Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution The Case Law of the U.S Supreme Court Ioannis G Dimitrakopoulos Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Leiden / Boston Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dimitrakopoulos, Ioannis G Individual rights and liberties under the U.S Constitution: the case law of the U.S Supreme Court / by Ioannis G Dimitrakopoulos p.cm Includes index ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15791-0 ISBN-10: 90-04-15791-3 Civil rights—United States—Cases United States Supreme Court I Title KF4748.D465 2007 342.7308'5—dc222006048095 Copyright © 2007 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishers, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP All rights reserved No part of this public may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA Fees are subject to change Manufactured in the United States of America SUMMARY OF CONTENTS Table of Contents v About the Author xix Preface—Acknowledgements xxi Chapter The U.S Supreme Court—An Overview Chapter General Issues of Constitutional Rights 53 Chapter Procedural Rights 111 Chapter Dignity and Worth of the Individual—Personal Inviolability and Liberty 219 Chapter Substantive Guarantees Against Criminal or Civil Penalties 257 Chapter Personal or Family Privacy and Autonomy 331 Chapter Searches and Seizures 365 Chapter Freedoms of Conscience, Thought, and Belief— Religious Freedom 453 Chapter Freedoms of Speech, Press, Assembly, and Association 525 Chapter 10 Substantive Protection of Property Rights and Economic Interests 817 Chapter 11 Equal Protection 903 The Constitution of the United States 1033 Table of Cases 1047 Subject Matter Index 1101 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS About the Author xix Preface—Acknowledgements xxi CHAPTER 1: THE U.S SUPREME COURT—AN OVERVIEW A The Court as an Institution B The Court’s Jurisdiction 1 In General The “Case or Controversy” Requirement a Introduction b Advisory Opinions—Administrative Duties—Rulemaking c Ripeness d Standing i Constitutional Requirements ii Non-Constitutional Prudential Considerations 13 iii Particular Questions of Standing 15 e Mootness 21 f Final Judgments—Reopening of Cases 24 Adequate State Grounds 26 The Abstention Doctrine 28 The “Not Pressed or Passed Upon Below” Rule 30 Political Questions 30 The “Act of State” Doctrine 32 C Judicial Review 36 Generally 36 Standards of Review in Constitutional Rights Cases 36 Facial Challenges 39 Avoidance of Constitutional Questions 41 D Effects of the Court’s Decisions 42 Judicial Supremacy 42 Declaration of Unconstitutionality 43 Power of Precedent 44 Retroactivity 44 E How the Court Adjudicates Cases 46 CHAPTER 2: GENERAL ISSUES OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS 53 A Rightholders 53 Fetus 53 Private Associations and Corporations 53 Governmental Bodies 54 v vi • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution B Persons Bound by Constitutional Rights—The Concept of “State Action” 55 Public Authorities and Agents 55 Private Persons 58 a General Principles 58 b Particular Applications 61 C Territorial Application of the Constitutional Provisions About Individual Rights 73 D Constitutional Rights in Wartime or in Case of Insurrection 76 E Retroactive Lawmaking 80 F Affirmative Obligations of Government 81 G Waiver of Constitutional Rights 84 In General 84 Waiver of a Constitutional Right as a Condition for Receiving Discretionary Government Benefits—Doctrine of Unconstitutional Conditions 89 H Substantive Due Process 92 I Constitutional Rights of Particular Categories of Persons 94 Aliens 94 Prisoners 95 Minors 99 Public Employees—Military Personnel 101 J Liability for Constitutional Violations 103 K The Enforcement Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment 108 CHAPTER 3: PROCEDURAL RIGHTS 111 A Procedural Due Process 111 Introduction—Substantive v Procedural Due Process 111 General Principles 112 a Deprivation of Protected “Liberty” or “Property” Interests 112 b Procedural Requirements 115 i Introduction—The Mathews Balancing Test 115 ii Notice 116 iii Hearing 120 iv Right to (Retained or Appointed) Counsel 122 v Standard of Proof 124 vi Legislative Presumptions 125 vii Impartial Decisionmaker 128 Particular Applications 130 a Takings of Property 130 b Pre-Judgment Attachments—Civil Forfeitures 133 c Damage to a Person’s Reputation 135 d Deprivation of Public or Private Employment—Exclusion from a Professional Activity 137 e Suspension of a Driver’s License 139 f Suspension or Dismissal of Students from Public Schools 140 g Termination of Welfare or Disability Benefits 141 h Right to Notice and Hearing in the Civil Trial Context 144 i Prisoners’ Liberty Interests 145 Table of Contents • vii B Right of Access to Courts 151 In General 151 Indigents’ Access to Judicial Processes 153 a Generally 153 b In Criminal Cases 154 c In Civil Cases 157 C Jury Trial in Civil Cases 159 D The Fifth Amendment’s Privilege Against Compulsory Self-Incrimination 160 General Considerations 160 Suspects’ Self-Incriminating Statements During Custodial Interrogation 165 a Historical Background 165 b The Miranda Warnings 166 c What Constitutes “Custodial Interrogation” 167 d Procedure to Be Followed When a Suspect Invokes His Miranda Rights 172 e The Exclusionary Rule 173 E Other Basic Procedural Guarantees in the Criminal Context 175 Right to Fair Notice of the Charges and the Grand Jury Clause 175 The Sixth Amendment’s Right to Counsel 177 a In General 177 b The Right to Counsel of One’s Choice 183 c Right to Effective Assistance of Counsel 184 d The Defendant’s Right to Self-Representation 187 Safeguards Regarding Show-Ups, Line-Ups, and Other Pre-Trial Identification Procedures 189 The Excessive Bail Clause 192 Standard and Burden of Proof 192 The Right to Present Evidence 195 a Generally 195 b Discovery and Disclosure 199 c The Confrontation Clause 201 Public Trial 205 The Right to Jury Trial 205 a General Considerations 205 b Jury Selection 207 Freedom from Physical Restraints Visible to the Jury 211 10 The Right to a Speedy Trial 212 11 Appeals and Post-Conviction Review 215 a The Defendant’s Right to Appeal 215 b The “Harmless Error” Rule 216 CHAPTER 4: DIGNITY AND WORTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL— PERSONAL INVIOLABILITY AND LIBERTY 219 A Dignity and Worth of the Individual 219 B Personal Inviolability and Liberty 220 Compulsory Labor and Service 220 The Right to Travel 222 viii • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution a The Right to Travel and Settle in the United States— Residency Requirements 222 b The Right to International Travel 229 The Right to Bodily Integrity 232 a Generally 232 b Corporal Punishment in Public Schools 232 c The Right to Refuse Medical Treatment, Vaccination, and the Administration of Drugs 233 