(LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ) Improving students'' reading comprehension through predicting strategy instruction an action research at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary school

Aims and Research Questions of the Study

This study investigates the effects of predicting strategy instruction on the reading comprehension skills of 10th-grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School The goal is to provide recommendations for effectively teaching students to utilize predicting strategies to enhance their reading comprehension abilities.

 To examine the impact of the predicting strategy instruction on the reading comprehension of 10 th grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School

 To determine effective techniques to teach predicting strategies in reading comprehension in their reading classes, from the teacher‘ and students‘ perspectives

In order to achieve the above aims, the following research questions will be addressed

(1) To what extent does the use of predicting strategy instruction improve Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School’s grade 10 students’ reading comprehension?

(2) What techniques are effective to teach these students’ predicting strategy, as perceived by the teacher and the students?

Scope of the Study

This study is limited to the instruction of predicting strategies specifically for 10th grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School, and does not encompass the teaching of additional reading strategies or subjects outside this focus.

Significance of the Study

The study explores how predicting strategy instruction enhances reading comprehension among participants, highlighting effective techniques for teaching these strategies The findings suggest that educators can modify their reading instruction to better cultivate strategic readers, ultimately improving reading skills.

Research Methodology

To evaluate the impact of intervention-predicting strategy instruction on students' reading comprehension, an Action Research was conducted involving 50 students from Group 10A10 at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School during the second semester of the 2010-2011 academic year Data collection utilized various instruments, including a questionnaire, pre-test, two post-tests, teacher’s diaries, and students’ journals Following an initial investigation, a tailored predicting strategy instruction course was developed and implemented The analysis of the collected data employed descriptive statistical methods and content analysis, leading to reliable findings that underscore the effectiveness of the intervention.

Organization of the Thesis

The thesis consists of three main parts: INTRODUCTION which provides an overview of the study, DEVELOPMENT which is the main part and consists of 3 chapters, and

CONCLUSION which includes the summary, pedagogical implications, limitations of the study and suggestions for further study

Three chapters in the main part are as follows:

Chapter 1: Literature Review is review of the literature related to the research topic, which serves as a theoretical foundation of the study

Chapter 2: Research Methodology provides information about the research context, participants, research approach, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis procedures

Chapter 3: Results and Discussion is the main part of the study, which reports and discusses the main findings according to the research questions

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Nature of Reading Comprehension

Reading is a crucial skill for students learning English as a second or foreign language According to Anderson (1999), increased exposure to language through reading significantly enhances the likelihood of improving overall language proficiency.

Reading and reading comprehension encompass a variety of definitions, spanning from basic interpretations focused on decoding to more intricate understandings that emphasize comprehension These definitions also reflect the evolution of the reader's role, transitioning from a passive participant to an active engager in the reading process.

Goodman (1971, p 135) regards reading as ―a psycholinguistic process by which the reader, a language user, reconstructs, as best as he can, a message encoded by a writer as a graphic display‖

Reading comprehension involves deriving meaning from text and integrating new information with existing knowledge (Koda, 2005; Sweet and Snow, 2003) This existing knowledge, drawn from the reader's background and experiences, plays a crucial role in the comprehension process According to Goodman (1975), reading is an active and purposeful mental activity that combines textual clues with prior knowledge Readers actively engage in this process, determining which information to activate and when, rather than merely decoding text Ultimately, reading is about constructing meaning through the interaction between the text and the reader (Durkin, 1993).

Reading is a fluent process where readers integrate information from a text with their own background knowledge to construct meaning, ultimately aiming for comprehension The act of reading is defined by the interplay of the text, the reader, fluency, and various strategies.

The definitions presented above give us an overview of reading comprehension With the literature review of reading models, we can determine what factors are involved in efficient reading

Over the past four decades, researchers have investigated the connection between the cognitive processes involved in reading and effective reading instruction While numerous models of reading exist, they are generally categorized into three main types: Bottom-up, Top-down, and Interactive models.

Proponents of bottom-up models assert that comprehension starts with the smallest linguistic units, such as phonemes, and progresses to larger units like syllables, words, phrases, and sentences, emphasizing a part-to-whole approach Consequently, bottom-up theorists perceive reading as a passive process that relies heavily on the written or printed text.

