A U P A U P Transnational Archipelago Perspectives on Cape Verdean Migration and Diaspora Transnational Archipelago batalha and carling Migration has been essential to Cape Verde since the birth of the na- tion, and connections to faraway places continue to dominate daily life on the islands. This book makes a signifi cant contribution to the study of international migration and transnationalism by exploring the Cape Verdean diaspora through its geographical diversity and with a range of thematic perspectives. The fi rst part of the book is a journey to eight Cape Verdean emigrant communities, from Argentina in the South to Sweden in the North. These chapters testify to the strikingly diverse outcomes of migration from a single, small country. The second part of the book explores selected themes in Cape Verdean migration and transnationalism, including music, language, the Internet and gender relations. This comprehensive account of Cape Verdean migration traces intriguing routes of travel, explores little known destinations in four different continents and uncovers a variety of expressions of belonging and longing. By looking beyond the main migratory routes to major destinations, investigated in most migration research, it opens up for important new horizons of research and insight. Karen Fog Olwig, Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen A unique strength of this book is to show how the same group becomes part of a new country and stays connected to its homeland in different contexts. Few books offer such a valuable comparative perspective. Peggy Levitt, Chair and Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Wellesley College This book brings together a new generation of scholars of Cape Verdean migration from around the world and from various disciplines. Batalha and Carling have given us an indispensable new resource for anyone interested in Cape Verde and for students of migration in general. Deirdre Meintel, Director, Groupe de recherche Diversité urbaine (GRDU) , University of Montreal Luís Batalha is Associate Professor of Social Anthropology at the Technical University of Lisbon and author of The Cape Verdean Diaspora in Portugal: Colonial Subjects in a Postcolonial World (2004). Jørgen Carling is Senior Researcher at the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO), where he does research on migration and transnationalism. www.aup.nl Edited by luís batalha and jørgen carling aup_transnational_def.indd 1 03-06-2008 09:41:26 Transnational Archipelago Perspectives on Cape Verdean Migration and Diaspora Edited by Luı ´ s Batalha and Jørgen Carling Cover design: Neon, design and communications, Sabine Mannel Layout: The DocWorkers, Almere ISBN 978 90 5356 994 8 NUR 741 / 763 © Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 2008 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright re- served above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or in- troduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permis sion of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Contents Foreword 5 Notes on contributors 7 1. Cape Verdean Migration and Diaspora 13 Jørgen Carling and Luı ´ s Batalha SECTION I – DIASPORA COMMUNITY PORTRAITS 33 2. Cape Verdeans in the U.S. 35 Marilyn Halter 3. Cape Verdeans in Argentina 47 Marta Maffia 4. Cape Verdeans in Sa ˜ o Tome ´ and Prı ´ ncipe 55 Augusto Nascimento 5. Cape Verdeans in Portugal 61 Luı ´ s Batalha 6. Cape Verdeans in Spain 73 Rocı ´ o Moldes Farelo and Luzia Oca Gonza ´ lez 7. Cape Verdeans in Italy 81 Jacqueline Andall 8. Cape Verdeans in the Netherlands 91 Jørgen Carling 9. Cape Verdeans in Sweden 101 Lisa A ˚ kesson SECTION II – MIGRATION AND TRANSNATIONALISM 111 10. Making Waves: Cape Verdeans, Whaling and the Uses of Photography 113 Memory Holloway 11. And When the Wom en Leave? Female Emigration from Boa Vista 131 Andre ´ a de Souza Lobo 12. Cape Verdean Tongues: Speaking of ‘Nation’ at Home and Abroad 145 Ma ´ rcia Rego 13. Cape Verdean Transnationalism on the Internet 161 So ´ nia Melo 14. Images of Emigration in Cape Verdean Music 173 Juliana Braz Dias 15. Cape Verdean Migration, Music Recordings and Performance 189 Rui Cidra 16. Diasporic Networks, Political Change, and the Growth of Cabo-Zouk Music 205 JoAnne Hoff man 17. Managing Work and Care for Young Children in Cape Verdean Families in Portugal 221 Karin Wall 18. Cape Verdeans’ Pathways to Health: Local Problems, Transnational Solutions 237 Huub Beijers and Cla ´ udia de Freit as 19. Cape Verdean Diasporic Identity Formation 255 Gina Sa ´ nchez Gibau 20. The Resilience of the Cape Verdean Migration Tradition 269 Lisa A ˚ kesson Subject Index 285 4 TRANSNATIONAL ARCHIPELAGO Foreword This is the first book to present a comprehensive exploration of Cape Verdean migration and transnationalism. It is also one of very few an- thologies that presents a range