Process Planning:The design/manufacture interfaceby Peter Scallan potx

Process Planning: The design/manufacture interface by Peter Scallan • ISBN: 0750651296 • Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books • Pub Date: December 2002 Preface Most prefaces tend to focus on the technical content of the textbook, why the author felt the need to write it, what makes it different and most of all why readers should buy it However, this was such an extraordinary learning experience for me, that I thought I should share some of it with you Near the end of session 1998-9, I was asked as Programme Leader for a then HND/BSc Manufacturing to consider revamping the course During the process of developing this new programme, the focus of which was manufacturing management and in particular manufacturing planning and control, I was developing a curriculum for a module on process planning As part of this, a number of references for library resources had to be identified Although there were many fine textbooks on computer-aided process planning and for postgraduate research, there appeared to be none that were particularly suitable for undergraduate study Furthermore, as the emphasis of the module was on the skills and knowledge required for process planning and not on the technology, I needed a textbook that was easy for undergraduates to follow while being reasonably thorough Having contacted a number of publishers, it became apparent that here was an excellent opportunity to write and publish my first book After all, I had written and published distance learning material and how difficult could it be? If only I knew then what I know now! Having estimated that it would take me about eighteen months to write the book, I finally finished in October of 2002, 18 months late! During this time there was a major illness in the family, a car written off, a disastrous house move, the birth of our fifth daughter (not a typing error I hasten to add!) and so many changes with my job that would require a book for themselves However imperfect it may be, I was determined to finish it and here it is! Finally, I make no apologies for the fact that I haven't been strictly sticking to conventions for technical writing or the fact that the odd colloquialism has crept in This is because the intended audience for this book is not other academics, but students I wanted it to be learner-friendly, which in my experience, many academics aren't! Peter Scallan October 2002 Acknowledgements There are many fine people and organizations that I must thank in the preparation of this manuscript In an effort to ensure that I don't miss anybody out, I have categorized these under three headings, namely reviewers, picture credits and personal Reviewers First in the list are the friends and colleagues who unwittingly volunteered to review chapters for me as follows: Dr Arthur Loughran, Senior Lecturer, Centre for Learning and Teaching, University of Paisley (Chapters 1-4); Mr Alex Neil, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, Kilmarnock College (Chapters and 6); Mr John Hunter, Lecturer, Division of Design & Engineering, University of Paisley (Chapters and 10); Mr David Smyth, Senior Lecturer, Division of Design & Engineering, University of Paisley (Chapters and 9) Your comments and contributions were invaluable and greatly appreciated I tried to incorporate as much of your suggestions as possible I am forever in your debt or at least I owe you a pint (or eight in John's case!) Picture and figure credits A number of individuals and their associated organizations also deserve mention for their help and allowing me to use material as follows: Tine Stalmans, Palgrave MacMillan: Figure 1.16 and Case study 1.1 Adapted and reproduced from Coward, David G Manufacturing Management: Learning through Case Studies, 1998, Macmillan Press with permission of Palgrave Macmillan Gordon Mair, Senior Lecturer, DMEM, University of Strathclyde: Figures 1.3, Q3.3, 4.22, 5.15, Q5.2, Q10.2 and Case study 4.1 Reprinted and adapted with the authors permission from Mastering Manufacturing by Gordon Mair Peter Hogarth, University of Bournemouth: Figure 3.1 Diagram adapted and reproduced with permission from Peter Hogarth on behalf of SEED (Shared Experience in Engineering Design) Website:www.seed.co.uk Permissions Dept at Elsevier Science: Figures 3.5, 3.7, 3.15 Reproduced/adapted from Beginning AutoCAD by Bob McFarlane Figure 3.14 Reproduced/adapted from Beginning AutoCAD 2000 by Bob McFarlane Figure 3.23 and Case study 3.1 adapted from Case Studies in Engineering Design by C Matthews Figures 4.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.4, 5.8-5.11, Acknowledgements xi 5.14, 5.19, 5.20, 5.22, 5.23, 5.26-5.32 Reproduced from Process Selection From Design to Manufacture by K.G Swift and J.D Booker Figures 5.12, 5.13 and 5.18 Reproduced from Principles of Metal Manufacturing Processes by J Beddoes and M.J Bibby Figures 5.16 and 5.17 Reproduced from Principles of Engineering Manufacture by S.C Black, V Chiles, A.J Lissaman and S.J Martin Case study 2.2 Adapted and reproduced from Operations Management in Context by L Galloway, E Rowbotham and M Azhashain All reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Mark Endean, Lyndon Edwards and Richard McCracken, The Open University: Table 4.1, 4.11 and Case study 4.2 Adapted and reproduced with the kind permission of The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AB Website: www.open.ac.uk WDS: Figures 7.1, 7.41, 7.42, 7.43, 7.45-7.55, 7.59, 7.60 All pictures and diagrams used by kind permission of WDS, Richardshaw Road, Grangefield Industrial Estate, Pudsey, Leeds LS28 9LE Website: www.wdsltd.co.uk Email: sales @wdsltd.co.uk Carr Lane: Figures 7.18-7.19, 7.56-7.58, 7.66 Reproduced with the kind permission of Carr Lane Manufacturing Co Website: www.carrlane.com Email: info@carrlane.com Stephen Keightley, Copyright & Licensing Manager, British Standards Institution: Table 8.1 Reproduced with the permission of the British Standards Institution under licence number 2002SK/0214 British Standards can be obtained from: BSi Customer Services, 389 Chiswick Road, London W4 4AL Website: www.bsionline.co.uk Mia Amato, McGraw-Hill: Figures 1.19, 4.6 and Table 8.1 Case studies 1.2 and 2.1 Reproduced with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies Janice Cook, Marketing Manager, Mitutoyo (UK) Ltd.: Figures 8.25-8.31, 8.33 All pictures and diagrams used by kind permission of Mitutoyo (UK) Ltd., West Point Business Park, Andover, Hampshire, SP10 3UX Website: www.mitutoyo.co.uk Chris Pockett, Group Marketing Director, Renishaw plc: Figure 8.34 Pictures reproduced with permission of Renishaw plc, New Mills, Wottonunder-Edge, Gloucestershire GL12 8JR Website: www.renishaw.co.uk Bob Lawrie, Head of Quality Improvement, The Society for Motor Manufacturers and Traders Limited, Forbes House, Halkin Street, London