o f a b r u p t n e s s BIBLIOGRAPHY Adcock, E E , Marcus Crassus: Millionaire (Cambridge: Heffer & Sons, 1966) Bradley, K.R., Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World, 140 BC - 70 BC (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 9 , 1998) Brown, S., Spartacus (Nottingham: Warhammer Historical Wargames, 0 ) Brunt, P.A Italian Manpower 225 BC - AD 14 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, , 1987) Brunt, P.A The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988) Cohen, G.A Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978) Gabba, E (trans P.J Cuff) Republican Rome: The Army and Allies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973) Garnsey, P.D.A and Sailer, R.P The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture (London: Duckworth, 1987) Grant, M Gladiators (London: Penguin, , 0 ) Greene, K The Archaeology of the Roman Economy (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 1990) Fields, N The Roman Army: The Civil Wars 88-31 BC (Oxford: Osprey Battle Orders 34, 2008) Finley, M.I Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (Princeton, N J : M a r k u s Weiner, 1980, 1998) Finley, M.I The Ancient Economy (London: University of California Press, 1999, 2nd ed.) Harris, W.V 'Spartacus', in M C Carnes (ed.), Bast Imperfect: History according to the Movies (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), pp - Hopkins, K Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978) James, C.L.R The Black Jacobins (London: Penguin, , 0 ) Katzenberger, E (ed.) First World, Ha Ha Ha! The Zapatista Challenge (San Francisco: City Light Books, 1995) Marshall, B.A Crassus: A Political Biography (Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1976) Rice Holmes, T The Roman Republic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923) Rubinsohn, W.Z (trans J G Griffith) Spartacus' Uprising and Soviet Historical Writing (Oxford: O x b o w Books, 1983) Shaw, B.D 'Bandits in the R o m a n Empire', Past & Present, 105 (1984), pp - Shaw, B.D (ed.) Spartacus and the Slave Wars: A Brief History with Documents (Boston & N e w York: Bedford/St Martin's Press, 0 ) Stockton, D.L Cicero: A Political Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971) Sullivan, J.P (ed.) 'Marxism and the Classics', Arethusa, 8:1 (1975), pp - 2 Trow, M.J Spartacus: The Myth and the Man (Stroud: Sutton, 0 ) Urbainczyk, T Spartacus (London: Bristol Classical Press, 0 ) Vogt, J (trans T.E.J Wiedemann) Ancient Slavery and the Ideal of Man (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974) Ward, A M Marcus Crassus and the Late Republic (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 1977) Welch, K 'The Roman arena in late republican Italy: A new interpretation', Journal of Roman Archaeology, (1994), pp - Winkler, M M Spartacus: Film and History (Oxford: Blackwell, 0 ) Wisdom, S Gladiators 100 BC- AD 200 (Oxford: Osprey - Warrior , 0 ) Yavetz, Z Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome (Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988) Ziegler, K 'Die Herkunft des Spartacus', Hermes, 83 (1955), pp - GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS Aedile Annually elected junior magistrate (two plebeian and As/asses two curule or patrician) responsible for public works and games Copper coin, originally worth Aquila/aquilae l/10th of denarius (q.v.), but retariffed at 16 to the denarius at the time of Gracchi 'Eagle' - standard of legio (q.v.) Munus/munera Pala/palae Patera/paterae Passus/passuum 'Obligation' - gladiatorial fight Pilum/pila Spade Bronze mess tin 'One-pace' - Roman feet (1.48m) Principal throwing weapon Pilum muralis of legionaries Wooden stake for marching camp defences Pugio/pugiones Dagger carried by legionaries Scutum/scuta Sesterce/sestertii Shield carried by legionaries Brass coin worth 1/4 of Centurio/centuriones 'Eagle-bearer' - standard-bearer who carried aquila (q.v.) 'Head count' - Roman citizens owing insufficient property to qualify for military service Officer in command of centuria Centuria/centuriae (q.v.) Sub-unit of cohors Cohors/cohortes Standard tactical unit of legio the mina being a unit of weight (q.v.) 