Tài liệu Developing Learners’ Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A Study for Educational Reform pptx

Developing Learners’ Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A Study for Educational Reform Nahla N. Bacha Lebanese American University, PO Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon L2 writers are known to face problems in developing their writing skills at the univer- sity level.These problems are even more accentuatedwith L1 Arabic non-native speak- ers of English in required English composition courses. Some researchhas shown that with low motivation levels the process can further be a very difficult and unrewarding one for both the learner and the teacher.However, students need to develop their writ- ing skills in order to cope with their university coursework in the medium of English. This necessitatesthe searchfor learningtasks thatmeet student needs in a wider educa- tional context. This paper outlines some of the writing theories proposed by research- ers that have contributed to current L2 teaching/learning classroom methodologies. Drawing upon the insights gained from these theories,one EFL freshman composition classroom learning experience in doing practical research with L1 Arabic non-native speakers of English is described. Results indicated that the experience was not only a very highly motivating basis for developing students’ writing skills but alsoa valuable one for students in acquiring necessaryacademicresearchknow-how. Implications are made for the teaching/learning of writing and programme development in light of the post-war educational reform in Lebanon. Introduction Developing learners’ writing skills in L2 has been of concern for a long time in tertiary education (Belcher & Braine, 1995; Jordan, 1997). Students studying in insti- tutions of higher learning in the medium of English, which may not be their native language, have been found to face problems mainly in writing, making them unable to cope with the institution’s literacy expectations. However, these ‘disadvantaged’ students may be able to develop writing skills significantly with positive instruc- tionalattitudestowardsthe errors they makeand an awarenesson the teachers’ part of learner problems (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Shaughnessy, 1977; Zamel, 1983). The research literature in L2 writing contains a great range of different supportive methodologies (e.g. Belcher & Braine, 1995; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Jordan, 1989, 1997; Kroll, 1990;Reid, 1993;Silva, 1993;Zamel, 1983, 1992). Similar studies on L1 Arabic non-native-speakers of English have also been found and although their writing problems might sometimes be different (Kaplan, 1966; Khalil, 2000; Kharma & Hajjaj, 1989), recent findings suggest that, with appropri- ate instruction, these learners can and do improve in their writing skills (Bader, 1992; Connor, 1996; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). The Problem Studies carried out on L1 Arabic non-native speakers’ English-writing prob- lems have shown student texts to lack lexical variety, subordination and to rely 0950-0782/02/03 161-17 $20.00/0 © 2002 N.N. Bacha LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION Vol. 16, No. 3, 2002 161 Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education heavily on redundancy that does not add any new information to the text (Sa’Addedin & Akram, 1989, 1991; Zughoul & Husain,1985). Other studies have indicated problems in these students’ writing in linking ideas over larger stretches of text (Al Abed Al-Haq & Ahmed, 1994;Dudley-Evans & Swales, 1980; Kaplan, 1966). Al Abed Al-Haq & Ahmed (1994) point out that these texts are characteristic of writing on mechanical and sentence levels rather than on more communicative discourse ones necessary for ‘advanced’ writing. Discourse aspects that these students find difficult to cope with in their academic texts are in the use of cohesive devices thatform meaningful connections between and among sentences over larger stretches of text such as substitution,lexical cohesion, transi- tion, deixis and so forth. Further studies in discourse have emphasised the need for students to produce certain types of texts or genres needed by the different disciplines in the academic community, such as summaries, reports, research papers and the like, which the non-native speaker of English finds difficult to produce. However, with suitable teaching/learning methods, these students can and many have overcome their difficulties in writing in English through various techniques such as collaborative discipline-based writing classes, peer work and teacher conferencing (Connor, 1996; Fulwiler & Young, 1990; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Leki, 1995b; Swales, 1990). The writing problems for the students attending the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) freshman programme at the Lebanese American University (LAU) (a programme set up to help ‘low’ language proficiency students) are very similar to the foregoing. In addition, because they have had their elemen- tary, primary and secondary schooling in the medium of French, or English or French and English equally, the problems may also extend to negative influenc- ing factors not only from L1 Arabic but also L2 French (Bacha, 2000a; Yazigi, 1991). More significantly, few students following a course of study in the medium of English at university level in Lebanon