of geographical and thematic perspec- tives on any single diaspora. The book emerged out of a conference or- ganised at the Centro de Estudos de Antropologia Social (CEAS), at the Instituto Superior de Cie ˆ ncias do Trabalho e da Empresa (ISCTE), in Lisbon, April 2005. The conference comprised forty presentations by researchers from a dozen different countries. The chapters in this book include substantially revised versions of selected conference papers, chapters that merged individual conference papers, as well as newly written chapters. The conference itself was trilingual (Portuguese, Spanish and English) and several chapters have been translated into English. While there is a growing literature on Cape Verdean migration in Portuguese, our ambition with this book was to make high-quality research on Cape Verdean migration accessible to an international Eng- lish-speaking audience. Most of the research presented in this book would not have been possible without the contributions of Cape Verdean informants in- volved in the diaspora and on the islands. We are all grateful for the willingness of so many Cape Verdea ns to generously share their experi- ences for the benefit of our research. There are, unfortunately, no aca- demics from Cape Verde among the contributors to this volume. How- ever, it is promising to see that higher educati on and research is devel- oping rapidly in Cape Verde, and that increasing numbers of Cape Verdean students overseas are doing graduate research linked to migra- tion. The conference in Lisbon was supported by the Fundac¸a ˜ o para a Cie ˆ ncia e a Tecnologia (FCT), and the Fundac¸a ˜ o Luso-Americana (FLAD). We are also grateful to Anto ´ nia Lima, who while acting as Chair of the CEAS, promptly agreed to discuss with the board the orga- nisation of the conference as part of its annual programme, and for Isabel Cardana’s contribution to the organisation of the conference. The chapters in the book have been peer revi ewed and commented upon by several anonymous referees, whose efforts we greatly appreci- ate. We would also like to thank our editor at the University of Amster- dam Press, Erik van Aert for his encouraging support, and Achim Le- wandowski for permission to use the cover photogra ph of children playing in front of the old secondary school in Sa ˜ o Vicente. Lisbon and Oslo, December 2007 Luı ´ s Batalha and Jørg en Carling 6 TRANSNATIONAL ARCHIPELAGO Notes on contributors LISA A ˚ KESSON is Director of Studies in Social Anthropology at the School of Global Studies, Go ¨ teborg University. Her PhD in Social Anthropol- ogy addressed the meanings of migration in Cape Verde and was based on extensive fieldwork in Sa ˜ o Vicente during the period 1996–2003. She is currently doing research on remittances to Cape Verde wi th a fo- cus on rural Santo Anta ˜ o. She has also done fieldwork among Cape Verdeans in Sweden. Her research, teaching and supervision also cov- ers family and kinship, ethnic and cultural diversity, and human traf- ficking. JACQUELINE ANDALL is Senior Lecturer in Italian Studies at the Depart- ment of European Studies, University of Bath. Her research interests are on labour migration, female migration, second generations and Ita- lian colonialism/postcolonialism. She is author of Gender, Migration and Domestic Service (Ashgate, 2000), editor of Gender and Ethnicity in Contemporary Europe (Berg 2003) and co-editor (with Derek Duncan) of Italian Colonialism: Legacy and Memory (Peter Lang, 2005). Her current research is on Ghanaian migration to Italy’s industrial districts. LUI ´ S BATALHA is a social anthropologist and Associate Professor at the In- stituto Superior de Cie ˆ ncias Sociais e Polı ´ ticas, Universidade Te ´ cnica de Lisboa. He has done ethnographic work among Cape Verdeans in Portugal, the U.S. and Cape Verde exploring issues relating to ethni- city, race and identity construction. He has published a book about the presence of Cape Verd eans in Portugal, The Cape Verdean Diaspora in Portugal: Colonial Subjects in a Postcolonial World (Lexington Books, 2004) as well as several articles and book chapters on related issues. He is currently working on the presence of the Cape Verdeans in Mo- zambique’s late colonial period as middle-me n civil servants. HUUB BEIJERS is manager of tr anscultural psychiatry for Symfora group Mental Health Care in the Netherlands. He has a background in medi- cal anthropology and social psychology. He was responsible for the de- velopment of the Apoio project, a community mental health care initia- tive for Cape Verdeans in Rotterdam. His research in the Cape Verdean community in Rotterdam focused on experiences of psychosocial dis- tress, explanations of distress, pathways to health, and experiences of exclusion and discrimination in mental health care. He is currently de- veloping research on experiences of Cape