Higher Education to 2030 pdf

Higher Education to 2030 VOLUME 2 GLOBALISATION Growing flows of knowledge, people and financing cross national borders and feed both worldwide collaboration and competition. These effects of globalisation increasingly impact higher education. How then might the future higher education scene look at the global level? What are the challenges and opportunities brought by globalisation? How can countries and institutions best cope with and benefit from future changes? Through both quantitative and qualitative analysis, this book provides a comprehensive and structured look at these essential questions. It explores the topic of cross-border higher education in terms of student, faculty and institutional mobility, providing a specific focus on academic research. Other issues addressed include higher education provision, financing, governance and quality assurance, with an emphasis on the use of market-like mechanisms. The book covers most OECD countries as well as many non-OECD countries and offers the reader specific reflections on China, India and European co-operation. Higher Education to 2030 (Vol. 2): Globalisation will be of interest to policy makers, managers of higher education institutions, academics, researchers, and students – as well as to all readers interested in social issues. This is the second volume in the Higher Education to 2030 series, which takes a forward-looking approach to analysing the impact of various contemporary trends on tertiary education systems. Volume 1 examines the effects of demography, while volume 3 explores the effects of technology. The fourth and final volume will present scenarios illustrating the main trends and driving forces for the future of higher education. The full text of this book is available on line via this link: www.sourceoecd.org/education/9789264056602 Those with access to all OECD books on line should use this link: www.sourceoecd.org/9789264056602 SourceOECD is the OECD online library of books, periodicals and statistical databases. For more information about this award-winning service and free trials, ask your librarian, or write to us at SourceOECD@oecd.org. ISBN 978-92-64-05660-2 96 2009 04 1 P -:HSTCQE=UZ[[UW: XXXPFDEPSHQVCMJTIJOH Higher Education to 2030 VOLUME 2 GLOBALISATION C entre for E ducational R esearch and I nnovation Higher Education to 2030 VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION Higher Education to 2030 VOLUME 2 GLOBALISATION CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND INNOVATION ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies. The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD. OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering and research on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions, guidelines and standards agreed by its members. ISBN 978-92-64-05660-2 (print) ISBN 978-92-64-07537-5 (PDF) Series: Educational Research and Innovation Also available in French: L’enseignement supér ieur à l’ho rizon 2030, Volume 2 : Globalisation Photo credits: Cover © Stockbyte/Getty images. Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda. © OECD 2009 You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and multimedia products in your own documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgment of OECD as source and copyright owner is given. All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to rights@oecd.org. Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material for public or commercial use shall be addressed directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) at info@copyright.com or the Centre français d'exploitation du droit de copie (CFC) at contact@cfcopies.com. This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries. FOREWORD HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 3 Foreword Higher education and research play a key role in countries’ response to globalisation. At the same time, even if no global model of the higher education system is currently emerging, higher education is increasingly becoming globalised. Higher education is thus simultaneously a response to, and a scene for, global competition, collaboration, mobility and cross-cultural encounters. This book analyses recent trends in tertiary education systems that relate to globalisation and draws up several possible future scenarios for their evolution. It looks at three main sets of questions: cross-border higher education, that is, the mobility of students, faculty, programmes and institutions; the trends in the governance of tertiary education as a result of globalisation, notably as it relates to funding, quality assurance, and privatisation; and, finally, the perceived and actual forces fuelling competition and collaboration at the global level, including international rankings and the emergence of China and India as global players. Like its companion volumes in this series, on demography (volume 1) and technology (volume 3) respectively, this report will help higher education policy makers and stakeholders to better understand globalisation-related trends in higher education – and imagine several possible and plausible futures. Completed just before the recession, this book is a very timely opportunity to enlighten policy and decision making during the recovery. Business as usual cannot be the right answer. More than ever, it is essential to be forward-looking, innovative, and to question the continuation of some recent trends. Informing and framing this forward-looking discussion is precisely the mission of the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) project on the future of higher education, led by Senior Analyst Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin. This project has benefited from the support of all our member countries, but I would particularly like to thank Austria, France and Portugal, which have generously hosted expert and stakeholder meetings in relation to this strand of the project. Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin and Analyst Kiira Kärkkäinen are the editors of the book. Therese Walsh and Ashley Allen-Sinclair provided assistance and helped in preparing the manuscript. I would further like to thank all the book’s authors who have provided original and complementary insights into this complex subject as well as Dirk van Damme, head of CERI, for his strong support to the project and Tom Schuller, former head of CERI, from whose valuable advice the project on the future of higher education has benefited. Barbara Ischinger Director for Education TABLE OF CONTENTS HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 5 Table of Contents Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Chapter 1. The New Global Landscape of Nations and Institutions by Simon Marginson and Marijk van der Wende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.2. Interpretations of globalisation in higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.3. Mapping the global environment of nations and institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.4. Global power relations in higher education and research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1.5. Tendencies to “disembedding” from national governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 1.6. Global private and public goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.7. General conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Chapter 2. Cross-border Higher Education: Trends and Perspectives by Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 2.2. Trends in cross-border higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 2.3. Principal current strategies for the internationalisation of higher education 73 2.4. Student mobility growth perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.5. Three future scenarios for cross-border higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.6. Closing remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Chapter 3. Trends and Future Scenarios in Programme and Institution Mobility across Borders by Grant McBurnie and Christopher Ziguras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.2. Limitations in forecasting growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 3.3. Scenario one: the world of higher education becomes more foreign . . . . . . . . . 