Termination of Life-Sustaining Medical Treatment—Assisted Suicide 237 Deprivation of Personal Liberty Without Prior Criminal Conviction 239 a In General 239 b Involuntary Commitment to a Mental Institution 240 i Generally 240 ii Civil Commitment of Minors 245 iii Conditions of Confinement 246 c Detention of Aliens Who Are Deportable or Whose Deportability or Admissibility Is Under Review 247 d Detention of “Enemy Combatants” 250 e Deprivation of Personal Liberty During Criminal Proceedings 251 i In General 251 ii Pre-Trial Detention of Criminally Accused Persons 252 The Right to Keep and Bear Arms 255 CHAPTER 5: SUBSTANTIVE GUARANTEES AGAINST CRIMINAL OR CIVIL PENALTIES 257 A The Distinction Between Criminal Punishments and Civil Sanctions or Restraints 257 In General 257 Forfeitures and Fines 259 Contempt Sanctions 263 Involuntary Civil Commitment of Sexually Dangerous Persons and Other Civil Measures Against Such Individuals 267 Other Cases 269 B The Bill of Attainder Clause 270 C Non-Retroactivity 274 In the Criminal Context 274 a The Ex Post Facto Clauses 274 b Retroactive Judicial Decisionmaking 279 In the Civil Context 281 D Definiteness and the “Fair Warning” Doctrine 281 In the Criminal Context 281 a In General 281 b The “Void for Vagueness” Doctrine 282 i Generally 282 ii Vagrancy Laws 284 iii Restrictions on Expression—Generally 285 iv Breach of the Peace—“Fighting” Words 286 v Protection of Public Morals—Obscenity Laws 286 Table of Contents • ix vi Prohibition of Assemblies 288 vii Anti-Communist Criminal Legislation—Loyalty Oaths 288 viii Contempt of a Congressional Investigatory Committee 289 ix Abortion Laws 289 x Economic Regulation 290 xi Military Rules 292 In the Civil Context 293 E Other Due Process Restrictions 294 In the Criminal Context 294 a Entrapment 294 b Arbitrary Penalties 295 c Mandatory Non-Capital Sentences 296 d Conditions of Imprisonment 297 In the Civil or Quasi-Criminal Context 297 a In General 297 b Excessive Punitive Damages 297 F The Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause 301 In General 301 Kind or Method of Punishment 303 a The Death Penalty 303 b Deprivation of Citizenship 310 c Prison Deprivations 310 i Generally 310 ii Conditions of Imprisonment—Medical Care of Prisoners 311 iii Use of Excessive Force Against Inmates 314 Proportionality of Sentences—Mandatory Life Imprisonment 315 Punishable Conduct 319 G The Excessive Fines Clause 319 H The Double Jeopardy Clause 321 In General 321 Attachment and Termination of Jeopardy 322 The “Dual Sovereignty” Doctrine 324 Same Offense 325 The Collateral Estoppel Component 327 Sentencing 327 CHAPTER 6: A B C D E PERSONAL OR FAMILY PRIVACY AND AUTONOMY 331 In General 331 Protection of Personal Data and Communications 334 Freedom to Marry 336 Sexual Freedom 339 Parental Rights 339 Generally 339 Education of Children 340 Rights of Unwed Fathers 341 Rights of Foster Parents 344 Visitation Rights of Third Persons 345 Termination of Parental Rights 345 1104 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution counsel (continued) in criminal prosecutions: C92 et seq in parental rights termination proceedings: F31 in pretrial identification procedures: C115, C116 waiver of: B58–B59, B67, C87, C100–C101 “standby” counsel: C114 courts (see also Supreme Court) access to: B56, C59 et seq., I224, I431 bond requirement: C31–C32, C71 costs and fees: C62–C64, C66, C68–C70 finality of judgments: A44–A48 judicial supremacy: A63 military: B40–B41, B45, C93 cross-burning: I120, I121 cross-examination: C12 cruel and unusual punishments: B64, B91, E104 et seq Cuba, travel to: D23 curfew: B46 custodial interrogation: C80 et seq damages: see Bivens actions, punitive damages, sovereign immunity dancing, nude: see nude dancing de facto/de jure discrimination: see equal protection deadly force: see searches and seizures-excessive force, prisoners-use of excessive force against death penalty: see sentencing-death penalty declaration of war: see war-declaration of defamation: see freedom of speech definiteness: see vagueness delegation of governmental functions or powers: H134–H135, J4, J21 (see also state action) demonstrations: see freedom of assembly deportation: see aliens desegregation: K40 et seq dignity and worth of the individual: D1–D3 die, right to: see assisted suicide discovery civil proceedings: I96 criminal proceedings: C138 et seq discrimination: see equal protection, private discrimination dissenting opinion: A77 divorce: C66 dormant Commerce Clause: J140 et seq double jeopardy in general: E145–E146 attachment of jeopardy: A147 collateral estoppel: E161 dual sovereignty doctrine: E154–E155 guilty plea: E160 same offense: E156–E160 sentencing: E159, E162 et seq termination of jeopardy: E148 et seq draft: E38, I48, I49, I107, K85 (see also conscientious objectors) draft card burning: I8, I399 dress codes: B86, H 54, I202, I212 drinking age: see alcohol driver’s license: C21, C43–C44 drug(s) addiction treatment: D29 addiction, as a criminal offense: E140 advertising of: I177, I178 courier: G112, G146, G152 dealing: E90–E91 paraphernalia, sale of: E83 search for: testing: B33, G49 drunk driving: C44 due process, economic: J83 et seq (see also economic regulation) due process, procedural (see also procedural rights of criminal defendants) in general: C1 civil forfeitures: C33–C34 damage to one’s reputation: C35–C37 deprivation of employment: C6, C38–C40, C42 deprivation of liberty or property interests: C3 et seq., C36 exclusion from a professional activity: C41–C42 hearing: C10 et seq., impartial decisionmaker: C27–C28 Mathews test: C7 Mullane test: C7–C8 notice and hearing in civil trials: B66, C49–C51 notice: C8–C9 prejudgment attachments: C31–C32 presumptions, legislative: C20 et seq., C124 et seq prisoners’ liberty interests: C52 et seq., D30, D31 right to counsel: see councel standard of proof: C18–C19 suspension of a driver’s license: C21, C43–C44 Subject Matter Index suspension or dismissal of students: C45–C46 takings of property: C29–C30 termination of disability benefits: C48 termination of welfare benefits: C4, C47 due process, substantive: B72 et seq., C1, F1 durational residence requirements: see residency requirements economic regulation (see also Commerce Clause) in general: J83 et seq during wartime: B48 equal protection: K173, K176–K180 freedom of contract: J90 et seq liability limitation: J117 price control: see price control professional freedom: see professional freedom public utilities: J39 et seq., J110 et seq retroactive: J118 et seq vagueness of: E61, E80–E83 education equal protection in general: K209–K210 gender discrimination: K79, K86, K92 illegal aliens: K121 racial discrimination: K6, K15, K17, K22–K25, K39–K50 residency requirements: D19 right to: B53, D19, H74, K121, K209 Eighth Amendment: B64 elections: see apportionment of voting districts, campaign