According to Gough (1972, as cited in Hudson, 2007), the reading process is a sequential mental activity that involves detecting letters in written language, converting them into phonemes, and combining these phonemic units to form words This process culminates in understanding the author's message, utilizing a mechanism known as Merlin to apply syntactic and semantic rules for sentence comprehension Ultimately, the process concludes with the oral realization of the sentence, guided by phonological rules.

According to Nuttall (2005), reading involves recognizing letters and words, understanding sentence structures, and deriving meaning from the text He likens this "bottom-up" approach to a scientist using a magnifying glass to closely examine small details for a comprehensive understanding (p 17) However, it is often observed that readers may be able to read the text aloud or recognize most words, yet struggle to remember the overall meaning.

Bottom-up reading models have been criticized for relying heavily on the reader's linguistic knowledge while neglecting their prior background knowledge Eskey (1973) pointed out that these models fail to consider the reader's contributions, as their expectations about the text are shaped by their language proficiency and previous experiences Due to these limitations and the rise of top-down models, bottom-up approaches have become less favored in reading theory.

This model focuses on the reader's interpretation of a text, highlighting the importance of meaning-driven processes It suggests that reading is guided by the reader's prior knowledge and assumptions, progressing from a holistic understanding to specific details In this approach, readers recognize letters and words primarily to validate their preconceived notions about the text's meaning, as emphasized by Goodman.

In 1967, the reading process was described as a "psycholinguistic guessing game," where readers engage with texts by predicting, sampling, and confirming information This interactive process involves combining new insights from the text with existing knowledge, allowing readers to construct coherent meaning The schemata—knowledge, experience, and concepts that readers possess—play a crucial role in this meaning-making process (Dechant, pp 364-5).

1991, p 25), and reading is more a matter of bringing meaning to than gaining meaning from the printed page (Dechant, 1991; Goodman, 1985; Smith, 1994)

Stanovich (1980) critiques top-down reading models, suggesting that generating hypotheses may take more time than decoding text Additionally, Samuels and Kamil (1988) argue that a reader lacking sufficient prior knowledge cannot formulate hypotheses about a text, indicating that the reading process, according to top-down theory, may not take place.

In the light of the perceived shortcomings of both bottom-up and top-down models, another model of reading process called interactive model is put forward

The interactive reading model effectively merges the strengths of bottom-up and top-down approaches, addressing the criticisms associated with each This model highlights the importance of a reader's expectations and prior knowledge in interpreting text, while also emphasizing the decoding of the actual content By allowing text sampling and higher-level decoding to occur simultaneously, the interactive reading model stands out as a leading approach in reading theory today.

In Rumelhart‘s (1977) model, the ―visual information store‖ receives input from the text to be processed These data then go through the ―feature extraction device‖ into the

The "pattern synthesizer" leverages various forms of knowledge, including syntactic, semantic, orthographic, lexical, and pragmatic, to enhance text comprehension During reading, these data sources are utilized concurrently, allowing readers to evaluate and adjust their prior expectations while forming new interpretations Ultimately, this process aids in making informed decisions about the text's meaning (Hudson, 2007, pp 41-2).

Stanovic's (1980) interactive compensatory model suggests that weaknesses in one level of processing can be offset by strengths in another For instance, individuals who struggle with basic skills like word recognition can utilize their higher-level skills, such as topic knowledge, to aid comprehension Conversely, those with limited understanding of the text's subject matter can rely on strong word recognition abilities to assist their reading process (Hudson, 2007, p 46).

Nuttall (1996, p 16) assumes that top-down and bottom-up processing are

Reading Comprehension Strategies

1.2.1.1 Definitions of Foreign Language Learning Strategies

Over the last two decades, the study of language learning strategies has seen an

―explosion of activity‖ (Ellis, 1994) with the contributions of such well-known researchers as O‘Malley and Chamot (1990) and Oxford (1990)

Learning strategies, as defined by Oxford (1990), are specific actions that learners employ to enhance their educational experience, making it easier, faster, more enjoyable, self-directed, effective, and applicable to new situations However, this definition may lack precision, as it primarily focuses on observable actions, while research indicates that many learning strategies are not easily observable.