'Tentful' - mess-unit of eight legionaries, ten per centuria (q.v.) 'Ten as piece' - silver coin, now worth 16 asses (q.v.) 'Choosing' - levying of troops equivalent to 100 Attic drachmae or 70 Aiginetan drachmae Aquilifer/aquiliferi Capite censi Contubernium Denarius/denarii Dilectus Dolabra/dolabrae Signum/signa Talent (q.v.) Trulleus Quaestor denarius (q.v.) Standard of centuria (q.v.) Fixed Greek weight of silver equivalent to 60 minae (Attic-Euboic talanton = 26.2kg, Aiginetan talanton = 43.6kg), Bronze cooking pot Annually elected junior magistrate principally responsible for financial matters Bailiff Pickaxe Member of equestrian order Vilicus/vilici Eques/equites Furca/furcae T-shaped pole carried Abbreviations AE Gladius/gladii by legionaries Cut-and-thrust sword carried L'Annee Epigraphique (Paris, 1888-) by legionaries Baggage animals Principal unit of Roman army Mail armour Head herdsman 'Handful' - tactical unit of manipular legion of CIL ILS T Mommsen et al., Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (Berlin, 1862-) H Dessau, Inscriptiones MMR II Latinae Selectae (Berlin, 1892-1916) T.R.S Broughton, The Impedimenta Legio/legiones Lorica bamata Magister pecoris Manipulus/manipuli Mille passus 94 middle Republic 'One-thousand paces' Roman mile (1.48km) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol II (New York, 1952) INDEX Figures in bold refer to illustrations entrapment of , - , 6 , , , , 8 , 89 agricultural slaves (mancipa rustica) 15, 18-19, 35, 37-8 armour/dress , , , , , - , 58 final defeat of , , - , , - Crixus (rebel leader) , , , 5 , 89 Agrigentum 9, death of , , , , 63 amphitheatres , , fighting force combat - , 28, 51 equipment/weaponry , , , , , 48, - , 58 feeding and training of , - , 58 Antiochos (slave king) c o m p o s i t i o n , , 5 , , - , 70 harsh treatment of , 58 Appian (historian) , 8 - dress and w e a p o n r y - , prisoners as , , , , , pirate operations final battle 5 , , , - , 70 sacrifice of prisoners movements (72 BC) slave army/rebellion , , , , , , 5 , , , 84, 89 and Spartacus , , 5 , rebellion in C a p u a , - , 58 Grassic G i b b o n , Lewis - , grave markers , , crucifixion (prisoners) , - , G u e v a r a , Ernesto ' C h e ' , 6, armour , 2 , , , 4 , 4 , , , , - , 78 Athenaios 19-20,28 Athenion (slave king) 9-10 decimation (as punishment) , 88 H e r a , Temple of Delos 16, 16 house slaves (mancipa Demeter, Temple of 6, h u m a n sacrifices - , 2 , 15 urbana) D i o d o r o s 7, 8, 9, Batiatus, Cnaeus Lentulus , 58 Bithynia D o u g l a s , Kirk 51 Iberia/Iberians 28,30 31,32,37 Iugurtha, King of N u m i d i a , Brundisium , Enna (Sicily) , , 6, 6, 7, Bruttium - , 6 , 6 eques and slave army , 8 , 89 14, equites busts/statues 8, 3 , , , , , 84 kitchen equipment 4 , - , 58 14, , 33 Kleon (slave) ('work barracks') , , ergastula 8,9 Kubrick, Stanley , , , 83 Eunus (slave) 8, Caesar, Julius 7, 3 , , , , , elected as military tribune 4 Licinia (Vestal Virgin) fasces 42 32-3 Lilybaeum ( M a r s a l a ) 8, 10, 10 importance of gladiators , 82 First Punic War Livy on slave rebellion , , 5 , 84 ownership of slaves 19 First Slave War 6, 7, - , , L'Ouverture, Francois , 85 and slave army - Florus on slave rebellion , , , , Lucania/Lucanians - , , 80 C a m p a n i a 2 , , , , 80 , , 84 C a p u a , , , 88 gladiatorial training school , , , , , , - , , 82 attacks on Greece - Frontinus on slave rebellion , , 53 duels as competition funerary m o n u m e n t s , , 4 and slave rebellion , , , 8 , 89 Furius, C a i u s (legate) , 88 Lucullus, M a r c u s Terentius Varro Gallia Cisalpina , , 88 ludus, configuration/purpose of , , Castello di L o m b a r d i a , 7, (proconsul) , 74 Castrum Petrae Roseti Castus (rebel leader) , , , , 88 C a t o and battle at G a r g a n u s 59 C a t o the Elder - , 18, , 59 on use of slaves 15,18,19 Cicero (historian) , Caius Verres 8,48,50 (commoners) Gannicus, C a i u s (rebel leader) , , defeat of , 88 G a r g a n o hills , G a r g a n u s , battle at (72 B C ) 5 , , provision of slaves , and slave army , , , , , 5 , 62, 63, - , 70 R o m a n army , 4 prisoners as gladiators , , , , - , 58 slave rebellion , , 