finance, candidates, gerrymandering, primaries, referendum, vote-right to electronic media: I283 et seq electronic surveillance: see searches and seizures Eleventh Amendment: B89 emergency powers: B49 eminent domain: see taking of property enemies, property of: B48 enemy combatant: B40, D55–D56 Enforcement Clause: B100 entertainment: I3 (see also freedom of speechadult entertainment businesses) entrapment: E87–E88 equal protection in general: K1 et seq affirmative action gender classifications: K89 et seq racial classifications: K15 et seq., K168 age classifications: K81, K82, K122 et seq., K179 • 1105 alienage classifications: B68, B77, K105 et seq de facto/de jure discrimination: K11, K26 et seq., K94–K95 discriminatory purpose, need to prove: K4, K11, K26–K27, K94, K163–K164, K167–K171 economic and social legislation economic activities, regulation of: K176–K180 education: see education legitimate expectations, protection of: K174, K175, K185 standard of review: K173 taxation, state: K181 welfare benefits: see welfare benefits elections: see apportionment of voting districts, candidates-access to ballot, vote-right to federal government, application to: K7–K9 fundamental rights analysis: K2 gender discrimination: see gender classifications government employment: K123–K125, K211 illegitimacy classifications: K96 et seq Indian tribes: K13–K14 mental retardation classifications: D47, K126, K127 neutral laws: K4 (see also supra, de facto/de jure discrimination) racial or ethnic discrimination: see racial or national origin classifications remedies: A29, K40 et seq., K78, K86, K212, K213 reverse discrimination: see, supra, affirmative action sexual orientation classifications: K128 standards of review (summary): A57, K2–K4 standing: A16, A19–A23, A28–A29 suspect classifications: K2 wealth discrimination: C62 et seq., F73–F76, K121, K139 et seq., K152–K153, K191 et seq., K209–K210 establishment of religion in general: H57–H58 aid to religion: H47, H70 et seq., H107 aid to religious schools or their students: H74 et seq 1106 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution establishment of religion (continued) ceremonial deism: C130–C131 church property disputes: H140–H142 delegation of governmental authority: H134, H135 display of religious symbols: H120–H124 exemption from military service: H136 labor laws: H60–H62, H137–H139 national motto: H133 pledge of allegiance: H133 prayers school: H114, H116–H119 legislative: H132 private religious speech on public property: H124–H131 public schools, religion in: H110 et seq standards of review: G63 et seq standing: A12, A14 taxation—tax exemptions or deductions: H70, H98, H105 et seq ethnic discrimination: see racial or national origin classifications eviction: C71 evidence duty of disclosure of: C138 et seq exclusionary rule: C88–C89, C95, C115–C116, G4, G219, G223 et seq fruits of the poisonous tree: G227 hearsay: C135, C144, D56, G88 of future dangerousness: C86, C94 polygraph: C137 quantum of evidence required for conviction: E50 right to present: C12, C133 et seq standard of proof: C19, C123 statement of: C12 testimonial: C75, C144 (see also testimony) victim impact: E114 evolution, teaching of: H112–H113 ex post facto laws: E39 et seq Excessive Bail Clause: C122 Excessive Fines Clause: E142–E144 exclusionary rule: see evidence-exclusionary rule execution method of: E118–E119 of insane: E109 of mentally retarded: E110–E111 exhaustion of administrative remedies: A7 exigent circumstances: G95 expatriation: E26 extraterritoriality: B39 et seq., K137 facial challenges in general: A60 abstention doctrine: A52 freedom of speech: A60, I20, I32, I34 fair warning doctrine: B99, E39, E51, E58 et seq fairness doctrine: I288 false statements: see freedom of speech family living arrangements: F33, F36 relationships: F2, F19, F29–F33 (see also presumption of fatherhood) father, rights of: F19, F22 et seq., K64–K67 fatherhood, presumption of: see presumption of fatherhood federal courts: A1, A3 (see also Supreme Court) federal question jurisdiction: A3 (see also independent and adequate state grounds) felons, rights of: K151, K173 feminism and pornography: I139 fetus as a person: B1, F46 viability of the: F50–F51 fighting words: see freedom of speech films: see freedom of speech finality of judgments: A44 et seq fines (see also punitive damages) as civil penalties: E10–E11, E17–E20 excessive: E93–E94, E142–E144 fingerprinting: G47, G145, G156 flag contemptuous treatment of: E67, I402 et seq saluting: H5 food stamps: F36, K195–K198 “for sale” signs: I189 foreign affairs: see international affairs foreign languages, teaching of: F20, J87 forfeiture: C33–C34, J58–G59 foster parents, rights of: F27 Fourth Amendment: see searches and seizures free exercise of religion (see also conscientious objectors) in general: H21 et seq clergy right to hold office: H27 selection of: H35 denial of government benefits: H19, H42–H47, H52–H53 discrimination against religious beliefs and practices: H27, H33–H34, H55, H139 Subject Matter Index ecclesiastical administration: H35–H36 generally applicable laws: H31–H34 internal government affairs: H37 military regulations: H54 polygamy: H38 prison regulations: H55–H56 religious upbringing of children: H39–H40 Sunday closing laws: H41 taxation: H48 et seq freedom of assembly: I3, I111, I353 et seq (see also freedom of speech-public forum doctrine, parades, picketing) freedom of association in general: I409 et seq associational privacy: H8, I414 et seq I464, I509 et seq boycott: I426–I428 campaign finance: see campaign finance compelled membership: I434 et seq compulsory fees: I444 et seq guilt or liability by association: I413 litigation: I429–I431 political association: I454 et seq prisoners: I432 public employees: I446, I481, I482 right not to associate: I433 et seq., I461 et seq freedom of belief: H1 et seq freedom of choice: see abortion freedom of conscience: H1 et seq freedom of contract: J90 et seq freedom of expression: see freedom of speech freedom of religion: see establishment of religion, free exercise of religion freedom of speech in general: I1 et seq actual malice: I60, I69 adult entertainment businesses: I13, I23, I26, I142 et seq advertising: I161 et seq advocacy of the use of force or of law violation: I48 et seq airport terminal: I324–I326 anonymous speech: I197, I215, I236 et seq., I380, I390, I391, I509 et seq anti-communist legislation: E73 appellate review: I11, I80, I131, I134, I167, I200 artistic expression: I3, I234, I236, I343 assembly: I353 et seq breach of the peace: E68–E69, I35, I102 et seq., • 1107 broadcasting: see infra, radio and television burden of proof: I11, I25, I26, I79, I163, I206, I385 cable television: I151–I154, I280, I293 et seq campaign-related speech: I193 et seq., I247, I238, I317, I459, I482, I483 et seq camping in parks: I346 candidate