The definition that has been widely accepted was proposed by O‘Malley and Chamot

Learning strategies are defined as the specific thoughts or behaviors that individuals employ to enhance their comprehension, learning, or retention of new information This definition encapsulates the essential characteristics of learning strategies, which include both behavioral and mental aspects, making them observable and unobservable Additionally, it highlights the individuality of learners, as their strategies can vary significantly Due to its comprehensive nature, this definition serves as the guiding framework for the current study.

1.2.1.2 Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies have been classified in a number of ways

According to Oxford (1990), second language learning strategies are categorized into two main types: Direct Strategies, which directly engage with the subject matter, and Indirect Strategies, which support language learning without direct involvement Direct Strategies encompass memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, while Indirect Strategies consist of metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

O'Malley and Chamot identify three primary types of language learning strategies: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective Unlike Oxford's more complex classification, this framework is straightforward yet effective for studying learning strategies across the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing Consequently, the current study will utilize O'Malley and Chamot's classification as its theoretical framework for investigation.

1.2.1.3 The Importance of Language Learning Strategies for Students

Language learning strategies empower students to become independent, autonomous, and lifelong learners By utilizing effective strategies, learners gain the freedom to make decisions and engage in continuous learning These strategies enhance the learning experience by making it easier, faster, more enjoyable, self-directed, and effective, while also promoting transferability to new contexts Moreover, they serve as essential tools for active involvement, fostering communicative competence Students who adopt suitable learning strategies tend to exhibit greater self-confidence and achieve more effective learning outcomes.

The effectiveness of language learning strategies is influenced by the learner's characteristics, the language structures involved, the context, and their interactions (Cohen, 1998) Additionally, successful second language or foreign language learners possess awareness of the strategies they employ and the reasons behind their usage (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990).

1.2.2.1 Definition of Reading Comprehension Strategies

Research indicates that proficient readers naturally employ reading strategies during their reading activities, which can significantly enhance comprehension The implementation of suitable reading strategies is particularly beneficial for non-native readers, as it helps mitigate language barriers and leads to improved performance in academic tasks and language proficiency assessments.

Reading strategies, as defined by Garner (1987), are actions taken to construct meaning from texts, highlighting their role in comprehension and retention of new information (AD-Heisat et al., 2009) O'Malley and Chamot (1990) further describe these strategies as unique thoughts or behaviors that individuals employ to enhance their understanding These strategies manifest in various forms, whether through written notes, mental processes, or verbalization, making them both observable and unobservable actions that facilitate effective reading.

Many people mistakenly believe that skills and strategies are the same; however, strategies are intentional and focused on achieving specific goals, while skills are automatic and contribute to more fluent and efficient reading As readers recognize the need to implement a cognitive strategy and practice it, they may gradually depend less on that strategy, ultimately transforming it into a skill.

1.2.2.2 Classification of Reading Comprehension Strategies

O'Malley and Chamot (1990) categorize reading strategies into three main types: cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective, with this study concentrating on cognitive and metacognitive strategies Cognitive strategies assist readers in deriving meaning from texts, while metacognitive strategies are employed to oversee and regulate these cognitive processes (Devine, 1993; as cited in Sani et al., 2011) According to Block (1986) and Carrell, these strategies play a crucial role in enhancing reading comprehension.

In the realm of reading strategies, cognitive approaches can be categorized into two main types: bottom-up and top-down strategies, as noted by Davis and Bistodeau (1993) in Sani et al (2011) This classification highlights the different methods readers employ to process and understand text effectively.

Planning Monitoring Evaluating Top-down Bottom-up

Advance organizers Self-monitoring Self-evaluation Elaboration Grouping

Self-management Key word method

Table 1.2 Reading Strategies in O’Malley and Chamot’s Scheme

Research has shown that proficient readers employ a mix of top-down and bottom-up reading strategies, with a greater emphasis on top-down approaches In contrast, less skilled readers tend to rely more on bottom-up strategies Effective readers typically utilize a combination of these strategies to enhance their comprehension.