SW1X 7DS: Figures 8.14 and 8.15 and charts in Appendix B The charts used in the above figures and Appendix B are based on material in Guidelines to Statistical Process Control, 2nd edition- An Introduction to Charting edited by Neville Mettrick, published 1994 by The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders Limited who have granted permission for their reproduction Website: www.smmt.co.uk Thomson Learning: Figures 5.6 and 5.7 From Modern Manufacturing Processes, 1st edition by D.L Goetsch 1991 Figures 7.20-7.24 From Jig and Fixture Design, 4th edition by E Hoffman 1996 Reprinted with permission of Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com Fax: 800 730-2215 Kathleen Robbins at John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Figures as indicated in main text Pearson Education Limited: Figures as indicated in main text - xii Acknowledgements Many thanks to all the above for their assistance in the preparation of this book The author and the publishers have made every effort to trace all copyright-holders, but if they have inadvertently overlooked any they will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity Personal There are a huge number of people whom I would like to thank: The staff at Butterworth-Heinemann for their advice and especially their patience, particularly Clare Harvey and Rebecca Rue Isobel Brown for the typing contributions; John Hunter, Jim Thomson, Steve Gallagher and James Findlay - if you don't laugh you'll cry! Anne and Peter Scallan Snr (Mum and Dad) for giving me support when I needed it most Jacky and Ronnie Matheson and family, Claire and Keith Hanson, Alan and Muriel Hall, Stephen Hanson-Hall for being my 'brother' (look after him Charlotte !) and Matthew Hanson (get out of bed!) Last and by no means least, my family Love to my daughters Lauren, Carly, Rachel, Rachel (not a misprint- two Rachels!) and Sarah- thanks for giving me grey hair; to Janet for giving me the time to get my head together and being the rock upon which I have rebuilt my life In the words of the modern poet John 'Ozzy' Osbourne, 'I love you all more than life itself, but you all drive me mad!' Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgements Introduction to manufacturing What is process planning? Drawing interpretation Material evaluation and process selection Production equipment and tooling selection Process parameters Workholding devices Selection of quality assurance methods Economics of process planning 10 From design to manufacture App A Control chart factors for variables App B Blank control charts App C Blank process planning documents Index 1.1 Introduction Introduction to manufacturing The prosperity of human kind has been inextricably linked with the ability to use and work with the available materials and tools throughout history Indeed, there is archaeological evidence of man's toolmaking ability dating as far back as 2-3 million years (Mair, 1993) However, the basis for manufacturing as we know it today can be traced as far back as 5000-4000 BC, with the manufacture of artefacts from materials such as wood, stone, metal and ceramics (Kalpakjian, 1995) The modem manufacturing organization, based on the factory system and the division of labour, was borne of the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century The roots of modem manufacturing processes can also be traced to the late eighteenth century with the development of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in the United States (Amstead et al., 1987) and the first all metal lathe by Henry Maudsley in the United Kingdom in 1794 (DeGarmo et al., 1988) The development of manufacturing processes continued in the early part of the nineteenth century with the introduction of a loom automatically controlled by punched cards in France in 1804, the development of the milling machine by Whitney and the use of mass manufacturing techniques by Marc Isambard Brunel in 1803 in the United Kingdom (Mair, 1993) The development of manufacturing industries to this day still relies heavily on research into manufacturing processes and materials and the development of new products Those countries that have been at the forefront of the development of manufacturing have come to be known as the developed countries, while those that have very little manufacturing are considered underdeveloped (el Wakil, 1989) This ability to manufacture products has a huge beating on the wealth and prosperity of a country In theory, the greater the ability of a country to manufacture, the wealthier that country should be (how this is achieved is discussed later in this chapter) Prime examples of this type of country are the United Kingdom and the United States For example, in the United Kingdom, manufacturing still makes a significant contribution to the wealth and prosperity of the nation, despite the decline of manufacturing in the 1980s A recent government report estimated that there are 4.3 million people directly involved in manufacturing and account for 20 per cent of the Gross Domestic Profit or GDP (DTI, 1999) Similarly, figures for the United States estimate that approximately 17.8 million people are employed in manufacturing (van Ark and Monnikhof, 1996) and again account for around 20 per cent of GDP (BEA, 1998) However, for the likes of the United Kingdom and the United States to remain competitive in the global market, the resources employed in manufacturing must be used in the most cost effective manner This means that the manufacturing of the products must be planned to make best use of these resources, which is the very essence of process planning Process Planning 1.2 Aims and objectives The aims of this chapter are to define manufacturing and present the main types of manufacturing systems employed and their operational characteristics On completion of this chapter, you should be able to: 9 state the main goals of a manufacturing organization; define the Principle of Added Value; define a manufacturing system; identify and describe the common manufacturing systems and their operational characteristics; identify and describe the main processing strategies and relate them to the common manufacturing systems; 1.3 What is manufacturing? define the manufacturing activity; identify and describe the main roles and responsibilities of a manufacturing engineer In the introduction to this chapter the importance of manufacturing to the wealth and prosperity of a country was explained However, before proceeding, the question 'What is manufacturing?' has to be answered Although the basis of manufacturing can be traced back as far as 5000-4000 BC, the word manufacture did not appear until 1567, with manufacturing appearing over 100 years later in 1683 (Kalpakjian, 1995) The word was derived from the Latin words manus (meaning 'hand') and facere (meaning 'to make') In Late Latin, these were combined to