are motivated to develop their writ- ing skills, except when directly related to their major course of study at the university (Yazigi, 1991). In a recent survey carried out on a total population of 1658 students attending the EFL programme at LAU in the four required English composition courses, motivation was reported to be significantly the main cause for their writing difficulties when compared to use of required textbooks, past and present classroom practices, evaluation techniques, nega- tive interference of Arabic and/or French, and individual learning styles (Bacha, 2000a). In addition to the above problems, an overriding concern by many institu- tions of higher education is in revisiting their EFL programmes in light of the recent developments in the new national English pre-university educational reform in post-war Lebanon. This new national English curriculum is spon- sored by the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the National Center for Research and Development and approved by the Council of Ministers in 1994. As part of this reform, all schools must either adopt French or English as the medium of instruction in addition to students learning the native language, Arabic (Shaaban & Ghaith, 1997). If schools opt to choose English as the medium of instruction, the system of education is referred to as an English type of education (students then would be called ‘English-educated’); if 162 Language and Education French were chosen, then the system is referred to as a French type of educa- tion (students referred to as ‘French- educated’). The public sector (national education) follows mainly the French system, while privately owned schools follow the English. However, students learn the other language (either English or French) as a third language and, when higher education is considered, students from either system of education might enter a French university system or an English one depending upon their career goals. Over the past 10 years, there has been a significant increase in students attending English-medium universities, hence the challenge for EFL programmes at these institutions to develop teaching/learning environments conducive to helping students acquire the necessary writing skills for both university coursework and the workplace. The work of the new national English curriculum is grounded in modern theo- ries of curriculum design and teaching methods drawing upon local experts in the various universities in Lebanon with international consultants. The project is aimed mainly at the public sector, involving a multiplicity of interrelated learner, teacher, subject and contextual factors. The purpose of the English curriculum is designed for academic achievement, social interaction and cultural enrichment based on the following five main principles: (1) Language learning is learning to communicate. (2) Language varies according to the context of the communicative interac- tion. (3) Learning is an exposure to a new culture whereby students develop under- standing, respect, and appreciation of cultural backgrounds. (4) Language learners have to engage in meaningful and interactive tasks. (5) Language skills are interdependent. The above are achieved through: implementing a thematic content-based approach; developing native-like proficiency in English stressing fluency and then accuracy; referring to the objectives of the English language curriculum that have clear and measurable performance tasks; presenting language in a proper cultural context (cultural awareness objectives); highlighting the role of group work in the development of communica- tive language skills (in the cooperative learning modelof classroominter- action); having practical implications of cooperation between English teachers and those of other subject areas and a comprehensive staff development program by the National Center for Research and Development. (NCERD, 1994) The curriculum is now in its third year of implementation, and although there are no published rigorous research results to date as to its relative success, the experience has indicated some positive feedback in the learning situation (personal communication with teacher trainers, 1999). Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 163 Aim and Significance of the Study The purpose of the present study, therefore, is to describe one classroom task-based learning experience that could help to develop EFL students’ academic writing skills. The significance of the present study is that it gives a first opportunity to follow up on the content-based approach in language teaching and learning adopted by the Ministry of Education, even though here on a very small scale. It is also a worthwhile study in reinforcing many of the teachers’ views that students at this ‘lower’ level of English proficiency can deal with ‘research’ tasks often thought too difficult for them. Most importantly, the research task adopted in the study may not only motivate these learners to improve their skills, but also give them those needed in the academic disciplines and the job market. The study described below focuses on the implications of writing theories to the development of learners’ writing skills and the application of the theory in the practical research task. Implications from Writing Theories Writing is significant in students’ academic course of study as most examina- tions, reports and research work depend on it. Also, the writing process helps to develop the