93 3.4. Scenario two: as the world churns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 3.5. Scenario three: branch campus clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.6. Scenario four: raising the bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 TABLE OF CONTENTS HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 6 Chapter 4. Europeanisation, International Rankings and Faculty Mobility: Three Cases in Higher Education Globalisation by Simon Marginson and Marijk van der Wende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 4.2. Europeanisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 4.3. University rankings and typologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.4. Global faculty mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Chapter 5. What is Changing in Academic Research? Trends and Prospects by Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.2. The massification of academic research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 5.3. Basic research: the main mission of academic research?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 5.4. Academic research and new public management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 5.5. The rise of private funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 5.6. The internationalisation of academic research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 5.7. A new social contract for research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 5.8. Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 5.9. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Annex 5.A1. Future Scenarios for Academic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Chapter 6. The Giants Awake: The Present and Future of Higher Education Systems in China and India by Philip G. Altbach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 6.1. A difficult history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 6.2. Contemporary characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 6.3. China and India as international higher education players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 6.4. Societal challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 6.5. The future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Chapter 7. European Higher Education Reforms in the Context of the Bologna Process: How Did We Get Here, Where Are We and Where Are We Going? by Johanna Witte, Jeroen Huisman and Lewis Purser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 7.2. How did we get here: the Bologna Process in motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 7.3. Where are we: the state of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 7.4. Where are we going: future scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 7.5. Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 TABLE OF CONTENTS HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 7 Chapter 8. Mass Higher Education and Private Institutions by Pedro Teixeira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 8.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 8.2. The long history and recent expansion of private higher education . . . . . . . . . 232 8.3. Some stylised facts on private higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 8.4. What future role for private higher education in times of mass higher education?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Chapter 9. Finance and Provision in Higher Education: A Shift from Public to Private? by Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 9.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 9.2. Trends in enrolments in public and private higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 9.3. Is public funding declining in higher education?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 9.4. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Annex 9.A1. Supplementary tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Chapter 10. Scenarios for Financial Sustainability of Tertiary Education by Jamil Salmi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 10.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 10.2. Trends and factors shaping tertiary education financing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 10.3. The changing face of public financing: funding approaches and instruments 297 10.4. Three scenarios for the future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 10.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Annex 10.A1. Matrix of voucher systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Annex 10.A2. Matrix of education savings accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Chapter 11. Quality Assurance in Higher Education – Its Global Future by Richard Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 11.1. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 11.2. The development of quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 11.3. The growth in external quality assurance agencies over the last 20 or so years 326 11.4. The “standard model” and the differences within that model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 11.5. Emerging trends and the future of external quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 11.6. The breaking down of national boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 11.7. A possibly more fundamental change –the end of, or the redefinition of, higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 11.8. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Annex 11.A1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 TABLE OF CONTENTS HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 8 List of Boxes 2.1. Foreign and international students in international statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 10.1. Demographic impact on the student age population in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 10.2. Foreign competition in Indian higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 10.3. Performance Contracts in Spain: the “contract program” in Madrid . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 10.4. Enrolment growth and quality crisis in Egyptian tertiary education . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 10.5. Demand-side funding in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 List of Tables 1.1. Selected indicators of global potential, capacity and engagement, OECD countries and selected other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.2. Spoken languages with more than 100 million voices worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1.3. Countries’ share of the top 500 and 100 research universities as measured by Shanghai Jiao Tong University, compared to their share of world economic capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1.4. Output of published articles in science and engineering (including medicine and social sciences), OECD countries and selected other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1.5. Countries in which the number of scientific papers in science and engineering grew particularly sharply between 1988 and 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.6. Selected indicators on selected countries and regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.1. Destination of foreign students in the OECD area by region of origin (%) and changes between 1998 and 2007 (% points). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.2. Breakdown of foreign students in the major OECD regions (%), 2007, and changes between 1998 and 2007 (% points). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.3. Difference in salary between mobile and non mobile higher education graduates, five years after the end of their studies (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.1. Enrolments of students in transnational Australian higher education from 2000 to 2025 by region (actual and forecasted numbers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.1. The Global Super-league: the world’s leading universities as measured by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University (2007), and The Times Higher (2007) . . . . . . . . 123 5.1. Share of gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) performed by sector, 1981, 2006 (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.2. Distribution of domestic basic research expenditures across sectors of performance (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 5.3. Basic research as a percentage of R&D performed by each sector (% of expenditure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.4. Funding sources of higher education R&D (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.5. Percentage of government funding of academic research, by mode of funding (% of public funds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 5.6. Number, growth and share of patent applications filed under the Patent Co-operation Treaty, owned by universities (1994-2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 5.7. Share and breadth of international scientific collaboration over time, by country/economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 7.1. Implementation of diploma supplement in 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 7.2. Implementation of European credit transfer system (ECTS) in 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 7.3. Implementation of national qualification frameworks in line with the overarching Qualifications Framework for European Higher Education Area (EHEA) in 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 8.1. Tertiary education students enrolled by type of institution in 2006 (full and part-time students). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 8.2. Population having attained tertiary education in OECD countries in 2006 (%) . . . . 240 8.3. Earnings of the population with tertiary education relatively to upper secondary and post-secondary non tertiary education ( = 100) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 8.4. Evolution of enrolments in Portuguese higher education from 1971 to 2006 . . . . . 243 [...]... both 14 HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY private higher education provision and funding have seen significant increases over the past decades This growth is likely to continue, especially in developing countries where rapid demographic growth will continue to boost higher education demand Growth of market-like mechanisms will be more marked in higher education. .. evolution of higher education quality assurance worldwide It first examines different quality assurance models and differences in their use across regions The chapter then reflects on a number of emerging trends with regard to quality assurance approaches and methodology as well as to cross-border quality assurance 16 HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 Higher Education to 2030 Volume... tertiary education: a comparison between OECD and selected other countries (2004) HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION © OECD 2009 299 302 302 303 304 314 11 Higher Education to 2030 Volume 2: Globalisation © OECD 2009 Executive Summary H igher education drives and is driven by globalisation It trains the highly skilled workers and contributes to the research... co-operation in higher education is expected to enhance the global competitiveness of Europe as a whole (van der Wende, 2004) This might appear to leave unchallenged the role of nation states, their control over higher education systems, and nation-centred assumptions about the public good role of higher education But reality has become more complex Competition in higher education and research is starting to play... (1975-2007) and projections looking forward to 2030 3.1 Growth of transnational higher education – Scenario 1 3.2 Growth of transnational higher education – Scenario 2 3.3 Growth of transnational higher education – Scenario 3 3.4 Growth of transnational higher education – Scenario 4 ... (Salmi) explores how higher education could develop in a financially sustainable way in the future After discussing the main trends likely to impact future higher education financing, it presents the main characteristics of higher education financing today, with emphasis on funding sources and allocation mechanisms The chapter assesses three scenarios for the future of higher education financing from... features in development of private and public higher education provision in a global scale 8.6 Scale of for-profit higher education in the United States 8.7 Emergence of private higher education institutions in Poland 8.8 Most common/popular study fields in private higher education institutions in selected countries... and developments in the global environment of higher education and reflecting on how higher education might look in the future While the thematic focus is on cross-border education and academic research, the specific cases of emerging Asian giants and European co-operation are examined in more detail The book then shifts its focus to the themes of higher education provision, financing and governance... relation to research performed by other sectors The chapter concludes by highlighting challenges and sketching scenarios for future academic research Chapter 6 (Altbach) examines the characteristics and future potential of higher education systems in China and India After a historical overview, it discusses the role of the two countries as international higher education players in relation to cross-border... funding and public funding per student to higher education institutions (1995-2005) 9.4 Total public expenditure on tertiary education as a percentage of public expenditure and as a percentage of GDP 9.5 Public expenditures for tertiary education by category, 2005 (and change) 9.6 Changes in funding according to several indictors 9.A1.1 . esearch and I nnovation Higher Education to 2030 VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION Higher Education to 2030 VOLUME 2 GLOBALISATION CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. project on the future of higher education has benefited. Barbara Ischinger Director for Education TABLE OF CONTENTS HIGHER EDUCATION TO 2030 – VOLUME 2: GLOBALISATION