form the word manufactus meaning 'made by hand' or 'hand-made' Indeed, the word factory was derived from the now obsolete word manufactory In its broadest and most general sense, manufacturing is defined as (DeGarmo et al., 1988): the conversion of stuff into things However, in more concise terms, it is defined in the Collins English Dictionary (1998) as: processing or making (a product) from raw materials, especially as a large scale operation using machinery In a modem context, this definition can be expanded further to: the making of products from raw materials using various processes, equipment, operations and manpower according to a detailed plan During processing, the raw material undergoes changes to allow it to become a part of a product or products Once processed, it should have worth in the market or a value Therefore, manufacturing is 'adding value' to the material The value added to the material through processing must be greater than the Introduction to manufacturing cost of processing to allow the organization to make money or a profit Therefore, added value can be defined as (ICMA, 1974): the increase in market value resulting from an alteration of the form, location or availability of a product, excluding the cost of materials and services Finally, the income of an organization, calculated by deducting the total costs from the sales revenue, is also sometimes referred to as the added value or value added (Gilchrist, 1971) In fact, in the past organizations have used bonus or incentive schemes for employees based on this definition of value added However, in the context of this book, the ICMA (1974) definition will be used when referring to added value Therefore, using this definition, a manufacturing organization will only be successful if it not only makes products, but also sells them This allows manufacturing to be further defined as: the making of products from raw materials using various processes, equipment, operations and manpower according to a detailed plan that is cost-effective and generates income through sales This definition adds the dimension of the processing being cost-effective 1.4 What is a manufacturing system? In general terms, based on the above definition, a manufacturing system can be defined as: a system in which raw materials are processed from one form into another, known as a product, gaining a higher or added value in the process and thus creating wealth in the form of a profit This is illustrated in Fig 1.1 There is no one concept that will cover all industries in detail Therefore, the concept defined above is generic However, there are numerous detailed definitions of what represents a manufacturing system One such definition that is particularly appropriate is that of Lucas Engineering and Systems This defines a manufacturing system as (Lucas Engineering and Systems, 1992): an integrated combination of processes, machine systems, people, organizational structures, information flows, control systems and computers whose purpose is to achieve economic product manufacture and internationally competitive performance Figure 1.1 Basic model of manufacturing system adding value Process Planning The definition goes on to state that the system has defined, but progressively changing objectives to meet Some of these objectives can be quantified, such as production output, inventory levels, manning levels and costs However, other objectives for the manufacturing system may be more difficult to quantify such as responsiveness, flexibility and quality of service Nevertheless, the system must have integrated controls, which systematically operate to ensure the objectives are met and can adapt to change when required Some of the aspects of this definition will be explored further in this chapter, namely the organization of processes, people and structures 1.5 Inputs and outputs of a manufacturing system Generally, the input/output analysis of a manufacturing system will be as shown in Fig 1.2 It can be seen from this that the system does not have an influence or control over all the inputs, for example, social pressures This means that the system must be flexible enough to deal with input variations It must also be able to cope with the rapid changes in technology and the market, particularly as product life cycles become increasingly shorter (Evans, 1996) The main output of the manufacturing system is obviously the product or manufactured goods These can be classified as either consumer products or producer products Consumer products are those that are sold to the general public However, producer products are those which are manufactured for other organizations to use in the manufacture of their products, which in turn could be either of the above categories of product Therefore, in some instances, the output of one manufacturing system is the input of another Thus, there may be considerable interaction between systems Finally, it should also be noted that not all the outputs are tangible or measurable For example, how is reputation measured although it can have a marked effect on the manufacturing system? Figure 1.2 Inputs and outputs of a manufacturing system Index Abrasive processes, 135, 179, 184-5, 435 Absorption, 387-9 see also OARs Abutments, 253, 303 Acceptance sampling see AQL Accounting, 383, 392-3, 420 Accounts, 8, 10, 382, 420 Acrylics, 119, 140 Adapter ring specification, 100 Added value, 2-3 Adhesives: bonding, 119, 140 structural, 140 Aerospace, 100, 117, 120, 361,395 Aesthetics, 163, 426 After sales service, 426 Allocation of resources, 10 Alloys, 116, 141,422 aluminium, 117, 172, 427 copper-tin, 117 copper-zinc, 117 ferrous, 115 hard, brittle, 115 heavy/light, 117 magnesium, 117 steel, 115, 116, 172 titanium, 117 Alternators, 159-63 Alumina, 118 Aluminium, 117, 160, 172, 422, 427 Angles, 69-74, 267, 272, 300 cutting edge, 204 measurement of, 363, 365-7 rake, 204, 207 Angularity, 89 Annealing, 115 Anvils and hammers, 176 Appearance, 426 AQL (Acceptable Quality Level), 325, 362 Arcs, 207 Armature, 163 Arrangement drawings, 65, 69, 267 Assembly, 12, 14, 24, 48, 53, 69, 80, 81, 141-5, 172 complex, 341 final, 38 high costs, 160 pulley/fan, 161, 162 radial fan, 97-9 test area, 421-2 see also ATO; DFM/A; Sub-assemblies Assembly drawings, 65-9, 267 ATO (assemble to order) strategy, 18 Attribute charts, 340, 348-54 Audit process, 27-8 Austenitic stainless steels, 115 Autocollimator, 367 Automatic tool-changing, 199-200 Automotive applications, 115, 117, 119, 120, 159 Axial alignment, 255 Axial fans, 97 Bake, 434 Ballnose cutters, 196 Batch manufacture, 13, 14, 38, 97, 152, 234 Batch size, 191,400, 403, 433, 447 see a l s o EBQ Bearings, 117, 119 Belts, 119, 184 Bending, 177, 187 Bending loads, 132 Billets, 42, 100, 124, 130, 151,158, 430 initial formation of, 154, 431 rectangular, 312 'roughing out', 153 with wrong dimensions, 338 Binding agents, 132 Bolts, 140, 145, 303, 