debate: I345 captive audience: I106, I112 et seq., I289, I347 et seq censorship: I12, I15, I18, I19, I24–I28, I34 child pornography: I6, I136 et seq chilling effect: I31, I32–I36, I58 clear and present danger test: I10, I48, I49, I53, I55, I267–I269, I272, I273 commercial speech: I3, I37, I161 et seq., I241, I242, I379, I389 compelled contributions and fees: I241 et seq., I444 et seq contemporary community standards: I128 et seq., I155, I157, I158 content-based discrimination: I20, I39 et seq., I47 content-neutral restrictions: I27, I30, I39 et seq., I47 (see also infra, incidental effect on speech activities, secondary effects) copyright: I98–I100 core political speech: I193, I494 court grounds and adjacent sidewalks: I316, I357, I364 cross-burning: I120, I121 defamation: I6, I58 et seq designated public forum: I309, I310 distribution of literature: I18, I28 door-to-door canvassing and distribution of literature: I386 et seq draft card burning: I8, I399 during wartime: B47 emotional distress, infliction of: I83 entertainment: I3 equal protection clause: I45, I276 expressive conduct: I3, I299 et seq., I396 et seq fairgrounds: I339 fairness doctrine: I288 false statements of fact: I58, I64 et seq fighting words: E68 fighting words: I6, I102 et seq films: I3, I14–I16, I24, I25, I28 1108 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution freedom of speech (continued) financial burdens on speakers: I42, I111 flag, contemptuous treatment of: I402 et seq government employees or contractors: I198 et seq., I482 group libel: I81 hate speech: I119 et seq hostile audience: I109–I111 incidental effect on speech activities: I8, I9, I20, I22, I30, I249, I303 incitement to lawless action: I6, I55 et seq indecent speech: I107, I123, I150–I158 information privacy: I87 et seq injunctions: I28–I30, I41, I305, I366 injury to public morals: E70 Internet: I157 et seq., I298 intimidation: I120, I121 leafleting: I326, I368, I377, I378, I386 et seq legislators: I85, I210 libraries: I160, I216, I322, I323 libel on government: I82 licensing: I18 et seq., I34, I283 limited public forum: I309, I310, I313 lobbying: I197, I230 mail: I113, I125, I180, I218–I222, I327–I332, I335 military bases: I318–I320 military personnel: I55, I207 national security: I12, I209 nazi swastika: I120 newsracks: I20, I191 noise regulation: E69, I17, I347 et seq nonpublic forum: I311 nude dancing: I142–I144 nudity bans: I140 et seq obscenity: E71, I6, I123 et seq., offensive speech: I101 et seq (see also supra, defamation) official immunity: I85, I86 on another person’s property: I246, I306 et seq., I406 et seq overbreadth: I32 et seq panic, creation of: I102 parody: I83 pending litigation, comments upon: I266 et seq petition: I84 picketing: see picketing polling places: I317 pornography and sexism: I139 prior restraints: I12 et seq., I34, I263, I264, I314, I315, I380–I384, I387, I390, I391, I412 prisoners—prisons: I217 et seq., I274, I275, I321 private concern, matters of: I7, I63 procedural safeguards: I25, I26, public concern, matters of: I7, I76–I78 public forum doctrine: I306 et seq public officials and figures: I60, I61, I70 et seq radio and television: I3, I150, I186, I187, I232, I283 et seq., I297, I297, I344, I345 right not to speak: H5, I235 et seq., I246 sacrilege: I24 school administration meetings: I336, I337 school facilities: H127 et seq., I334 school library: I216 school newspaper: I215, I334 school-sponsored speech: I215, I233, I243 secondary effects: I47, I143, I147–I149 sedition laws: I50 et seq., I419 et seq seizure of books or films: G129–G131 sexually explicit expression: I123, I127, I135, I150 et seq., I213 sidewalks: I308, I333 sign displays: I189, I190, I340, I341, I368, I392 et seq solicitation: I3, I18, I26, I167 et seq., I325, I338, I379 et seq., I386 et seq., I430–I432, I502 Son of Sam laws: I42 Speech or Debate Clause: I85 students: I55, I211 et seq., I243 subsidies: I160, I215, I225 et seq., I341, I342, I515 symbolic conduct: I3, I8, I396 et seq taxation: I8, I9, I18, I229, I230 telephone messages (indecent): I155, I156 threat of violence: I119 et seq time, place, or manner restrictions: I301 et seq trade name: I176, I192 traditional public fora: I308 underinclusivess: I44 vagueness: E66 et seq., I31, I135, I234, I512 viewpoint discrimination: I20, I39 zoning: I23, I26, I47, I142, I146 et seq freedom of the press (see also freedom of speech-defamation, freedom of speechinformation privacy) Subject Matter Index in general: I247 et seq access to prisons: I274, I275 access to the press: I281, I288–I291, I296, I297, I344, I345 appropriation of a right of publicity: I97 confidential sources: I252, I282 electronic media: I283 et seq generally applicable laws: I249 justice and the press: I91 et seq., I254 et seq newsgathering: I253 et seq sensitive information: I87 et seq., I251, I252, I255, I260 taxation of the press: I276 et seq freedom of thought: H1 et seq freedom to reside in a State: D8 frisk: see searches and seizures fruits of the poisonous tree: G227 gambling: B69, I185, I187 (see also lotteries) garnishment: C31 gays and lesbians: see homosexuals gender classifications in general: K60 affirmative action: K89 et seq athletic programs: K80 de facto/de jure distinction: K94–K95 family law: K64 et seq., K93 higher education: K79, K86, K92 jury selection: K87–K88 liquor sales: K81 military: K84–K86, K91–K92 pregnancy classifications: K72–K73 prison guards: K83, K95 standard of review: K61–K63 statutory rape: K82 welfare benefits: K74 et seq gerrymandering political: K170–K171 racial: K167–K169 standing: A16 government employees: see public employees government employment: see public employment grand jury: G225, I259, I270 Grand Jury Clause: C91 grand jury subpoena: G20 group libel: see freedom of speech Guantanamo: B41 guilt by association: see freedom of association guilty plea: B62, B67, E160 habeas corpus: B49 hairstyle: B86 • 1109 handbilling: see freedom of speech-distribution of literature harmless error: C173–C174, K34 hate speech: see freedom of speech hearing: see due process, procedural hearsay: see evidence heightened scrutiny: A57–A59 homosexuals: F18, I245, I441, K128 hostile audience: see freedom of speech hostilities, duration of: A54, B45 housing: B53, K54, K204 identification: C115 et seq., E65, G145 illegitimacy classifications: see equal protection immunity executive: B97–B99 judicial immunity: B97 legislative immunity: B97 official immunity: B96, I86 of states from suit in federal court: B89 sovereign immunity: B88–B89 Speech or Debate Clause: I85 impartiality: C27–C28, C161–C163, I196 impeachment: A2, A54 incitement: see freedom of speech indecent speech: see freedom of speech independent and adequate state grounds: A49–A51 Indian tribes: A54, B89, K13–K14 indictment: C90–C91 indigents access to judicial processes: C62 et seq ballot access: K152–K153 