83 Cilician pirates weaponry 10,20 consuls 9, , , , , , - , 70 Cossinius, Lucius (praetor) , , 88 Crassus, Marcius Licinius (praetor) , - , 33, 44, 88, 90, 92 businessman , - , 81 , , 8 , 89 military c o m m a n d e r , , 3 , , , 80, - , 88 political ambitions , 3 , , 82 45,51 M a r x , Karl , , , on freedom/revolution , 86 - , , 88 Mithridates IV, King , , M o n t e Pollino (Lucania) mosaics , 43 in slave army , , , 5 , , M o u n t Vesuvius , , 5 rebel slaves on , , , , 89 M u m m i u s (legate) Glaber, C a i u s Claudius (praetor) defeat by slave army , 88 defeat of by slave army , , 88 hostility towards Pompey , 3 , , and slave army/rebellion defeats slave army contingent 5 , , , Germans/Germany and R o m a n army , - , , M a r s (war-god) 4 Metapontum 54, 59, 62 - , 70 character traits - , 82 82 on S p a r t a c u s 6, , , 86 39 Gellius, Lucius (consul) , , - , betrayal of Spartacus , 88 28,30,43 M a r i u s , C a s s i u s (consul) 31 justness of slavery Sicily 7, Macedonia M a g n u s , C n a e u s Pompeius Gaul/Gauls 14 - , 58 Luxemburg, Rosa 5, 85 - , 70 gladiatorial c o m b a t , - , , 83 proletarii 21 31,32,33, gladiatorial contests - , 2 , Octavianus (Augustus) , amphitheatres used , , O e n o m a u s (slave leader) , , , , 89 development/popularity 2 , - , Orosius role of lanistae O s c a n speakers (groupings of) 22 30,48,53,62 25-6 gladiatorial training school , , , , , - , 58 gladiators (bustarii) - , , , 83 Paestum 21,25-6,59,74 palaestra 52 95 Perusia, fall of role/rule of Senate legal definition of 16, - Pizzo (Calabria) 6 as slave society master-slave relationship Plutarch (historian) 8 , , and slave uprisings , 7, - cost of slaves 19 15-20 threat of attack on , - Crassus 27, 33, 63, , 67, 90 R o s e t o C a p o Spulico 16-17 15,16-17 Social War ( - 8 BC) , 26 Soverato (Calabria) legionary's equipment Pompey treatment of Spartacus see also slave army/rebellion 90 Sallust (historian) 6 , 8 , , - rebel slaves/slave army , , 5 , , , 89 decline of R o m a n state R o m a n army , , slave herdsmen , 54 , , 6 , , - , , , 88, , 92 slave rebellion , , , , 5 , , Spartacus 6, , , , , , , , 74-5 brutality of , , , 89 clashes with R o m a n armies , , , 84,88-9 c o m p a s s i o n for followers 86 death of 7, - , - , , 87, 88, 89 Salvius (slave king: Tryphon) 9, 10 depiction of Pompeii , , , , Samnites , 2 , , - , , cinematic , , , , , Pompey , , , , , , Second Punic War 7, graffito character traits , Second Slave War - , , , literature , - , , hostility t o w a r d s C r a s s u s , 3 , , Senate/senators 9, 10, , mythological/revolutionary hero - , , 89 enrolment of capite 41,42 censi and rebel slaves/slave army , , exclusivity/prestige of 14 p o p u l a r support for , 88 and gladiatorial spectacles Porta Collina, battle of (82 B C ) praetors, role of pursuit of Spartacus , , , 74 use of slaves 7, 8, , R o m a n rule 7, - , 10, , q u a e s t o r s , role of 8, , and slave army , , slave uprisings 6, 7, - , , , , reliefs , , 2 , 4 , , slave army/rebellion see also Spartacus as gladiator , , , , 30 legacy of 30-1,47 83-7 movements of ( - BC) , , 36, , , , 5 , , , , , , 74, 88 relationship with Crixus , , 55 Rome's reaction to - , , , 84 sacrifices white stallion , , River Silarus (Sele) , , 78 47, 50, 53, 65, 82 strength and spirit 71 R o c c a di Cerere (Enna) , assaults on towns , , Thracian origins , , R o m a n army chances of success , 86 training of new recruits , clashes with R o m a n armies , , , weakness of position composition/elements of - , (standard-bearer) aquilifer 45 centurions , 4 , , - , 78 hastati (spearmen) , (baggage train) 4 impedimenta legionnaires 9, , 4 - , 4 M a r i a n faction/legion , , , - , , 46 , 88 mess-unit (contubernium) signifier 45 (chief men) , (standard-bearer) slave-volunteers 43 41-2 triarii (third-rank men) , velites (light-armed troops) dress/uniforms , 4 age of the citizen-soldier 41-2 , 42, 45, 46 censi Strode, Woody 34-5 auxiliaries for R o m a n forces , and slave army , 50 prisoners as gladiators , , , , division a m o n g s t leaders , , 5 , , 88 intended dispersal of Thrax people , , m a k i n g use of prisoners Thurii, and slave army , , , , movements