404 shearing force acting on, 426 Boring, 253, 257, 303, 357 cutting speeds, 220-2 cylindrical, 198 depth of cut, 232 feed rates, 227-8 finish, 154 machining times, 234-7 precision, 180-2 rough, 153 spindle speeds, 225-6 taper, 198 tooling for, 198 Bosses, 154 Bottlenecks, 23, 58 Bought-in items, 140-1 Brass, 117, 396, 422 Brazing, 140, 200 Break-even analysis, 397, 400-1,403 470 Index Break-even quantity, 79, 401,402 British standards, 84, 87, 102, 107-8, 169, 217-18, 220, 250, 323, 329, 380, 396 Brittleness, 115, 118, 119 Broaching, 154, 180, 224, 257 cutting speeds for, 222-3 depth of cut for, 233 feed rates for, 230 machining times for, 241 tooling for, 194 Bronze, 117 Brunel, Marc Isambard, Buffing, 154, 185 Bulk forming, 130-2, 175-6 Bullnose cutters, 196 'Bumpiness', 89 Burrs, 259, 261,265, 304, 445, 447 Bushes, 117, 294-5, 401-2 drill, 268, 293, 303, 304, 313, 447 press-fit, 291-2 screw, 291,292 slip, 291,292 Business/organizational objectives, 5, 328 Callipers, 363 vernier, 365 Cams, 282, 285 Camshafts, 59 Capability, 86, 188, 204, 205, 258, 331,340, 355-9, 421 control versus, 339 Capability analysis, 192, 202, 433 Capacity, 6, 191,333 see also CRP CAPP (computer-aided process planning), 52, 54-5 generative approach, 55 variant approach, 55 Car bumpers, 163-6 Carbides, 118, 140, 141,204, 227, 229, 432, 435, 440, 442 Carbon, 115 Case-history approach, 121 Case studies, 27-34, 57-60, 97-101, 159-68, 303-15 Cast iron, 297, 397, 430 grey, 115, 422, 426, 427, 429, 435 Castability, 129-30, 146 Casting, 113, 124, 135, 143, 151,152, 153, 402, 428 centrifugal, 152 characteristics, 130 classification, 128-9, 172 cost of, 152 easing, to improve fluidity, 115 equipment, 172-4 investment, 152, 434, 172, 421,429, 430, 431,445 polymeric, 74 pressure die, 174 sand, 421,429 shell, 152, 154, 172 tooling for, 193 Cause and effect diagrams, 336-8 Cellular manufacturing, 12, 14-15, 24 Centres, 255 Centrifugal forces, 260 Centring, 358 Ceramics, 118, 120, 129, 141, 173, 204 Chamfers, 154, 162, 163, 207, 257, 268 Chance causes, 332 Charpy test, 112 Check/tally sheets, 335-6 Chips, 196, 293 build-up on cutting edge, 205 disposal of, 136 vapourized, 186 Chromium, 115 Chucks, 43, 253, 300, 445 vacuum, 302 Clamping, 54, 200, 260-1,297 location and, 43, 264-5, 274, 282, 303 practice of, 282-6 principles of, 281 Clamping devices, 290 Clamping forces, 252, 258, 282, 284, 447 minimizing, 301 Clamps, 172, 179-80, 258, 266, 270, 272, 287 cam, 282, 285 hook, 284 latch, 283 screw, 282, 284 sliding, 283 strap, 282-3 swing, 282, 284 toggle, 282, 285-6 wedge, 282, 284 Classification: casting, 128-9, 172 geometry, 123-4, 148 GT, 55, 80 machining processes, 135-6 manufacturing processes, 128-45, 172 materials for manufacture, 110 non-ferrous metals, 116 Cleaning processes, 141, 154 Clearance, 84, 158, 259, 261,264, 265, 292-3, 304, 308, 445, 447 CMMs (coordinate measuring machines), 188, 324, 368, 370 CNC (computer numeric control), 30, 31, 100, 186, 187, 199, 298, 299, 368, 432 drilling, 297, 431,433 lathes, 183, 401,402 machine tools, 188 milling, 297, 324, 403 Coarse pitch thread, 81 Index Coating processes, 141, 154 Cold-chamber process, 174 Cold compacting, 132 Collective drawings, 65, 69 Collets, 43, 253-4 Combined drawings, 69 Common causes, 332, 340, 341 Communication, 21 design, 63-4, 99 Company structure, 420 Components, 13, 26, 53, 115, 117, 390, 424-6 assembly of, 48 basic, 291 cost of manufacture, 399 drawing of, 41,267 feature generation, 187 flanged, 306 functional, 159 holding, 257 inspection of, 188, 368 positioning, 300 raw material processed into, 143 size and weight, 42, 146 specification, 369 standard, 126, 313 threaded, 99 Composites, 120, 165 fibre-reinforced, 119 laminar, 119 particulate, 119 Computers, 176 see also CAPP; CNC Concentricity, 89 Conditions of use, 426 Conductivity: electrical, 114, 117, 120, 302 thermal, 113 Conductors, 120 Conformance to requirements, 331 Consistency, 55 lack of, 54 Construction, 262 design and, 267, 304, 308, 313, 447 Contaminants, 141 Continuous improvement, 329 Continuous/process manufacture, 11, 15 Control, 382 inventory, 383 planning and, 8, 22, 23, 31 see also PAC; Quality control Control charts, 325, 338, 355 attribute, 340, 348-54 structure of, 339 uses of, 341 variable, 340, 342-8, 351,356, 462-8 471 Conveyors, 14 Coolants, 194 Cooperative approach, 40 Cope and drag, 172 Copper, 117, 422 Correlation diagrams, 338 Corrosion resistance, 115, 117, 118, 141, 154 Cost analysis, 37 cost-effectiveness, 3, Costing, 44, 59, 150, 452-4 job/batch, 386-92 marginal, 392-5, 407 Costs, 4, 146 component, 59 direct, 384, 385-6 equipment, 150, 152 fixed, 384, 393, 401,407 handling and storage, 163 indirect, 386, 387 inventory, 18, 161 labour, 150, 152, 403 marginal, 393, 407 overhead, 387-9 power, 30 prime, 386, 388, 391,453 process, 59 relative, 395-6, 397, 398 set-up, 58, 402 tooling, 133, 150, 152 unit, 391-2, 399, 400, 402, 403, 407, 454 variable, 384, 393, 401,402 see also Manufacturing costs; Production costs Countersinking, 154, 257, 268 Couplers, 69 Crankshafts, 115 Critical processing factors, 41, 95-7, 100, 148-50, 151-2, 429 drawing interpretation to help identify, 123 Cross-feeds, 230 Cross-functional teams, 40 CRP (capacity requirements planning), 50 Cubic boron nitride, 118 Customers: contact, 19 focus, 328-9 needs of, 36 orders, 12, 13, 32 specification, 18 Customized products, 59 Cutlery, 115 Cuts, 56, 152 depth of, 42, 189, 219-20, 231-4, 432, 434, 435, 440, 441 feed of, 43, 189, 219-20 roughing, 434, 442 speed of, 43, 189, 219-20 472 Index Cutting, 135, 179-83 direction of, 94 dovetail, 195 intermittent, 201 strokes, 223 surface speeds, 220-4 thread, 154, 194 Cutting edges, 198, 199, 200, 204 chip build-up, 205 Cutting forces, 136, 189-90, 258, 259, 261,264, 266 large, 281 locators resisting, 282 substantial, 302 Cutting tools, 56, 115, 116, 196, 232, 234, 238, 239, 432 availability, 202 carbide, 204, 227, 432, 435 geometry, 202, 203, 204 life, 136 materials, 203-4 support and guidance for, 304 workholder and, 259 Cycle time, 164 Cycles, 354 Cylindricity, 89 Damping properties, 115 Datum identifiers, 87 Deburring, 38, 434 Decision-making, 5, 27, 41,334, 340, 382 capacity, clear-cut, 150 day-to-day, factual approach to, 329 human resource, infrastructure, quality-related, 362 strategic, 405 'when' and 'how many', 51 see also Facility decisions; 'Make or buy' decisions; Process decisions Deep drawing, 132, 177 Defects, 335, 350, 351,359 freedom from, 146 Deformation, 132, 133 Degreasing, 434 Degrees of freedom, 274 Delivery times, 18 Demand, 328 predictable pattern, 18 supply and, 395 Density, 113 Departmental objectives, Depreciation, 384 Design, 14, 57, 128, 326 communication in, 63-4, 99 concept, 37 current product, 159-63 detail, 37 development and, 120 engineering, 18 gauge, 369 jig/fixture, 257-66, 296, 303-6, 308, 313, 447 'lifeblood' of, 63 manufacture and, 35-7, 38-41, 59 