imprisonment for nonpayment of fines: K206, K207 right to appeal: C63–C65, C68, C70, C71, F32 right to counsel: B5, B68, C64–C65, C68, C87, C92 et seq., F31 ineffective assistance of counsel: see counsel informants: see freedom of the pressconfidential sources, searches and seizures-informant’s tip, undercover agents or informants information free flow of: I162 privacy: I87 et seq right to receive: I232 inspection laws: see searches and seizuresadministrative searches or inspections insurrection, constitutional rights in case of: B49 1110 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution interrogation: C82–C83, C95–C100 international affairs administration of: D23–D24 foreign sovereign immunity: A55 political questions: A54, D23, K170–K171 Internet: see freedom of speech interstate commerce: see Commerce Clause intimate relationships: B81, F3, K198 intoxicating beverages: see alcohol inventors: see patents inverse condemnation: see taking of property investigative stops: see searches and seizures involuntary servitude: D4 et seq irrebuttable presumptions: see presumptions judges impartiality of: C28, I196 judicial immunity: B97 recusal of: A76 mandatory retirement of: K125 judicial review: A56 et seq judicial supremacy: A63 jury compelled service on: D6 discrimination gender: F24, K87–K88 racial: K30 et seq impartiality: I263 peremptory challenges: C159–C160, K36–K37, K88 right to jury trial: in civil cases: C30, C72–C73 in criminal cases: C151 et seq selection: C157 et seq., I95, I256, I257 (see also supra, discrimination) just compensation: see taking of property justiciability: see political questions juveniles, rights of: B82 et seq (see also children) labor unions: E33, E36, I444 et seq., J55 land use: see taking of property-zoning and land use restrictions landlords, rights of: see rent regulation landmark preservation: see taking of propertylandmark laws lawyers: see attorney, counsel leafleting: see freedom of speech-distribution of literature least restrictive means test: B80, B100, D11, K112 legal persons: B2 legitimate expectations, protection of: K174–K175, K185 legislative immunity: see immunity legislative motive: A59, E2–E3, E29, I278, J131, K4, K11, K26–K27, K94, K163–K164, K167–K171 less restrictive means test: A57, D10, G97, I41 liability for constitutional violations: B88 et seq limitation of: J117 retroactive imposition of: J125 et seq libel: see freedom of speech -defamation, -group libel, -libel on government liberty interests: C3 et seq liberty, physical: see personal liberty libraries: see freedom of speech license plate motto: H5 licensing of broadcasters: I283 of speech: see freedom of speech occupational: J88 liens: C31, J47–J48 life-sustaining medical treatment, termination of: D34–D35 lineup: C115, C119 liquor: see alcohol literacy tests: see vote, right to litigation: see courts, freedom of association, freedom of speech, sham litigation living arrangements: F2, F33 et seq lobbying: I197, I230 loitering: D20 (see also vagrancy) lotteries: I186 loyalty oaths: B68, E74–E75 mail: see freedom of speech, searches and seizures malice: see freedom of speech-actual malice mandatory retirement: see public employees marriage racially mixed: F12 same-sex: F17 sham: K200 marry, freedom to: F2, F12 et seq martial law: B46, B49 Mathews test: C7 matters of public concern: see freedom of speech, public concern medical data (personal): F6 et seq medical questions: see scientific questions medical treatment, right to refuse: D28 et seq., H40 medication, forced: D30–D33 membership in organizations: see freedom of association Subject Matter Index mental competency to stand trial: see competency to stand trial mental health: see commitment to a mental institution, mentally retarded persons, psychiatric examination, sexually dangerous persons mentally retarded persons: D47, E110–E111, K126–K127 military bases, access to: I318–I320 courts: B87 dress code: H54 personnel, rights of: B87, H54, I207, K133 rules, vagueness of: E61, E84–E85 service: D6, K85, K113 sex classifications: K84–K86 minimum wage laws: J84, J86 mining regulations: see taking of property Miranda rights: C79 et seq mitigating circumstances: see sentencing mixed question of law and fact: C30, C81, G81 mobile homes, searches of: see searches and seizures-trailer home mobility, personal: see travel, right to mootness: A40–A43 mortgage moratorium: J100, J107 motive of the legislature: see legislative motive motor vehicles: see driver’s license, searches and seizures -automobiles, -trailer home movies: see freedom of speech-films multimember election districts: K163, K166 municipalities: B3 narrow tailoring: A59, F13, I43, I303, K10 national origin discrimination: see racial or national origin classifications national security: D22, I12 naturalization: see citizenship-acquisition of navigational servitudes: see taking of property newsracks: see freedom of speech newsgathering: see freedom of the press newspapers: see freedom of the press noise regulation: see freedom of speech no-knock entry: G218 nonpublic forum: see freedom of speech notary public: K119 notice: see due process, procedural notice of criminal charges: B62, C90 nude dancing: I142–I144 nudity bans: I140 et seq • 1111 oath of office: E74–E75, H15–H16 obligation of contracts: see contracts, impairment of obscenity: see freedom of speech occupation: see professional freedom offensive speech: see freedom of speech Olympic Committee: B31, I192 one person, one vote: see vote, right to open fields doctrine: see searches and seizures opinion/fact distinction: I65 oral argument: A75 overbreadth: A60, I32 et seq overthrow of government: see freedom of speech -incitement, -sedition laws pandering: I133, I149 parades: I4, I18, I111, I245, I314, I315, I314, I315, I396 parens patriae: A36, B85 parental rights: F2, F19 et seq., H39–H40, K64–K67 parking: D19 parole denial: C56 frequency of considerations for: E47 revocation: C52, G225 partial invalidity: see severability passport, right to: D21 et seq patents: J146–J147, J150 paternity, proof of: C67, F26, K68, K100–K104 peremptory challenges: see jury permit system: see licensing person corporation: B2 fetus: F46 personal autonomy: F1–F2 personal data: F2, F5 et seq., I87 et seq., I251, I255, I260 personal liberty, deprivation of (without criminal conviction) in general: D37–D38, D57 commitment to a mental institution: D39 et seq detention of deportable aliens: D50 et seq during wartime: B45–B46, D38, D55–D56 in case of insurrection: B49, D38 involuntary service: D6, D57 pretrial detention: D58 et seq personal mobility: see travel, right to petit jury: see jury petition, right to: C59, I85 1112 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution photographic display identification: C116, C118, C121 picketing in general: I358 abortion clinics—health care facilities: I366 et