students’ cognitive skills in acquiring the necessary strategies such as analysis, synthesis, inference and so forth, instrumental in the learning process. In this context, both L1 and L2 English-writing theories have influenced much present-day classroom practice (e.g. Crusius, 1989; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). Crusius’s (1989) comment articulates this: ‘In our field … they [theories] have been and are still the most influential, playing major roles in conceiving writing, course syllabi, and texts’ (p. 3). Four of the main L1 theories that have been influ- ential and on which much of L2 writing methodology has drawn, specifically in the process and product writing approaches, are those expounded by: (1) the expressive school of thought (e.g. Moffet, 1968); (2) the cognitive school of thought (e.g. Britton et al. , 1975; Kinneavy, 1980); (3) the interactionists (e.g. Swales, 1990); and (4) the social constructivists (e.g. Halliday & Martin, 1993). These theories could all be viewed in light ofKinneavy’s (1971 in 1980)communi- cation triangle (see Figure 1) which comprises three essential parts of writing: the encoder (writer), the audience (decoder or reader), and reality and truth (context), all crucial to the process of producing a text. Basically,the expressionist model argues for ‘expressive, self actualizing writing in which students “discov- ered” ideas and themselves through free-writing and brainstorming’ (Kroll, 164 Language and Education Figure 1 Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1971 in 1980) 1990). Moffet’s (1968) model focused on the writer, audience and the different types of texts and was mainly influential in the American elementary and secondary schools. The process approach, as we know it today, had its roots in this expressionist model. The cognitivist model (Flower & Hayes, 1981) although overlapping with that of the expressionists, focused more on the rhetorical modes of discourse as end products and showed the relation between syntax, semantics and pragmatics. In this sense, there was more emphasis on both the process and the product in writing. The approach was more influential at the secondary and tertiary levels of writing. The interactionists focused more on the reader’s schemata (that is, knowledge of the world), and thus writing was focused more for a particular audience. The social constructionists spoke of discourse communities in which the writer had to take into consideration the norms and expectations of the tasks and writing models required. For example, in an academic context, the writer’s intended audience are those who expect scholastic forms such as research papers, reports and the like which are organ- ised and worded according to standardised academic criteria within the context of the academic community. Thus, a research or term paper must conform to certain academic, organisational, language and content criteria which may vary from one discipline to another. Although L1 theories influenced many L2 theories and instruction, research- ers noted that L2 non-native students’ needs differ (Johns, 1990). Four instruc- tional methods have been influential in EFL: controlled, rhetorical, process and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and specifically English for Academic Purposes (EAP), on which the present study draws. First, controlled writing emphasised pattern practice and grammar accuracy based on the audio-lingual approach (Fries, 1949, in Kroll, 1990). Second, the rhetorical approach focused on models of writingabove the sentence level and advocated the different rhetorical modes of narration, cause–effect, comparison–contrast,argumentation, etc., and took into account the cultural and linguistic background of the writer as possible negative interfering factors in L2 English writing. Later research indicated that it is perhaps more of an instructional issue rather than a cross-cultural matter (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). The rhetorical approach was challenged by researchers and linguists who advocated a more process type of writing in which learners go through prelimi- nary writing (brainstorming and outlining), drafting the product (revising and reformulating) and post-writing stages (editing and proofreading) before a product is finalised (Kroll, 1990). The proliferation of the process approach in the past two decades has been questioned (e.g. Robinson, 1988) especially by the ESP approach in which the exponents (Halliday & Martin, 1993; Swales, 1990) view the necessity to focus on more specific writing tasks or genre related to the differ- ent discourse communities, be they academic, professional or other. Some ongo- ing research in the English programme at the Lebanese American University has indicated a need for more writing tasks related to research and report writing (Bacha, 2000b). Although there is controversy as to what extent the English faculty should teach the content-based writing of the disciplines (Braine, 1988; Horowitz, 1986;Johns, 1988;Spack, 1988a,1988b),the role of proficient writing in fostering the thinking process and academic success cannot be underestimated Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 165 (Horowitz, 1986; Johns 1988; Jordan, 1997; Reid, 1993; Robinson, 1988; Swales, 1990; Vygotsky, 1962). Methodology In light of the above theories, recent studies in academic writing, and the writ- ing problems of the students in the EFL programme, a research writing activity was designed using the essay as a framework. 