plant layout, 19-25 see also PDS Detail drawings, 65, 267, 426 Detailed cost comparison, 401-4 Detection, 333-4 DFM/A (design for manufacture and assembly) techniques, 40 Dies, 116, 177, 194 closed, 176 pressure, 174, 193 Diesel engines, 57 Dimensional accuracy, 54, 82, 113, 120, 146, 147, 153, 164, 188, 192, 202, 205, 429, 430, 433, 448 Dimensional tolerances, 41, 43, 44, 82-3, 87, 96, 97, 99, 146, 151-2, 188, 263, 426, 428, 429 Dimensions, 65, 80 auxiliary, 78 functional, 78 Direct labour, 385, 386, 388, 389, 390, 402, 453 Discrete parts manufacture, 11-12, 13, 38 Division of labour, 325 Documentation, 44-6, 69, 100 design, 158 Dodge, Harold, 325 Dopants, 120 Dowels/Dowel-pin systems, 297, 300, 301,304, 313 Drag and cope, 172 Drawing interpretation, 41, 63-108, 148, 150-1 jigs/fixtures, 43, 262-5, 303, 306, 310-12, 445 material evaluation and, 96-7, 427-8 Drill presses, 13, 304, 310, 430, 431,433, 434, 438 NC, 335 Drilling, 56, 153, 180, 186, 194, 430-41 CNC, 297, 431,433 cutting speeds, 220-2 depth of cut, 232-3 feed rates, 229 jigs, 303 machining times, 238-40 normal practice, 201 small holes, 154 soft material, 292 spindle speeds, 225-6 tooling for, 195-6, 202 torsional forces, 281 Drills, 21 carbide, 229, 240 Index fluted or twist, 195 four-lip, 195 gun, 195 HSS, 229 indexable insert, 195 spade, 195 three-lip, 195 two-lip, 195 Ductility, 112, 115, 118, 132, 154, 204 Dump boxes, 172 Duplicates, 14 EBQ (economic batch quantity), 79, 146, 191 ECM (electrochemical machining), 186 Economic activity centres, 20 EDM (electrical discharge machining), 186 Elasticity, 112 Elastomers, 118, 119 Electrical conductivity, 114, 117 Electrical contacts/switches, 118, 119 Electrostatic workholding, 302 Elevations, 69, 74 Endmills, 196, 229, 239 Endurance limit, 113 Energy, 112, 113 vibration, 115 Engineer's rule, 363, 365 Engineering, 7, 18, 335, 420 simultaneous or concurrent, 40 see also Industrial engineering; Manufacturing engineering Engineering communication: design, 63-4 dimensions, 78 documentation, 69 drawings, 65-9 orthographic projection, 69-78 Engineering drawings, 53, 369 see also Drawing interpretation; Engineering communication EOQ (economic order quantity) method, 31 Epoxy resins, 119, 140 Equivalent parts, 79-81 Ergonomics, 426 Errors, 361 Estimation, 44, 383 ETO (engineer to order) strategy, 18-19 Europe, 74, 267 Expectations, 329, 339 Expendable mould processes, 129, 172-3 External features, 156, 158 Extrusion, 132 Fabrication, 13, 402, 421 Face plates, 256 Facing, 20, 236 Fasteners, 84, 99 mechanical, 57, 81, 140, 141,287-8 standardized, 97-8 Fatigue, 361 limit, 113 resistance, 112-13 Faults, 332, 333 Feasibility, 18 Feed rates, 227-31 Feedback, 37, 328 Ferritic stainless steels, 115 Ferrous metals, 116 Fettling, 434 Final selection, 192, 433 Finances, 8, 10 Finish machine, 442-3 Finished goods, 18, 19, 32 Finishing operations, 184, 194, 195, 207, 232 special, 154 First cut selection, 191-2, 431-2 Fits see Limits and fits Fitting, 143 Fixing, 252, 259 handling and, 262 Fixtures, 41,256, 445-6 angle plate, 272 broaching, 261 classified, 270-1 design of, 257-6, 296, 303-6, 308, 313, 447 handles for, 293 indexing, 273,290-1 milling, 261,303 plate, 272 reduced need for, 188 standard parts for, 286-95 vice jaw, 272 Flanges, 306, 429, 430, 437, 438, 445 Flasking, 434 Flat cutters, 196 Flatness, 89, 363, 367 Flow manufacture, 13-14, 38, 87 Fluidity, 115, 130 Fluids: cutting, 201,204-5, 220 reactive, 164 FMS (flexible manufacturing systems), 24, 298 Foolproofing, 260, 304, 312, 447 Ford, 40 Forging, 132, 135, 150, 193 closed die, 176 hot, 176, 421 Formability, 132-3, 146 Forming, 13 Forming and shaping, 124, 130-4, 153, 174-9 tooling for, 193-4 473 474 Index FOS (factor of safety), 426 Fouling pegs, 313 Foundry processes, 421, 453 Fracture, 112 France, Friction, 205 Frictional heat, 185 Functional structure, Fundamental deviations, 84, 86 G (G96) code, 231 Garvin, D., 327 Gas-fired burners, 172 Gaskets, 119 Gauge Maker's rule, 370 Gauge references, 86-7 Gauges: basic, 363 cylinder, 364 fixed, 368-9 gap, 370 Go, 87, 368, 369, 370 limit, 80, 368-70 No-go, 87, 368, 369 ring, 369-70 snap, 370 variable, 368 vernier depth, 365, 368 Gauging, 87, 99, 325, 327 Taylor's theory of, 369 GDP (Gross Domestic Profit), Gearboxes, 69 Gears, 115, 119 Geometric accuracy, 113, 120, 147, 164, 188, 192, 202, 205, 430, 433, 434, 448 Geometric analysis, 95, 148, 150-1,428 Geometric tolerances, 41, 43, 44, 87-91, 95, 97, 148, 151-2, 188, 263-4, 429 Geometry, 78, 130, 135, 194, 196, 200, 281,302, 303, 304, 435 classification matrix, 123-4, 148 complex, 129, 133, 137, 180, 187, 188 cutting tool, 202, 203,204, 207 gauge design, 369 grinding wheel, 198 part, 41,203, 312 scalloped, 445 Germanium, 120 Glass fibre, 165 Global markets, 1, 5, 325 competitive, 40 Gluing, 140, 145 Gold, 117-18 Graphite, 115 Gravitational forces, 260 Grid plates, 290, 297-8, 302 Grinders: belt, 184 hand, 184 internal, 434, 441-4, 445 Grinding, 150, 187, 257, 430 6, 444-5 cutting speeds for, 224 cylindrical, 184, 224, 231,242 depth of cut for, 233 feed rates for, 230-1 internal/external, 198, 242 machining times for, 242 rough, 154 smooth, 154 surface, 184, 224, 230, 242 tooling for, 198 Grinding wheels, 198, 204, 230 GT (Group Technology), 14 classification and coding, 55, 80 Hand knobs/handles, 293-4 handbooks, 222, 224, 232 Handling, 20, 48, 143-5, 162, 163 and fixing, 262 Hardness, 111-12, 115, 116, 118, 120, 154, 204 Heat treatments, 113, 115, 132, 154 Histograms, 336 Hole saws, 195 Holes, 84, 86, 96, 140, 158-9, 229, 266, 312, 340, 429, 433 accuracy of drilling, 438 finishing, 184 inaccuracies in, 434 most common tool for making, 195 PCD, 290, 306 small, 154, 304 variation in sizes, 281 very accurate, 270 Honing, 150, 154, 184 tooling for, 198 Hooks, 262 Hoppers, 174 Hot-chamber process, 174 Hot compacting, 132 Hot rolling, 132-3, 175-6 Human resources, 7, Hybrids, 6, 19, 24-5 Impact resistance, 112, 119, 141, 164, 203 Impellers, 119 Indentation, 111 Indexing devices, 290-1 Indices, 356-9 Industrial engineering, 8, 25, 335 process planning and, 46-50 Inertial forces, 260 Index 475 Information, 56, 94, 100, 148 detailed, 27 dimensional, 267 financial, 382 flow of, manufacturing, 95 supplementary, 78-9, 427 'travel', 45 work centre, 51-2 Injection moulding, 38 see also R I M Inputs, Inspection, 14, 44, 50, 54, 325, 327, 333 attributes, 368 automatic in-process, 370 final, 453 first-off, 361 'gate' sample, 361 hundred per cent, 361 locations, 360, 448 patrol, 361 reduction in, 188 role of, 359-60 statistical process control, 361 statistical sampling, 362 type of, 447-8 Insulators, 114, 120 Interchangeability, 79-80, 306, 325, 362, 369, 444, 445 Interference fits, 145 Interferometry, 367 Interlocking tabs, 141 Internal features, 156, 158 International standards, 81, 84, 87, 93, 107-8, 136, 169, 200, 21 6-17, 220, 231,250, 322-3, 327, 328, 329-31,380 Inventory, 4, 