1 Having a purpose 8 Inferring 15 Identifying sentence structure

2 Previewing 9 Predicting 16 Inferring unknown vocabulary

3 Skimming 10 Reading actively 17 Identifying figurative language

4 Scanning 11 Identifying genres 18 Using background knowledge

5 Clustering 12 Reading to present 19 Identifying style and its purpose

6 Evaluating 13 Integrating information 20 Identifying paragraph structure

7 Reviewing 14 Noticing cohesive devices 21 Avoiding bad habits

Table 1.3 Reading Strategies Recommended by Teachers at Chinese University of

Hongkong (as reviewed by Nunan, 1999)

Predicting plays a crucial role in reading comprehension, as it enables readers to engage effectively with the text By utilizing prediction strategies, readers combine their prior knowledge with textual cues to anticipate content, enhancing their understanding This skill is also a fundamental aspect of metacognitive strategies employed by proficient readers to monitor their comprehension throughout the reading process.

Duke and Pearson (2002) propose that predicting should be viewed as a collection of strategies rather than a singular approach This includes pre-reading activities like activating prior knowledge, previewing, and overviewing, which help readers leverage their existing understanding to grasp new concepts in the text Additionally, during-reading activities serve to validate these initial predictions The strategy is grounded in schema theory (Anderson and Pearson, 1984) and the idea of comprehension as a link between familiar and unfamiliar information (Pearson and Johnson, 1978).

Making predictions enhances reading skills and enjoyment for students, as highlighted by Anderson (1976), who found that prediction-focused procedures boost learning This strategy not only sparks interest (Mason & Au, 1986; Nichol, 1983) but also establishes a clear purpose for reading and emphasizes key details Nichols (1983) notes that combining prediction with techniques like skimming and previewing motivates students to engage with the text thoughtfully, allowing them to validate their initial hypotheses.

Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction

1.3.1 Approaches to Reading Comprehension Instruction

Language teachers commonly utilize two main approaches for teaching reading comprehension: the Grammar-Translation Method and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach These methods reflect the diverse strategies available in language education today.

Grammar-Translation Method Communicative Language Teaching

- Detailed analysis of grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences or texts into and out of the target language

- A system for the expression of meaning; primary function-interaction and communication

- Little more than memorizing rules and facts to understand the morphology and syntax

- Real communication activities; meaningful tasks and meaningful language

- To be ―scholarly‖ or, in some instances, to gain a reading proficiency in a foreign language

- Reflecting the needs of the learner and including functional skills and linguistic objectives

- Include ―endless lists of unusable grammar rules and vocabulary and perfect translations of stilted or literary prose‖

- Include some/all of the following; structures, functions, notions, themes, tasks and is order by learner needs

- Drills in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue

- Communicative activities; involving information sharing, negotiation of meaning and interaction

Learner roles - Memorizer and translator - Negotiator and interactor

- Require few specialized skills on the part of teachers

- Facilitator of the communication process, participants; need analyst, counselor, and process manager

- Primarily promoting communicative language use; task-based materials; authentic

Table 1.5 Grammar-Translation Method and Communicative Language Teaching

Like other modern approaches and methods, Communicative Language Teaching Approach bears the following features:

This study utilizes the Communicative Language Teaching approach to enhance the teaching of predicting strategies in reading comprehension, while incorporating task-based language teaching methods in reading strategy instruction.

The task-based approach emphasizes that learners acquire language most effectively through activities that mimic real-life interactions (Bachman, 1990) Willis (1996) outlines a framework comprising three essential phases: Pre-task, Task-cycle, and Language focus, which create optimal conditions for language learning.

(1) Pre-task: introduces the class to the topic and the task activating topic-related words and phrases

The Task Cycle empowers learners to utilize their existing language skills to complete a task, followed by enhancing their language proficiency with the teacher's support during the planning of their task reports This cycle consists of three key components: Task, Planning, and Report.

Language Focus enables a detailed exploration of specific linguistic features present during the task cycle In this phase, learners analyze the language forms within the text and delve into the meanings of the lexical items they have observed The Language Focus consists of two key components: Analysis and Practice, fostering a deeper understanding of language usage.

A more detailed task-based framework is given in Table 1.6 in APPENDIX

1.3.2 Model of Reading Comprehension Instruction

A typical reading lesson consists of three essential stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading, as highlighted by William (1984) and Dubin and Bycina (1991) in the ESL/CFL Classroom Techniques and Practices course book at Vietnam National University, Hanoi University of Languages and International Studies Each stage serves distinct purposes and follows specific procedures to enhance the reading experience.