seq business places: I369 et seq courthouses: I316, I363, I364 embassies: I365 residences: I359–I361 schools: I362 plain view: see searches and seizures plea bargaining: B62 pleading the Fifth: see self-incrimination, privilege against pledge of allegiance: H5, H133 police pursuit: G10, G12 political parties: I454 et seq political patronage practices: H11 et seq political questions: A54, D23 political subdivisions: B3 poll tax: see vote, right to polygamy: F17 polygraph test: C137 pornography: see freedom of speech positive obligations of government: see affirmative obligations of government postal service: see freedom of speech-mail, searches and seizures-mail prayer: see establishment of religion precedent, power of: A66, A76 pregnancy classifications: K72–K73 prejudicial publicity: I254 et seq preponderance of evidence: C19 Presidential documents: A54, E37, F10, H7 press, freedom of: see freedom of the press presumption of innocence: C132, C164 presumptions irrebuttable: C20 et seq., C132, D22, K73, K75–K77, K194 judicial: A59, B51 rebuttable: C124 et seq., D56, I383, J62, K99 pretrial detention in general: D58–D59 conditions of confinement: D61–D63, G137 of juveniles: D60 price control: B48, C13, E80, E82, J16, J24, J38, J39 et seq., J102, J113 et seq primaries: B15–B16, I458, I459, I462 et seq., I474, K153 prior restraint: see freedom of speech prisons racial segregation: K53 search and seizure in: G34 prisoners rights of (summary): B78 et seq access to courts: B56, I224 conditions of confinement: C57–C58, E121 et seq., G34 disciplinary measures against: C54, C58, E127–E129 forced medication of: D30–D31 freedom of association: I432 freedom of speech: I217 et seq., I274, I275, I321 good-time credits, revocation or reduction of: C54, E46 liberty interests of: C52 et seq parole denial: C56 parole revocation: C52 privilege against self-incrimination: C77 religious freedom: H55–H56 right of intimate association: B81 right to counsel: C13 right to marry: F15–F16 right to vote: K150–K151 transfer to a mental hospital: D30 transfer to another prison: C55 use of excessive force against: E130–E132 visits with: B81, E129, I264 privacy: F1 et seq., G6 et seq., I87 et seq., I106 private discrimination: B11 et seq., F20, H139, I245, I434 et seq., K48–K50, K55–K58, K128, K214–K215 private schools: F20, H74 et seq., K48–K50 Privilegies and Immunities Clause: B2, C59, D8 et seq probable cause: see searches and seizures probation: C53, G138 procedural due process: see due process, procedural procedural rights of criminal defendants: C74 et seq (see accusation, appeal-right to, bail, beyond a reasonable doubt, burden of proof, competency to stand trial, confrontation with witnesses, counsel, evidence, grand jury, harmless error, identification, lineup, jury, notice of criminal charges, plea bargaining, public trial, searches and seizures, self-incrimination, speedy trial) Subject Matter Index procreation, right to: F2, F37–F38 (see also pregnancy classifications) professional freedom: J87 et seq., K115 et seq., K173, K177–K178 property abandoned: G23, J60 et seq destruction or taking of property during wartime: B48 forfeiture of: C33–C34, E5–E9, E143–E144, G21, I13 seizure of (Fourth Amendment): G21 taking of: see taking of property what constitutes (types of): C3 et seq., J6–J7 prosecutorial discretion: K29 psychiatric examination: C86, C94 public accommodations: K214 (see also private discrimination) public employees aliens: K106, K117–K118, K120 drug testing of: G173 freedom of association: I446, I481, I482 freedom of speech: I198 et seq mandatory retirement of: K123–K124 methadone users: K211 participation in political campaigns: I482 political patronage practices: B68, H11 et seq rights of (summary): B86 suspension of: C39 public employment age discrimination: K123–K125 as a fundamental right: K211 deprivation of (procedural due process): C38 loyalty oaths: E74–E75 political patronage hiring or dismissal: H11 et seq sex discrimination: K83, K95 public figure: see freedom of speech public forum: see freedom of speech public function: see delegation of governmental functions public issues: see freedom of speech-public concern public trial: C150, I254 et seq public utility regulation: J39 et seq., J77, J110 et seq Puerto Rico: B43 punishment corporal: D27 criminal or civil: E1 et seq • 1113 cruel and unusual: E104 et seq punitive damages: E56, E86, E95 et seq., I62 quarantine: D8 qualification for office: see candidates quotas, racial: K15 et seq racial or national origin classifications affirmative action: K15 et seq., K168 capital sentencing: K38 de jure/de facto distinction: K11, K26 et seq gerrymandering: A16, K167–K169 housing: K54 Indians: K13–K14 jury selection: K30 et seq parks-recreational facilities: K51–K52 prisons: K53 racial information: K12 remedying segregation: K40 et seq repeal of remedies: K46, K55 et seq restaurants: B22–B24 schools-universities: K6, K15, K17, K22–K25, K39–K50 selective prosecution: K29 separate but equal: K6 standard of review: K2–K3, K10–K11, K18, K21, K23, K26 vote, right to: B15–B16, K146–K148, K163–K164, K167–K169 World War II (anti-Japanese measures): B46, K7–K8 racially restrictive covenant: B35 radio: see freedom of speech-radio and television rape, statutory: K82 rape victim, publicity concerning: I89, I92, I95 rational basis scrutiny: A57, K2 reapportionment: see apportionment of voting districts reasonable doubt: C123 reasonableness of searches: see searches and seizures recidivist laws: E43, E165 referendum: B4, J21, K57–59, K161–K162, K204 religious beliefs definition of: G22 sincerity of: G23 Religious Clauses, relation between the: G59 et seq religious entanglement: H66 et seq 1114 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution religious establishment: see establishment of religion religious freedom: see free exercise of eligion rent regulation: B28, J16, J24, J38, J116 reopening of cases: A46–A48 republican form of government: A54 reputation: C35–C37 reserved powers doctrine: J92, J105 residency requirements: D11 et seq., K106, K132 et seq., retardation: see mentally retarded persons retirement, mandatory: K123–K125 retrial: C170 et seq., E149 et seq., retroactive judicial decisionmaking: A67–A68, E51–E56 retroactive legislation: B50–B51, E39 et seq., E56–E57, J118 et seq reverse discrimination: see equal protection-affirmative action review of facts: A59 rightholders: B1–B3 ripeness: A7, J24–J27 roadblock: see searches and seizures Rotary Clubs: I439 rule of four: see Supreme Court Sabbath: H29, H41, H45, H60, H138 school academic evaluations: C46 academic freedom: see academic freedom access to: see education, right to busing: K43, K59, K210 corporal punishment of students: D27 desegregation of: K40 et seq disciplinary rules: E86, I55 dress code: I202, I202 drug testing in: G135 library: I216 religion