12, 161,383 finished goods, 18, 19, 32 pull, 14 Involvement, 329 Iron, 151 pig, 395 SG, 115, 422 wrought, 114-15 see also Cast iron Irregularities, 93 Izod test, 112 Jamming, 278 Japan, 325 Jigs, 41,267, 303, 444, 445-6 angle plate, 269 boring, 257, 268, 270 box, 269-70, 447 design of, 257-66, 296, 303-6, 308, 313, 447 drilling, 257, 268, 291,303 handles for, 293 open, 269 plate, 268, 306-10, 445 reduced need for, 188 sandwich, 268-9, 310-15 standard parts for, 286-95 swinging-arm, 270, 447 table, 268 universal construction, 285 JIT (Just-in-Time) manufacture, 326, 331 Jobbing shop manufacture, 12-13, 14, 19, 38 Joining processes, 137-41,146 Joules, 112, 113 Kanban system, 14 Kelvins, 113 Keyways, 154, 194 Kitchen equipment, 115 Lapping, 150, 154, 184 Latex, 119 Lathes, 13, 21,154, 196, 255, 431 automatic, 182-3 bench, 182, 207 capstan, 182 centre, 401 CNC, 183, 401,402 copy/contouring, 182 engine, 182 manual, 182 NC, 432, 437 rough turning, 56 turret, 182 Lay, 94 Layout, 13 fixed position, 12, 24 plant, 19-25 process planning, 53 LCL (lower control limit), 339, 347, 348, 351,354 Lead times, 14-15, 59 Leadership, 329 Length measurement, 363-5 Light beams, 367 Limits, 345 see also LCL; UCL Limits and fits, 80, 85-6 clearance fit, 84 hole basis, 84 interference fit, 84 shaft basis, 84 transition fit, 84 Linearity, 371 Loading, 50, 111,276 applied, 110 compressive, 132 cyclic, 112-13 476 Index Loading (continued) dynamic, 42, 112 impact, 112, 203 slow, 133 static, 125 tensile, 132 Location, 12, 260, 301, 312 clamping and, 43, 264-5, 274, 282, 303 concentric, 277-8 critical, 43 external, 280 inspection, 50 internal, 278-80 plane, 276-7 principles of, 274-6 radial, 280-1 supporting devices, 289-90 Locators: resisting cutting forces, 282 shank, 447 vee, 280, 447 Lot sizing, 57 Lubricants, 115, 132, 205 Lucas Engineering and Systems, Machinability, 136-7, 146, 427, 435 Machine routing, 59 Machine selection, 42, 189, 191-2, 258-9 evaluation of, 205 operations sequencing and, 431-5 Machine shop processes, 421, 453 Machine tools: characteristics, 202 CNC, 188 distortion or damage to, 259 fully automated, 183 numerical control of, 186-8 special purpose, 13 type/size, 188, 265 Machines: accuracy of, 188, 189 automatic bar, 182 availability of, 191 broaching, 223, 224 coordinate measuring, 188, 324, 368 double-high, 176 drilling, 56, 196 grinding, 224 lapping, 184 manual, 187, 431 milling, 13, 196, 240, 402-3 physical size and construction, 42 planing, 195, 230 precision boring, 180-2 press, 177 reliability of, 202 roll-forming, 176 set-up, 188 shaping, 195 side-by-side, 176 single duty, 176 specialized, 14 standard, 176 unattended, 15 see also NC machines Machining, 42, 113, 143, 147, 152, 298, 429 basic terms for, 56 calculation of parameters, 206 characteristics, 137 classification, 135-6 commonly used materials, 204 conditions, 188 cutting fluids in, 204-5 ease of, 115 electrical discharge, 186 electrochemical, 186 finish, 154 identifying, 430 minimum allowance, 153 non-traditional, 135, 179, 186 rough, 153-4, 430, 441-2, 443 tooling for, 194-200 Machining equipment, 179-88 factors in selection, 188-91 Machining operations, 227, 274, 276 analysis of, 205, 207, 435-6 Machining symbols, 94-5 Machining times, 231,234-42 Magnesia, 118 Magnesium, 117 Magnetic workholding, 301-2 Magnification, 371 Maintenance, 8, 25 planned, 15 'Make or buy' decisions, 7, 286, 404-8 Management, 11, 28 centralized, decentralized, 8, 10 operational, 11 quality, 328-30 responsibility and authority, 8-9 senior, strategic, 11 systems approach to, 329 tactical, 11 see also TQM Mandrels, 184, 255-6 Manganese, 115, 117 Manning levels, Manual operations, 14 Index 477 Manual process planning, 56 planning advantages and disadvantages, 54 general guidelines, 53-4 Manuals, 53 Manufacturability, 120, 146, 159, 161 Manufacturing, 57, 92, 93, 160, 201-2, 428 classification, 128-45, 172 costs and, 397-404 design and, 35-7, 38-41, 59 initial, 96 introduction to, 1-34 job, 234 materials, 395-7 product-focused, 15, 18 quality in, 331-2 scheduling function, 51 systems development, 26 widest possible choice of, 147 see also FMS; JIT Manufacturing analysis, 265-7, 304, 306-8, 312, 445 Manufacturing costs, 44, 99, 160-1,234, 381-6 materials and, 395-7 processes and, 397-404 Manufacturing engineering, 25-6 Manufacturing facility, 30, 39 Marketing, 39, 64, 390 sales and, 7, 8, 38, 420 Mass manufacture, 13-14, 18, 38, 79, 87, 325 small, complicated geometries, 132 Material evaluation, 151 and drawing interpretation, 96-7, 427-8 and process selection, 41-2, 109-70, 148 Material handling systems, 14, 20, 24, 25, 26, 30 Materials: basic classification of, 110 cost of, 388, 396 cutting tool, 203-4 diversity of, 160, 161 engineering, 172 ferrous, 114-16 manufacturing, 395-7 non-magnetic, 302 processes and, 421-3 processing, 30-1 properties, 110-14 reference, 43 selection of, 40 special treatments, 79 specification, 41, 65, 79, 120 values of, 189 workpiece, 42, 136, 194, 202, 264 Matrix structure, 10-11 Maudsley, Henry, MDs (managing directors), 27, 28 Mean and range charts, 342, 343, 346, 347 Measurement, 25, 198, 327, 334, 362-71,448 required characteristic, 346 Mechanical properties, 79, 110, 111-13, 118, 119, 125, 130, 141 Median and range charts, 342 Melting points, 113, 117, 140 Metal blocks, 300 Metal-working job shop, 21 Metallurgy, 128 powder, 132, 135, 151 Metals, 113, 114-18, 129, 132 molten, 128, 132, 140, 173, 174 powdered, 141 see also Alloys; Sheet forming Methodology, 98-9, 262-7 Methods, 40, 52-6, 147 costing, 150 EOQ, 31 inspection, 361-3, 448-9 material selection, 121 measurement/instruments, 448 process selection, 148-52 quality assurance, 38, 44, 324-80, 447-8 tooling selection, 205-7 Methods analysis, 25, 26 Microinches, 93 Micrometers, 363-4 Micrometres, 93 Milling, 13, 153, 154, 155, 180, 257, 303, 402-3, 430 chemical, 186 CNC, 297, 324, 403 cutting speeds, 220-2 depth of cut, 232 face, 239, 240, 242 feed rates, 228-9, 230 form, 196 machining times, 238-40 normal practice, 201 peripheral, 238 slab, 196 slotting, 195, 196, 239 spindle speeds, 225-6 straddle, 196 tooling for, 196 valve screws, 302 Mixture pattern, 355 MMA (manual metal arc) welding, 421 Modular workholding, 300, 300-1 Molten material, 128, 130, 132, 173, 174, 193 Molybdenum, 116, 117 Mortensitic stainless steels, 115 Motion, 274-6, 281 Mould processes: expendable, 129, 172-3 permanent, 129, 173-4 478 Index Moulding, 402 blow, 132 compression, 165 contact, 165 injection, 38, 164, 165, 174 Moulds, 193, 194, 434 MPS (master production schedule), 191 MRP (material requirements planning), 51, 52 MTO (make to order) strategy, 18, 19 MTS (make to stock) strategy, 18, 19 Multi-functional workers, 14 Must-buy/must-make items, 405 NC (numerical control) machines, 186-8, 335, 431, 432, 437-8 speeds and feeds, 231 tooling factors, 198-200 workholding for, 295-9 Neoprene, 119 Newtons, 113 Nickel, 115 