of ( - B C ) , , victories 5 , , , - , , , , - , , - , 88 weaponry , 43, 44, 44, 45 Rome Varinia (Spartacus' wife) , 82 provisions for , , , , 6 - role of w o m e n in , - Senate reaction to , , 83 and class (classis) training of new recruits , , 74 slave herdsmen (pastores) 14, h u m a n sacrifice Varinius, Publius (praetor) , defeat by slave army , , , 54, 88 Varro, M a r c u s Terentius , 16, 18, , 35,37,38 Verres, Caius (governor of Sicily) 7, 8, - , , 50 Via Appia ('Queen of R o a d s ' ) construction of , , , 8, 9, , , 38, 39, 40, 54 crucified rebels along 79-80 vilicus (bailiff) - , 38 join slave army - , , , , - , 70 use of w a t c h d o g s , slave owners , - citizen assemblies of 14 , 82 36, 48, 49, 50, 55, 58, 62, 63, weaponry - , 39, 59, , - , s t a n d a r d s , adoption/use of - 6 - , 58 slaves for Italy suicide to avoid capture tactical organization , - , , 5 Thrace/Thracian tribes cost of putting d o w n threat to R o m e , - , 89 46 Tertullian - 39, 52, 54 rewards of service , esprit de corps Sulla, Lucius Cornelius , , , 88 and property qualification , , 4 equipment 4 - , 96 Stoicism and slavery 17 8 , 89 , , , 88 enlistment/recruitment , , , 86 70, , 74, 75, - , 78, - , desire for freedom pilus (first spear) and capite S p a r t o k o s I, King of Thrace composition and strength , , - , defeats , , , , , , , principes Spartakusbund c o m m u n i c a t i o n s within cost of to support - , primus 6 , - , , , - , 92 defeats and losses 5 , , , - , victories , , , , , , , 87 in R o m a n service , , , , leadership skills agricultural prosperity of 7, Pydna, battle of (168 B C ) 4 , , - , 87 proto-Christ/secular Messiah Sicily , , 6, 7, 9, , 84 provincial governors, role of 28 slavery/slaves , , , , cost of 19 as sign of wealth wall paintings 54 weaponry , 2 , , , , , , 43, 43, 44, 44, , , 48, - , 70, , - , 78 18,20 production of , , , RELATED TITLES VISIT THE OSPREY WEBSITE Information about forthcoming books • Author information • Read extracts and see sample pages • Sign up for our free newsletters • Competitions and prizes • Osprey blog www.ospreypublishing.com To order any of these titles, or for more information on Osprey Publishing, contact: North America: uscustomerservice@ospreypublishing.com UK & Rest of World: customerservice@ospreypublishing.com Accounts of history's greatest conflicts, detailing the command strategies, tactics and battle experiences of the opposing forces throughout the crucial stages of each campaign SPARTACUS AND THE SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC A gladiator rebels against Rome Italy in 73 BC saw a slave-society's worst nightmare - a slave insurrection Gladiators, led by the Thracian Spartacus, broke out of a gladiatorial training school and formed an army, made up of runaway slaves and others with little to lose With some 70,000 men, Spartacus rampaged throughout Campania, assaulting the prosperous cities of Cumae, Nola, and Nuceria, and defeating two consular armies Spartacus now posed a grave threat to Rome, and M Licinius Crassus was given the job of destroying him In a major battle near the source of the river Silarus, Spartacus was defeated and slain, and his army was crushed As a warning to others, Crassus crucified 6,000 prisoners along the road from Capua - where the revolt had begun - to the very gates of Rome Full colour battlescenes _ Illustrations _ 3-dimensional'bird's-eye-views' _ Maps US$19.95 UK£14.99 CAN $22.95 IS B N 978-1-84603-353-7 OSPREY 519 9f PUBLISHING 781846 033537 ... COMMANDERS 27 OPPOSING ARMIES 34 OPPOSING PLANS 47 THE CAMPAIGN 52 Spartacus the Thracian Marcus Licinius Crassus The slave army The Roman army The Spartacan plan The Roman plan Defeat of the. .. (13 5-1 32 BC) The Second Slave War (10 4-1 00 BC) CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS 14 6-6 0 B C 11 ROMAN SOCIAL ORDER 14 The slave system Piracy and the slave trade - Gladiators - men of the sword Oscan speakers... CAMPAIGN • 206 SPARTACUS AND THE SLAVE WAR 7 3-7 1 BC A gladiator rebels against Rome First published in 2009 by Osprey Publishing Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford 0X2 OPH, UK 443 Park Avenue