Verdean girls sexually abused by relatives. JØRGEN CARLING is Senior Researcher at the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO) in Norway. He holds a PhD in human geogra- phy based on a case study of Dutch-Cape Verdean transnationalism. He has done research on several aspects of migration and transnation- alism, including human smuggling, migration control, transnational families and remittances. He has extensive fieldwork experience from Cape Verde, and among Cape Verdeans in the Netherlands and Italy. He has published in most of the leading journals in migration studies, including the International Migration Review, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Global Networks and Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. RUI CIDRA is a researcher and doctoral candidate at the Instituto de Etno- musicologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal. He has carried out fieldwork on the islands of Santiago and Sa ˜ o Vicente, and in the Metropolitan Area of Lisbon, on Cape Verdean Music and on Hip-hop. He is preparing a PhD dissertation on the creative processes of Santia- go’s young musicians. He is co-editor of Enciclope ´ dia da Mu ´ sica em Por- tugal no Se ´ culo XX, where he has written forty entries on musical gen- res, processes and musicians from Portugal, Cape Verde and other Lu- sophone African countries. JULIANA BRAZ DIAS is Professor of Anthropology at Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, in Brazil. She holds a doctoral degree in Social Anthropology from Universidade de Brası ´ lia. Her research has focused on popular culture and social identity in Cape Verde. She has extensive fieldwork experience, studying several aspects of Cape Verdean society, since 1998. Her teaching and research activities also cover kinship, mi- gration, colonialism and museums. ROCIO MOLDES FARELO is Associate Professor of Sociology at the Universi- dad Europea de Madrid. She holds a PhD in political science and so- ciology from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Her dissertation is an ethnographic study of Cape Verdean communities in Spain, based on extensive fieldwork in the years 1995–1998. Her current re- search is concentrated on the sociology of labour and migration and on human resource management. She is the author of Prevenir el racismo en el trabajo en Espan ˜ a (IMSERSO, Diciembre 2000) and the co-author of Paro, Exclusio ´ n y Polı ´ ticas de Empleo. Aspectos sociolo ´ gicos (Tirant Lo Blanch, Octubre, 2004). 8 TRANSNATIONAL ARCHIPELAGO CLA ´ UDIA DE FREITAS is a PhD candidate in Social Sciences at the Utrecht University, The Netherlands. She has a back ground in Clinical Psychol- ogy and holds a MA in Migration and Ethnic Studies from the Univer- sity of Amsterdam, based on a study of Cape Verdeans’ perceptions of care providers, access to health care and transnational health care seek- ing. She is currently writing her dissertation on Cape Verdeans’ partici- pation in mental health care and recovery. She is the author of Em Bus- ca de Um Bom Me ´ dico – Quando a Sau ´ de Na ˜ o Tem Fronteiras: Percepc¸o ˜ es dos Caboverdianos Sobre Profissionais de Sau ´ de na Holanda (Lisbon: ACIME, 2006). GINA SA ´ NCHEZ GIBAU is Associate Professor in the Department of Anthro- pology at Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis. She earned a PhD in Anthropology from the University of Texas at Austin, specializing in the African diaspora. She conducted fieldwork on iden- tity formation among Cape Verdeans in Boston, Massachusetts, and in the islands. Her current research focuses on the construction of Cape Verdean diasporic identity in cyberspace. She has published articles in Transforming Anthropology, Identities, and The Western Journal of Black Studies. LUZIA OCA GONZA ´ LEZ is Lecturer of Applied Anthropology at the Universi- dade de Tra ´ s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. She holds a Master’s Degree in applied anthropology from the Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Her research and fieldwork is linked with social interven- tion, primarily with the Cape Verdean community in Galiza (Galicia), on whi ch she has published various articles in Portugal and Spain. She has also done fieldwork on the island of Santiago, from where the com- munity originates. She has created the anthropological exhibition Ba- dias: cabo-verdianas na Galiza. She currently manages a participatory re- search with women in Santiago’s fishing communities. MARILYN HALTER is Professor of History and Research Associate at the In- stitute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs at Boston University. Her books include Between Race and Ethnicity: Cape Verdean American Immigrants, 1860-1965 (University of Illinois Press, 1993) and with Ri- chard Lobban, The Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cape Verde (Scarecrow Press, 1988 edition) as well as Shopping for Identity: The Marketing of Ethnicity (Schocken Books, 2000) and New Migrants in the Marketplace: Boston’s Ethnic Entrepreneurs (University of Massachusetts Press, 1995). Her current research project, ‘The Newest African Ameri- cans’, is a stu dy of recent West African immigrants and refugees to the U.S. NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS 9 [...]