1 Participants The study involved 30 L1 Arabic non-native speakers of English who were attending one freshman English 101 course (the first of the three required compo- sition courses) in the EFL programme at the Lebanese American University. The students had followed a pre-university course of study in either French or English and were now enrolled in various majors in one of the four disciplines: Arts and Sciences, Business, Engineering and Architecture, and Pharmacy. The students’ ages ranged between 17 and 19 with 20 females and 10 males, 18 were French-educated and the rest English-educated. However, since the focus of the present study is to concentrate on the process of writing, age, gender, major, L2 or L3 were not influencing variables or of concern in the study. Procedure Over the last month (January) of the Fall 1999 semester (October to January) and based on the pilot study done in the previous semester, a research essay writ- ing activity was refined and better clarified for the students using models as guides for each step in the writing process. The freshman English 101 course involves writing essays of different rhetorical modes, drafted and finalised in class time according to the process/product approach with reference to the read- ings from the course textbook (Leki, 1995a). The study focuses on the last of the four essays students write in the course. The essay is in the comparison–contrast rhetorical mode, often found difficult and uninteresting for the students and thus the challenge to revisit it in the learning situation. The study specifically is comprised of eight steps, discussed and illustrated below with one student’s work chosen at random (see Appendices). Results of the relative success of the study are then discussed. Step 1: Choosing a topic Choice of topic was left to each individual student. Some chose to relate it to their major at the university in the various schools mentioned above, while others to their personal interest. In summary, the topics could be grouped under five broad headings given here in order of popularity: business (e.g. mobile phones, computers, Internet, cars, etc.), politics (e.g. Queen Elizabeth, Winston Churchill, labour market, television, sportsand money, etc.); health (e.g. cloning, diets, nutrition, disorders, sex, smoking, stress, etc.); social (e.g. child crime, divorce, marriage, Marilyn Monroe, romantic movies, sex discrimination, etc.); and education (e.g. class attendance, library use). It was interesting to see the variety of topics as well as a near representation of the disciplines in which the students were enrolled. This indicated that the opportunity of choosing their 166 Language and Education own topics was well exploited on the part of the students. In order to obtain support for their research paper, students were requested to administer a self-made survey on their topic, interview an expert in the field and find a rele- vant Internet article. Thus, the students need not rely only on ‘library sources’ that they have found ‘boring’ and difficult at times to find, but can also be involved in using all the four language skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing in a more learner-centred activity (Nunan, 1997). Step 2: Carrying out a survey and analysing the results After limiting the topic, students carried out a survey in the class and/or on campus from which they could obtain evidence. The main variables used were gender, major at the university and age. The students were shown how to keep the questions simply phrased, relevant to their topic and varied, using no more than five or six questions consisting of fixed response (no or yes), scaled or multi- ple choice, and one open-ended question (see sample in Appendix A). Students enjoyed this step as it gave them the ‘authority’ to question their colleagues in a professional way. Many reported that they were also surprised by the results, as what they thought to be a fact sometimes proved to be the contrary. This was a good learning experience in itself, since it taught them not to take things at face value. The number of respondents was left up to the students, but it was pointed out that if they wanted to generalise the results to the population they sampled, a representative number would need to be obtained. In analysing the results, students were shown how they could do it both manually and on the computer using one or more of the variables, although they needed to report according to only one (see Appendix B). Step 3: Carrying out an interview The second type of source was to interview an expert related to the topic chosen, tape it if permission were granted andtranscribe it (see Appendix C). The pre-, during and post-steps of interviewing were discussed with the class prior to the interviewing process. Scheduling and confirming the interview, wearing the correct apparel, being respectful, relevant and concise during the interview and thanking the interviewer after the interview were stressed, as was accurate tran- scription. Step 4: Summarising an article A third source needed for their research essay was to summarise a relevant, credible article from the Internet. This exercise reinforced their summary skills (see Appendix D). Only significant evidence from the sources was to be used in the research essay, which stressed students’ decision-making skills concerning relevant inclusion of content. This