in: H74, H110 et seq school-sponsored speech: I215, I334 search and seizure in: G133–G135 speech in: H127–H131, I107, I211 et seq., I243 suspension from: C45 tuition: C23, D19, K121 scientific questions: A59, D28, D31, D33–D34, D42, D49, E54, E77–E78, F68, K68, K73, K101 search warrant: see searches and seizures searches and seizures in general: G1–G2 abandoned property: G23 administrative searches: G67, G78, G87, G102–G103, G127, G177 et seq aerial inspection or surveillance: G27, G58–G59 alcohol testing: G49, G119, G121, G159, G171–G172 anonymous tip: G91–G93 arrest: G10, G99, G139 et seq automobiles & occupants of: G18–G19, G35–G36, G84, G109, G110, G114 et seq., G155, G163, G186, G188–G189, G196, G197, G205–G207, G212–G213 bank records: G8, G38–G39 beeper: G55–G56 Bivens actions: B90, G229 blood testing: G49, G171–G172 border searches: G110 et seq., G127 breathalyzer test: G49, G172 business premises: G31, G76, G100, G178 et seq caseworkers’ home visits: G9, G185 checkpoints: G110, G119 et seq chemical tests: G21, G48–G49, G62 consensual encounters with the police: G19 et seq consent to search: B65, G13, G19, G31, G191 et seq., G227 corporate books or records: G69 curtilage of a house: G29, G44, G108 customs employees: G173 dog sniff: G36, G42 domestic security: G119, G170 drug courier: G112, G146, G152 drug testing: G49, G135, G172–G175 eavesdropping: G52, G169 electronic surveillance: G52 et seq., G169–G170 entry: G217–G218 excessive force: G208 et seq., G218 exclusionary rule: G4, G219, G223 et seq exigent circumstances: G95 fingernail scrapings: G47 fingerprinting: G47, G145, G156 fire-damaged premises: G33, G102 et seq First Amendment materials: G129–G132 frisk (stop and): G45, G154, G168 garbage: G23, G44 handwriting exemplars: G46 high-speed automobile chase: G212 home: G9, G24–G25, G65–G66, G74–G76, G98–G99, G108, G114, G138, G142, G157–G160, G177, G198, G201, G204, G217–G218 hot pursuit: G157–G159 Subject Matter Index hotel room: G24, G199 identification: G145 informant’s tip: G88 et seq inventory searches: G164, G184 et seq investigative stops and detentions: G144 et seq knock and announce requirement: G218 less intrusive means: G97, G188 luggage—containers: G18, G40–G43, G64, G75, G115, G148, G153, G163–G164, G187, G190, G197, G200 mail: G37, G111, G154 media ride-along: G219 mistakes: G22, G220–G222 murder scenes: G107 offices: G32, G101 open fields doctrine: G26 et seq patients: G136, G175 plain view doctrine: G104, G166–G168 political candidates: G174 pretrial detainees: G137, G140–G141, K149 prison cells: G34, G137 private searches: G4, G60–G62 probable cause: G67, G79 et seq., G140–G141 probationers: G138 protective frisks and searches: G154–G155 public places: G108–G109, G158 railway employees: G172 random stops or searches of vehicles: G124 et seq reasonable suspicion: G79 et seq reasonableness of: G79, G94 et seq., G197 rightholders—standing: G63–G66 roadblock: G12, G213 scope of Fourth Amendment: G3 et seq search incident to lawful arrest: G86, G160 et seq search, what constitutes: G5 et seq seizure, what constitutes: G10 et seq sense-enhancing devices: G55 et seq special needs: G79, G95, G138, G175 students: G133–G135 surgical intrusion: G214–G216 traffic violation stop: G117–G118, G205–G207 trailer home: G24, G114 urine test: G49, G172–G173, G175 vessels: G110, G127 visual inspection: G50–G51, G58 voice exemplars: G46 warrant in general: G67–G68 • 1115 execution of: G202–G204, G219 issuing officials: G77–G78 particularity of: G69 et seq sedition: see freedom of speech-sedition laws segregation: see racial or ethnic origin classifications selective prosecution: K29 self-incrimination, privilege against (see also undercover agents or informants) in general: C74 et seq., C95–C100 exclusionary rule: C88–C89, C95 statements during custodial interrogation: C78 et seq waiver of: B59–B63, B67, C74 self-representation, defendant’s right to: C112 et seq sentencing in general: E89 aggravating factors: C153, E114, E117, H20 beliefs of the defendant: H20 by jury or by judge: C153 clemency: C77 commutation of sentence: C58, E136 concurrent sentences consecutive sentences cumulative sentences: E159 death penalty: B62, E49, E107 et seq., E163, K38 (see also execution) double jeopardy in: E159, E162 et seq evidence concerning ex post facto laws: E45 et seq hate crimes: C153 mandatory death: E112 mandatory lifetime: E134, E136–E139 mandatory sentences: E91 minimum sentences: C153 mitigating factors: E112, E115, E138 on retrial: C170 et seq., E162 proportionality: E106, E108, E133 et seq racial motive: H20 recidivism: E43, E165 sentencing guidelines: E116 separate but equal: K6 separation of powers: A1, A44–A48, A62, E28 set-aside programs: see equal protectionaffirmative action Seventh Amendment: C30, C72–C73 severability: A29, A65 sex discrimination: see gender classifications sexual orientation: see homosexuals sexual freedom: F2, F18, F40, F44 (see also statutory rape) sexually dangerous persons: E21–E25, E50 1116 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution sexually explicit speech: see freedom of speech shackling: C164 sham litigation: C61 sidewalks: see freedom of speech signs: see freedom of speech slavery: D4 sleeping in parks: see freedom of speech-camping in parks sodomy: F18 solicitation: see freedom of speech Son of Sam law: I42 sound regulation: see freedom of speech-noise regulation sovereign immunity: B88–B89 speech: see freedom of speech Speech and Debate Clause: I85 speedy trial: C165 et seq spending power: I160, I225, I230, I232 standard of proof: C18–C19, C123 standards of judicial review: A57–A59 standing constitutional requirements: A8 et seq prudential requirements: A25 et seq abortion: A30–A31 appeal: A39 apportionment: A16 associational: A37 Commerce Clause: A33, A36, A37, D8 environmental harm: A22, A24, A32 equal protection: A16, A19–A23, A28–A29 establishment of religion: A12, A14 federal agencies: A35 Fourth Amendment: G63–G66 freedom of speech (overbreadth doctrine): I32 et seq intervention: A39 Legislators: A34 next friend: A26 shareholders: A38 States: A36 takings of property: J80–J82 taxpayer: A12–A14 third-party: A15, A26 voters: A16–A17 zone of interests: A27 stare decisis: A66 States rights of: B3 standing: A36 state action general principles: B4–B7, B11–B14 anticompetitive conduct: B38 broadcast stations: B34 coercion or encouragement: B13, B22, B24, B27, B29–B30, B33, B35–B36, B38 collective bargaining agreements: B37 company towns: B19 delegation of government functions or powers: B12, B15, B17–B21, B27–B31, B36 drug and alcohol testing of railroad employees: B33 insurance companies: B30 lien foreclosure—seizure of property: B36 NCAA: B32 nursing homes: B29 Olympic Committee: B31 parks: B9, B25 party primaries: B15–B16 peremptory challenges: B17–B18 private schools: B28 public utilities: B26–B27 