Niobium, 117 Nitrides, 118 Non-conformance, 333, 341,348, 355, 359 Non-ferrous metals, 114, 116-17 North America, 74 see also United States Nuts, 140, 145, 287, 303, 404 lock, 161,162 Nylon, 119, 422, 427 OARs (overhead absorption rates), 388-9, 390, 391,394, 406 Obsolescence, 58 Off-centre process, 356 Operational factors: analysis, 192, 433 constraints/requirements, 220 equipment selection, 191 handling, 143-5 lists, 21, 45, 449-52 Optical flat, 367 Organizational structures, 7-11,419-23 Orthographic projection, 69-78, 267 Outputs, 4, 5, 23, 148, 361 Overheads, 387-9, 390, 391,393, 394, 453-4 Oxides, 118 Oxyfuel gas, 140 PAC (production activity control), 51 Pallet changers, 298-9 Paperwork, 54 Parallelism, 89 Pareto analysis, 336 Parting-off operations, 206, 221,222, 236 Parts, 100, 135, 179, 356 count reduction, 161 discrete, 11-12, 13, 38 equivalent, 79-81 fabricated, 267 finished, 128, 338 joining of, 143, 145 mating, 84, 221,306, 340, 438 non-functional, 78 prismatic, 153, 154 purchased, 404 rotational, 153, 154 standard, 80, 126, 161,286-95 threaded, 182 variation and number, 160, 161 Parts lists, 69, 148 Patterns (graph interpretation), 354-5 Patterns (mould), 173 wax, 172, 434 PCD (pitch centre diameter), 290, 306, 445, 447 PDS (product design specification), 7, 36-7, 99, 424 6, 427, 429 Performance, 147, 222, 328 enhanced product, 121 initiative to improve, 27 internationally competitive, material, 120, 121,159, 164, 165, 395 tooling, 202, 203-5, 220 Permanent mould processes, 129, 173-4 Petrochemicals, 100, 117 Phenolics, 119 Phosphorus, 115 Physical properties, 79, 113-14, 118, 125-6, 141,258, 363 Pickling, 141 Pilot and test run stage, 37 Pins, 141,274, 275, 276, 277-8 designing a jig for, 303-6 diamond, 281 dowel, 300, 301,304 fouling, 447 indexing, 291 locating, 289, 445,447 locating/clamping, 308 taper, 294 Planes, 69, 74, 270, 274, 275, 276-7 Planing, 46-50, 180, 201-2, 223, 257 cutting speeds, 223-4 depth of cut, 233 feed rates, 230 machining times, 241-2 stroke speeds, 226-7 Plant: facility systems design, 20 layout, 19-25 maintenance, 8, 25 Index Plastics, 129 commodity, 119 deformation, 132 engineering, 119 see also Thermoplastics Plates, 268, 306-10 angle, 269, 272, 300 base, 268-9, 297 end, 162 face, 256 grid, 290, 297-8, 302 lap, 184 Platinum, 117, 118 Polishing, 154, 184-5 Polycarbonates, 165 Polyesters, 119, 165 thermoplastic, 165 Polyethylenes, 119 Polymers, 118-19, 163, 165, 174, 177 Polypropylene, 165 Polyurethanes, 119, 165 Poly(vinyl chloride), 119 Position (true position), 89 Positioning repeatability, 188, 303 Powder processing, 132, 135, 151, 179, 204 Power/force analysis, 192, 431,432-3 Power requirements, 189-90, 192, 203, 432 Power struggles, 27 Precious metals, 117-18 Pre-setting, 199 Presses, 160, 179 brake, 177, 421 drill, 13, 304, 310, 335, 430, 433, 434, 438 PRIMA selection matrix, 126, 148, 151,427 Prismatic parts, 153, 154 Probes, 368 Process approach, 329 Process charts, 48 Process control, 339-41 see also SPC Process development/evaluation, 26 Process flowcharts, 335 Process parameters, 95, 148, 219-50, 452 critical, 96 important, 151 setting, 42-3, 437-44 Process planning, 26, 35-62 basic terminology, 56, 152 documenting, 449-52 economics of, 381-4 18 essence of, quality assurance and, 50 see also CAPP; CRP; MRP Process selection, 146-52 material evaluation and, 41-2, 109-70 sequences and, 428-31 Process tables, 150 Processability, 146 Processing time, 202 Production, 4, 8, 9, 420 batch, 13, 146, 308, 369 seven wastes of, 50 see also MPS; PAC Production cost formula, 397, 399-400 Production costs, 281,386-7, 389, 390, 391,393, 407, 454 Production equipment, 100, 264 economic batch quantity/break-even quantity, 79 single purpose, 58 tooling selection and, 171-219 Production planning, 8, 37, 57, 220 and control, 8, 31 process planning and, 50-2 Production volume, 23, 146, 164, 165, 394, 401 high, 174 Productivity, 15, 55 Products: design specification, 424-6 life cycles, 4, 18, 23 range, 15 size/weight, 24 structure, 10 Profit, 382, 383, 392, 454 sales ratio, 394 Profitability, 44, 401 Project manufacture, 12 Properties, 42, 124 damping, 115 electrical, 125 magnetic, 125 mechanical, 79, 110, 111-13, 118, 119, 125, 130, 141 physical, 79, 110, 113-14, 118, 125-6, 141,363 service requirements, 126 thermal, 125 Prosperity, Prototypes, 37, 39 Protractors, 365-7 Pulley/fan combination, 161,162 Pumps, 59, 419 vacuum, 302 Purchasing, Quadrants, 69-74 Quality, 98, 120, 126, 145, 146, 164, 420 improved, 188 Quality assurance, 8, 41,453 major problems, 28 process planning and, 50 selection of methods, 38, 44, 324-80, 447-8 Quality/batch size, 264 479 480 Index Quality Circles, 326 Quality control, 27, 28, 98, 327 see also SPC; SQC; Total Quality Control Quantitative techniques, 40 Quantity/batch size, 120 Roughness, 92 Roundness, 89, 196 Routing, 59, 153 Routing sheets, 13, 44-5, 51,449, 452 Rubbers, 119 Radial fan assembly, 97-9 Rams: electromechanical powered, 223 hydraulically powered, 222-3 R&D (research and development), 7, 35, 36, 382, 383 Random samples, 361 Raw materials, 2, 42, 56, 63, 95, 100, 124, 151 manufacture of, 143 processing, 143, 395 quickest ways of converting to finished part, 128 Reaming, 154, 196, 198, 257, 268 Reciprocal ohm metres, 114 Recrystallization temperatures, 132 Recycling, 126 Redesign, 162, 163 Reference materials, 43 Refractory metals, 117 Reliability, 141 and life, 426 Reliability Engineering, 326 Rembold, U., 38 Re-organization, 27-30 shop floor, 59 60 Repeat accuracy, 371 Repeatability, 188, 264, 303, 306, 310, 444, 445 Reporting and recording, 382 Resin binders, 172 see also Epoxy resins Resistance: corrosion, 115, 117, 118, 141, 154 current flow, 114 fatigue, 112-13 impact, 112, 141, 164 shock, 115 wear, 115, 204, 205 Resolution, 371 Retaining rings, 141 Rework, 333 Rigidity and stability, 261,266 RIM (reaction injection moulding), 164, 165, 174 Riser blocks, 300 Rivets, 141 Rockwell test, 112 Roll-forming machines/rolling mills, 176, 177 Romig, Harry, 325 Rotational parts, 153, 154 see also Boring; Drilling; Milling Rough castings, 264, 277 Roughing operations, 194, 206, 207, 232, 432, 434, 437-8, 441-2, 443 Sales, 18, 37 manufacture in anticipation of, 15 marketing and, 7, 8, 38, 420 Sampling, 344-5, 346, 350, 351,352, 354, 360, 362 Scatter diagrams, 338, 347 Screws, 140, 145, 162, 303, 304, 308, 404 cap, 313 standardized, 161 thread forms, 80, 81 valve, 302 Seams, 141 Sectioning, 77 Semiconductors, 120 Semi-skilled labour, 38 Sensitivity, 371 tool wear, 205 Sequencing operations, 14, 152-9, 266, 434 pre-determined, 53 Set-up, 361 Set-up times, 14, 51 Shafts, 84, 96, 119, 294, 369 stepped, 162, 163 Shakedown/finishing, 434 Shapes, 123-4, 128, 130-2, 194, 196, 204, 258 complexity of, 148, 172 diversity of, 135 Shaping, 179-80, 201-2 cutting speeds for, 223-4 depth of cut for, 233 feed rates for, 230 machining times for, 241-2 stroke