was considered an important cognitive exercise in research writing as most students from their pre-university schooling have been known to include more information than necessary, a characteristic of the learning culture. Step 5: Writing the first draft The comparison–contrastformat was discussed and theblock- and chain-organi- sational models were examined (see Appendix E of one type of organisational Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 167 model). Students were asked to choose one or two questions from the survey and write an essay of two body paragraphs mentioning the similarities and differ- ences they found concerning one variable, following the model outline. For example, in the ‘Internet Addiction’ paper, the student found that although male as female students differ in owning a computer, males use the Internet as often as females. Incorporating relevant material from the article, interview and survey in the essay would help students read material of their choice and at their indi- vidual literacy level and capacities. Students were then asked to mention the statistical finding as well as to inter- pret the results in the light of the interview, the article and/or their own experi- ence. They found interpretation of the ideas the most difficult to do, as they had been used to reading for literal comprehension and not for higher order cognitive purposes. In the sample research paper, however, an attempt is made at interpre- tation in giving reasons why females might own fewer personal computers. The process of giving thought to these issues was the main aim of including them since interpretation of findings is often a neglected area in EFL instruction in pre-university education in Lebanon. Format of presentation was discussed and modelled and the MLA documen- tation of sources was followed, being the one required in the programme. First drafts were read by the teacher mainly for content and organisation, leaving language and mechanical aspects for a further draft. Step 6: Revising the first draft Students revised the first draft in class, taking into account teacher comments for improvement. Peer response was not conducted in the classroom owing to past experience with previous classes in which some students displayed a nega- tive attitude to their ability to carry out such an ‘important teacher job’ (as they put it). However, the researcher believes that peer response should be encour- aged in the future. It was not included in this experiment as implementing the strategy needed time and more experimentation. The sample student’s first draft was well organised; however, it needed more interpretation of the results and sentence improvement in subordination. Step 7: Writing a final draft Writing the final draft was an open-book assignment, with students taking into account teacher comments on organisation and content, and editing for language and mechanical errors (see Appendix F). It is clear that even this final draft could be further improved. Step 8: Outlining and summarising the final draft The purpose of students outlining and summarising their own individual research papers was to give them a realistic situation in which often an abstract and outline or table of contents are requested. Also, this exercise would give them a final global view of their own work and better prepare them to share their findings with their colleagues in the final oral class report. The outline and summary of the sample student’s work have not been included, not being the specific focus of the present paper. 168 Language and Education Results and Discussion The research activityusing the essay asa frameworkproduced much better prod- ucts than any of the essay writing during the semester or in previous semesters.This was reflected in the grades based on evaluating the writing according to the ESL CompositionProfile ofJacobs et al. (1981).When compared to the three essays given in the same semester, an average class writing grade of 77% was attained on the research essay compared to an average of 63% for essay 1, 68% for essay 2 and 70% for essay 3. What is important though is not that the students progressed over the semester, which is probably expected, but that the average final essay grades over the past three semesters were between 68–73% even when take-home essays had been given. Also, the grades on the research writing activity were higher than the teacher’s expectations. It was expected that an average of 70% would be attained with very few grades above 80%. What is more revealing than the average grades can show, is that 10 students gained grades above 80% (three 90%), five in the 60s and the rest in the 70s, a spread of grades not previously attained. A more significant result is the fact that, this time, some students who were considered ‘lower’ achievers at the beginning of the semester were able to attain grades above 80%. The student sample essay earned an 85% final product score accordingtothe freshman English 101 objectives, while the other three essays writ- ten by the same student scored 60%, 70% and 65% respectively, not very satisfac- tory by the institution’s standards. These three grades also clearly show a (not uncommon) regression in the third essay, in which often fatigue, topic choice, time and other variables may influence the writing process (Kroll, 1990; Yazigi, 1991). When interviewed on their experience with the research task, the students expressed interest. They did notknow that the