... French -Cape Verdean communities Paris, Marseilles and Nice are all cities with substantial Cape Verdean populations The migration from Senegal to France is one of several migration flows between destinations in the Cape Verdean diaspora Many Cape Verdean women left Italy for the Netherlands in the 1970s, and more recently there has been a substantial flow of Cape Verdeans from Portugal to the Netherlands... survive regardless of immigration policies which might make emigration less of an option for future Cape Verdeans than it has been in the past CHAPTER 1 CAPE VERDEAN MIGRATION AND DIASPORA 29 The Cape Verdean case and the study of transnationalism The New York Times started a recent series of articles on international migration with a front-page story about Cape Verde The rationale behind this choice was... many Cape Verdeans have eventually decided against returning, or have simply ended up not doing it Among Cape Verdeans in Europe, the second generation will probably soon outnumber the first generation It remains to be seen how they, as adults, will manage their Cape Verdean heritage and ties with Cape Verde The experience from the U.S., with an ethnic revival among third- and fourth-generation Cape Verdean- Americans... population While the rest of the islands have truly ‘diasporic’ connections with many emigrant destinations, Fogo and Brava are very strongly oriented towards the U.S Cape Verdean identity Amidst the various affiliations with the outside world, Cape Verde has a distinct national identity The children of European settlers and African slaves created the foundation for a Cape Verdean population soon after... different islands of origin, between the range of migration 30 TRANSNATIONAL ARCHIPELAGO destinations in Europe, Africa and the Americas, and between the historical periods through which Cape Verdean migration has evolved Despite the contrasts, the migrants in different parts of the diaspora and the non-migrants on the various islands relate to a shared notion of Cape Verdean identity This book contributes... cities As with Cape Verdean participation in the great transatlantic migration half a decade earlier, the northward migration in the 1960s and 1970s was also part of a larger migratory phenomenon Cape Verdean workers arrived in non-Western Europe alongside migrants from Turkey, Morocco and other countries as part of the massive ‘guest worker’ migration Cape Verdean migration to southern Europe contributed... CHAPTER 1 CAPE VERDEAN MIGRATION AND DIASPORA 23 Gibau discusses how this diversity of immigration histories influences diasporic identity formation among Cape Verdeans in Boston A final important development in the Cape Verdean diaspora around 1960 resulted from Senegal’s independence Many Cape Verdeans had been employed by French colonialists and moved to France with their employers This migration from... discussion of Cape Verde’s diverse connections to the outside world and the different frames of reference for a national identity This is followed by a brief overview of the migration history of Cape Verde, a discussion of diaspora politics, and an account of Cape Verdean transnationalism and its relationship with the development of the archipelago The introduction ends with a short discussion of the... in Cape Verde Where intermarriage with non -Cape Verdeans has been common, as in Italy and Senegal, the Kriolu skills of the second generation are often rudimentary Even in the Netherlands, where the vast majority of the second generation have two Cape Ver`-vis dean-born parents, there is a clear intergenerational difference vis-a Cape Verde For many Dutch-born children of Cape Verdean descent, Cape. .. potential contribution of the Cape Verdean case, and this book, to the study of migration and diaspora processes Locating Cape Verde The Cape Verde Islands are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, about 500 km off the coast of Senegal The islands were named after the closest point on the mainland, Cape Verde (Cap-Vert), which was allegedly where seafarers first saw greenery on land after sailing along the . Archipelago Perspectives on Cape Verdean Migration and Diaspora Edited by Luı ´ s Batalha and Jørgen Carling Cover design: Neon, design and communications, Sabine Mannel Layout:. 5 Notes on contributors 7 1. Cape Verdean Migration and Diaspora 13 Jørgen Carling and Luı ´ s Batalha SECTION I – DIASPORA COMMUNITY PORTRAITS 33 2. Cape Verdeans