speeds for, 226-7 tooling for, 195 Shaping and forming, 124, 130 4, 154, 174-9 tooling for, 193-4 Shearing loads, 132 Sheet forming, 132, 175, 177-9 Shifts, 354 Shock, 112, 115 Shot cylinders, 174 SI units, 362-3 Silicon, 115, 117, 120 Silicones, 119, 140 Silver, 117, 118 Sine bars, 365, 370 Single-part drawings, 65, 66-8 Sintered oxides, 204 Sintering process, 132, 179 Skilled workforce/labour, 12, 14, 38 Slag, 115 Index Slots, 155, 158, 194, 297 Slotting, 195, 196, 239 SMMT (Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders), 345 Snap fits, 145 Software packages, 55 Soldering, 140, 145 Solvent cleaning, 141 Spacers, 162 Spark-plug electrodes, 118 SPC (statistical process control), 99, 324, 334, 338, 341-55, 360, 361,368 Specific heat, 113 Specifications, 12, 38-9, 433 component meets, 369 customer, 18 dimensional, 188, 369 geometric tolerance, 188 material, 41, 65, 79, 120 surface finish, 41, 42, 65, 95, 100, 202, 397, 429 see also PDS Spindles, 163, 176, 182, 188 speeds, 192, 224-6, 231,440, 441,442 Spotfaces, 268, 428-31,433-6, 438-40, 447 SQC (statistical quality control), 332-8 Squareness, 89 Stability, 340, 371 and rigidity, 261,266 Stamping, 193 Standard deviation, 343, 344, 347 Standardization, 79, 80-1, 97-100, 161-2, 362, 369 Standards, 7, 79 performance, 328 time, 49-50 see also British standards; International standards Staples, 141 Statistical sampling, 362 Steel, 114, 175-6, 297 alloy, 115, 116, 172 carbon, 115, 116, 200, 204, 395, 422 chromium-electroplated, 163 high-speed, 116, 200, 204, 207, 227, 229, 232, 435 mild, 115, 162, 303 nickel-chrome, 422 stainless, 115 tempered, 79 tool, 116 Stepper motors, 183 Stiffness, 119 Stiffness-to-weight ratio, 113, 117 Storage, 145, 162, 163 Straightness measurement, 363, 367 Strategic capacity planning, 50 Strategies: business, manufacturing, 6-7, 19 processing, 6, 16-19 481 Stratification, 355 Strength, 115, 118, 120, 154 compressive, 111 impact, 119 shear, 111 Strength-to-weight ratio, 113, 117 Stress and strain, 112 Stretch forming, 132, 177 Stroke speeds, 226-7 Structural steelwork, 421 Sub-assemblies, 12, 14, 24, 30, 38, 80, 81, 162 assembly plans for, 69 buying in, 404 fabricated, 13 joining of component parts and, 143 low-volume, 18 Subcontracting work, 404, 405 Sub-plate systems, 300 Substitution, 118, 120 Sub-systems, 5-6 Sulphur, 115 Supplier relationships, 329 Surface finish, 92-5, 113, 133, 146, 147, 151,164, 188-9, 192, 196, 229, 231,430, 433 characteristics, 153, 154 finer, 185 good, 204, 281 improving, 184 relative costs, 397-9 specifications, 41, 42, 65, 95, 100, 202, 397, 429 Surface processes, 141 Surfaces: clamping, 264-5, 303 conical, 198 cylindrical, 184, 198 finished, 434, 438 flat, 184 major/minor, 153, 154 smooth, shiny, 185 unfinished, 277 Surgical tools, 115 Swarf, 259, 293, 296, 354 Symbols: geometrical, 87 machining, 94-5 Symmetry, 89 Tantalum, 117 Taper sockets, 255 Tapping, 268, 281 Technical fadtors, 188-90 Technology: changing, 54 group, 14, 55, 80 NC, 186 new, 97 482 I n d e x Teeth, 228, 238, 239 TEl (total enterprise integration), 326 Temperatures, 79, 118, 119, 125, 129, 179, 204 formability and, 133 melting point, 113, 117, 140 operating, 164 recrystallization, 132 sensitivity of tool wear, 205 Templates, 182, 268 Tensile test, 112 Testing, 143 Texture, 92, 93 Thermal barriers, 141 Thermal expansion, 113 Thermoforming, 177-9 Thermoplastics, 118-19, 165, 174, 177-9 Thermosets, 118, 119, 172 Thickness, 364 Threads, 80, 81, 182, 284, 292 cutting, 154, 194 Thrust force, 189 Tin, 117 Titanium, 117 Titanium carbide, 118 Tolerances, 65, 80, 86, 133, 162, 281,303, 358, 370 general, 82, 310 ISO series of, 84 nominal, 355, 356 parts that not meet, 356 tight, 340 unacceptably high, 359 widest possible, 147 see also Dimensional tolerances; Geometric tolerances Tool inserts, 200, 204 Tool nose radius, 204 Tool references, 81-2 Tool selection: constraints on, 201-2 operational requirements for, 202-3 Tooling, 42, 153 carbide, 432, 435, 440, 442 costs of, 133 HSS, 232, 435 multi-purpose, 296 type/size, 265 'unqualified', 198 Tooling analysis, 205, 207, 436 Tooling lists, 46, 452 Tooling selection, 435-6 methods, 205-7 production equipment and, 171-219 Tools: boring, 198 broaching, 230 contouring, 207 cutting, 196 drilling, 198, 229 honing, 198 HSS, 204, 207 monolithic, 199 press, 160 reaming, 196, 198 recommended, 53 specified, 50 trepanning, 195 turning, 197, 198 see also Cutting tools; Machine tools Torsional forces, 281 Total cost, 389-91,392, 401,406, 454 Total Quality Control, 326 Touch-trigger probes, 368 Toughness, 112, 115, 154 impact, 119 TQM (total quality management), 326 Traditional approach, 52-3 Transfer devices, 14 Transportation, 145 Trends, 354 Trepanning tools, 195 Trial batch, 37 Trigonometric formulae, 365 T-slot systems, 300-1 Tungsten, 116, 117, 421 Tungsten carbide, 118 Turning, 150, 182-3, 257, 430, 431,432, 434, 435, 444 ceramics used for, 204 chucks and collets in, 253 cutting speeds, 220-2 depth of cut, 232 feed rates, 227-8 fine, 154 internal, 198 machining times, 234-7 normal practice for, 201 rough, 56, 153 spindle speeds, 225-6 tooling for, 196-8 valve screws, 302 UCL (upper control limit), 339, 347, 348, 351,354 Underdeveloped countries, Unified screw thread form, 81 Unit cost, 391-2 United Kingdom, 1, 74, 267, 329 United States, 1, 30, 93 Urethane, 119, 140 Vacuum forming, 132, 177-9 Vacuum workholding, 302 Vanadium, 116 Index 483 Vapour degreasing, 141 Variability, 44, 278, 332-3, 341 Variable control charts, 340, 342-8, 351,356, 462-8 Vee-blocks, 303, 304 Vibration, 115, 281 Vices, 252, 270-1,300 Wages, 388, 389 Washers, 161, 162, 308 thrust, 117 Wax patterns, 172, 434 Wealth, Wear, 203, 292 resistance to, 115,204, 205 Weight, 42, 113, 117, 126, 133 Weldability, 141, 146 Welding, 141,257, 303 arc, 140, 421 electron beam, 140 fusion, 137, 140 laser beam, 140 resistance, 140, 146 solid state, 137, 140 TIG, 421 Whitney, Eli, Whitworth screw thread form, 81 WIP (work-in-progress), 51, 57, 59 Work measurement, 25 Workability, 146 Workbook approach, 52, 53 Workgroups, 20 Workholding, 95, 202 determining requirements, 444-7 devices, 43-4, 251-323 Workpiece characteristics analysis, 205, 207, 436 Workstations, 23, 38, 45 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (Pirsig), 327 Zinc, 117 Zirconia, 118 ... With regards to the process equipment this tends be of a specialized nature, with processes being dedicated to a particular product In fact, very 14 Process Planning often processes are designed... will be discussed further in Section 2.5 38 Process Planning 2.4 What is process planning? Process planning comprises the selection and sequencing of processes and operations to transform a chosen... data for materials and processes is used to help make process planning decisions The use of cost data in process planning is detailed further in Chapter 2.6.8 Preparing the process planning documentation