assignment had been adapted into a research task until after it was completed. Some commented, however, that more work had been demanded compared to the other assignments or other semesters, that there was no time to carry out and transcribe a good interview, and that there was difficulty in finding relevant articles in both the library and on the Internet. These difficulties were experienced by some of the students proba- bly due to the fact that this was the first time they were carrying out ‘research’, it being the first semester at the university for the majority of the students. Also, the activity was carried out towards the end of the semester and time may have been a limiting factor for many who were under pressure to complete assignments for their other courses. However, a few of the students did return the following semester for further help on their research projects for their courses in other disci- plines; it is hoped that more will appreciate the activity. L2 learners do have problems in writing and may not be motivated to develop their writing skills; however, the students’work in the study suggests that practi- cal research writing may be a motivating basis in helping lower language-profi- cient learners to improve. Although research in its own right has been found to be quite a difficult and complex activity for any freshman student (Ford, 1995), the practicalapproach used in the present study with the essay as a framework facili- tated the task. The use of supporting material through the survey findings, inter- view comments and Internet article made the task more interesting and gave the ‘weaker’ students the confidence they lacked in reading, writing and doing ‘research’ work with readily available evidence often difficult to obtain in Leba- Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 169 non. It also allowed students to do research on topics they were interested or had experience in such as surfing the Net, using statistics, interviewing business people and sharing their ideas in the oral presentation with their colleagues at the end of the semester. The results of the study are far-reaching for English programme development at the university in which the study was carried out. Teachers are of the opinion that research should be learned at a much later stage of the English curriculum; however, the study does indicate that it is possible for students to cope with developing their writing skills through research. The ‘research essay’ is not, however, the only way to help motivate and develop learners’ writing. Different teaching/learning techniques can be used to exploit the essay (Hunter-Carsch, 1990) as a framework for discipline-related tasks. Discipline-related discourse can be drawn upon to motivate students to want to improve their writing skills and students can interact with various types of resources in a much more dynamic way. These resources need to be identified, researched and included in a curriculum which enables the learners to develop their writing proficiency. Conclusion The purpose of the present study was to identify writing theories which could be drawn upon to help less proficient learners improve their language skills, specifically writing through a practical research task. Kinneavy’s writing model (1971 in 1980), mentioned earlier, is perhaps still relevant today to the latter. The suggested model of the research paper based on Kinneavy’s model (see Figure 2) emphasises the reciprocal relationship between the reader and the writer in the production and processing of a text – in this case the research essay – in confor- mity with the academic community and its conventions concerning research writing. Although the reader in the present study was not involved as such, the reader is included in the diagram as presumably research is to be shared ulti- mately with others in the same discourse community that writers must conform to. More precisely as it relates to the present study, the inverted triangle frame- work could be seen to represent the overall approach to any writing task, which begins with broad, general assumptions or research questions, moving on to more specific theses and evidence. The model could be adapted to other types of research and/or writing tasks in the academic community. Having students interact in practical research, even in a basic freshman English composition course, and using the essay as a framework proved initially to be a valuable learning experience, one in which students learned a disci- 170 Language and Education Figure 2 Suggested model of the research essay [...]... development and Arabic-English negative interference Applied Linguistics 10 (1), 36–51 Sa’Addedin, A. 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M and Akram,... student made a summary statement appearing after each relevant question Tables prepared by the student have been included only for questions 1 and 2 for illustrative purposes (1) Do you have a personal computer at home? It seems that more males than females have a personal computer at home Table 1 Percentage of male and female students with personal home computer Total% Male n = 25 83.33% 50% Female n . Developing Learners’ Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A Study for Educational Reform Nahla N. Bacha Lebanese American University,. semester, an average class writing grade of 77% was attained on the research essay compared to an average of 63% for essay 1, 68% for essay 2 and 70% for essay