racially restrictive covenants: B35 regulation: B13–B14, B24, B27–B30, B33 restaurants and clubs: B22–B24 shopping centers: B20–B21 subsidies: B14, B31 symbiotic relationships: B14, B23, B28, B30, B34 statistical evidence: A59 statute of limitations: B13, C166, E44, E50, J60, K100–K102 statutory presumptions: see presumptions statutory rape: K82 stay: A72 steel seizure: A54 sterilization: F37–F38 stop and frisk: see searches and seizures -frisk, -investigative stops strict scrutiny: A57–A58 strike: B48, J13, I231, I448 students, rights of: see juveniles, rights of students, suspension or dismissal of: C45–C46 substantive due process: see due process, substantive subversive advocacy: see freedom of speech incitement, -sedition laws sue, right to: C59–C61 suicide: see assisted suicide, right to Sunday closing laws: H41 Supremacy Clause: K107–K109 Supreme Court affirmance by equally divided: A76 caseload: A71 Subject Matter Index effects of its decisions: A63 et seq jurisdiction: A3 et seq., A69 Justices: A2 law clerks: A2, A71 nonadjudicatory functions: A5–A6 “not pressed or passed upon below” rule: A53 opinions: A71, A77 procedures: A69 et seq quorum: A76 rule of four: A71 surgery, forced: D26, G214, G216 suspect classification: K2 symbolic speech: see freedom of speech taking of property abandoned property: J60 et seq condemnation (formal): J8 damage caused by others: J57 development exactions: J35–J37 emergency situations: J56 forfeiture of property used illegally: J58–J59 Indian land consolidation: J43 inverse condemnation: J9 just compensation: J39–J42, J65 et seq landmark laws: J28 liens: J47–J48 mining regulations: J29 et seq moratoria: J33 navigational servitude: J44–J46 physical taking: J9–J11, J12 et seq procedural due process: C29–C30 prohibition of trade: J49–J50 property, what constitutes: J6–J7 public use: J2 et seq., J21–J22 public utility rate regulation: J39 et seq regulatory takings: J9–J11, J17 et seq rent regulations: J38 right to exclude, limitations on: J53–J55 standing—recipient of the compensation: J80–J82 trade secrets: J7, J51–J52 zoning and land use restrictions: J21 et seq., J34 taxation (see also establishment of religion, free exercise of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press) as penalty: E12 dormant Commerce Clause: J140 et seq., K181 due process: J119 et seq., J131 et seq., J142 equal protection: K181 et seq • 1117 federal: J131–J132, J135–J136 of foreign corporations: B68, J142, K187–K190 on vehicles: J143 Privilegies and Immunities Clause: B2, D9–D10 retroactive: J119 et seq Sixteenth Amendment: J135 state: J131–J134, J140 et seq., K181 et seq Uniformity Clause: J136 unitary business principle: J134 taxpayer’s suit: see standing telephone messages (indecent): see freedom of speech television: see freedom of speech-radio and television Ten Commandments: H115, H120, H125, H126 Tenth Amendment: E155 territories: B43 terrorist attack: G119 testimony (see also self-incrimination, privilege against) defendant’s right to give: C136 hypnotically refreshed: C136 impeachment of: C77, C89, C102, C141, G226 third-party standing: see standing Thirteenth Amendment: D4 et seq time, place and manner restrictions: see freedom pf speech tobacco products, advertising of: I183, I184 tolls: J143 totality of circumstances test: B60, B65, C117, C120–C121, G10, G81, G90, G94 trade secrets: B70, J4, J7, J51–J52 tradenames: I176, I192 transcript: C63-C64 travel, right to abroad: D21 et seq in the U.S.: D8 et seq., K135 trespassing: G27–G28 trial broadcast coverage of: I261, I265 by jury: C30, C72–C73, C151 et seq competence to stand: C19, D32–D33 public: C150 speedy: C165 et seq tuition: see school Twenty-First Amendment: I145, J140 unconstitutional conditions doctrine: B68 et seq., I225 et seq., J35–J37, J51 1118 • Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution unconstitutional laws: A64–A65 undercover agents or informants: C84, C96, C98–C100, E87, G8 unemployment benefits: B68, H42–H46, K73, K199 union shop agreement: I443 et seq unions: see labor unions utilities: see public utility regulation vaccination, compulsory: D28 vagrancy: E64–E65 vagueness: C2, E59 et seq., E114 , E117 venue, change of: I263, I264 veterans: B68, H19, K182 victim impact evidence: see evidence viewpoint discrimination: see freedom of speech void for vagueness doctrine: see vagueness voir dire: C161, I256, I257, K36 voluntariness of confessions: see confessions vote, right to (see also apportionment of voting districts, candidates-ballot access, gerrymandering) in general: K129–K131 absentee voting: K149–K150 counting of votes: K172 felons: K151 literacy tests: K144–K145 one person, one vote: K155 et seq party primaries: see primaries poll tax: K138 prisoners: K150–K151 property qualifications: K139 et seq., K160 racial discrimination: B15–B16, K146–K148 registration requirements: K135–K136 residency requirements: K132 et seq vote dilution: K163–K164, K167 votes, counting and recounting of: K172 voting districts: see apportionment of voting districts, gerrymandering wage controls: E80 (see also minimum wage laws) waiver of rights: B57 et seq., G136 (see also searches and seizures-consent to search) waiver of sovereign power: J92, J105 war (see also hostilities, duration of) constitutional rights during wartime: B44 et seq legality of (political question): A54 power: B44 warrants: see searches and seizures wealth classifications: see equal protection welfare benefits equal protection: generally: K191 et seq alienage classifications: K106, K108, K113 durational residency requirements: D12–D16 illegitimacy classifications: K98–K99 remedy: K78, K213 sex classifications: K74 et seq., K90 staying abroad: D25 fundamental right to: B53, J83 hearing before termination: C12, C14 home visits: B70, G9, G185 wiretaps: see searches and seizures-electronic surveillance witnesses coercion of: C134, D6 confrontation with: C12, C143 et seq deportation of: C134 right to call: C133 writ of certiorari: see certiorari writ of habeas corpus: see habeas corpus zoning adult businesses: I26, I146 et seq low income housing: K204 racial restrictions in: K58 referendum: J21, K58, K204 regulatory taking of property: J21 et seq retarded persons, home for: K126–K127 theaters: I23 ... by the other branches of government.”1 The Supreme Court of the United States is at the top of the country’s judicial branch [A2] The Court consists of nine members, the Chief Justice of the. . .Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution The Case Law of the U.S Supreme Court Ioannis G Dimitrakopoulos Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Leiden / Boston Library of Congress... 11 Individual Rights and Liberties Under the U.S Constitution • d Standing i Constitutional Requirements [A8] The doctrine of standing is an essential part of the case- or-controversy require- The