(1) To activate or build the students‘ knowledge of the subject

(2) To get the students become familiar with some of the language needed in coping with the text

(3) To motivate the students to read

To help the students to understand the content and become aware of the rhetorical structure of the text

(2) To work on bottom-up concerns such as grammar, vocabulary, and discourse feature

(3) To consolidate what has been read relating the information from the text to the students‘ knowledge, interests and opinions

Table 1.7 Model of Reading Comprehension Instruction 1.3.3 Models of Reading Strategy Instruction

In recent decades, extensive research has focused on comprehension strategy instruction, leading to the identification of several sophisticated instructional models that offer effective frameworks for teaching reading strategies Notable among these models are Reciprocal Teaching by Palincsar and Brown (1984), Direct Explanation by Duffy et al (1987), Transactional Strategy Instruction by Presley et al (1992), and Collaborative Strategic Reading.

Reading by (Klingner et al., 1998)

 The teacher explicitly models the four strategies

 Students take turns leading the group dialogue and practicing the strategies, and the teacher becomes a mediator guiding and giving feedback

 The teacher gradually diminishes the scaffolded assistance as students begin to control the four strategies

 The students understand and share most of the thinking responsibilities

 An explicit description of the strategy and when and how it should be used

 Teacher and/or student modeling of the strategy in action

 Collaborative use of the strategy in action

 Guided practice using the strategy with gradual release of responsibility

 Independent use of the strategy

 The teacher gives detailed explanations of the reading strategy and contributes mental modeling of their use

 The teacher applies a think-aloud model that includes the reasoning involved in using the strategy, thereby revealing his/ her reading processes

 Students proceed to guided practice on the strategy just presented

 The teacher gives detailed explanations of the reading strategy and contributes mental modeling of their use

 The teacher applies a think-aloud model that includes the reasoning involved in using the strategy, thereby revealing his/ her reading processes

 Students proceed to guided practice on the strategy just presented

 Students transact with the text and among group members to construct meaning together

* A small number of comprehension strategies are instructed and practiced over a long period of time including predicting, generating images, seeking clarification and summarizing

Table 1.8 Models of Reading Strategy Instruction

This study adopts the Direct Explanation (DE) model of reading comprehension strategy instruction for three key reasons First, the informants likely lack prior knowledge of reading comprehension strategies, necessitating explicit instruction Second, the study's short duration makes it impractical to implement models like Reciprocal Teaching and Transactional Strategy Instruction, which require more time and effort Lastly, the DE model allows for whole-class instruction without the need to separate students into groups based on reading ability, although an independent practice stage has been incorporated to enhance learning.

During the course of applying a reading strategy instruction, it is advisable to take into consideration some factors (Andreassen and Braten, 2010) Firstly, reading strategies should be

Effective reading instruction involves explicitly teaching self-regulated strategies through modeling and scaffolding support (Hilden and Pressley, 2007) Key instructional elements include activating background knowledge, which significantly impacts reading comprehension, and promoting cooperation in small reading groups These groups allow students of varying abilities to share strategies and support each other's reading processes Additionally, engaging texts and stimulating reading activities enhance motivation, further encouraging strategy use Lastly, strategic reading instruction should incorporate opportunities for learners to reflect on their thinking, enabling corrective feedback and improving performance (Aek Phakit, 2006).

Related Studies

Goodman and Burke (1980) highlight that successful readers actively construct meaning by employing prediction and confirmation strategies Competent readers leverage their language experience and world knowledge to select appropriate textual cues, enabling them to generate predictions about the text's meaning After making a prediction, readers must monitor and verify it against subsequent information in the text, as noted by Collins, Brown, and Larkin (1980) This process of generating predictions is essential for developing a metacognitive system, where readers assess the validity of their predictions through self-monitoring.

Accomplished readers actively control the generation of predictions (Bruce & Rubin,

In the process of reading, individuals may choose to pause further predictions until existing ones are verified, especially if they lack sufficient prior knowledge about the text Bruce and Rubin highlight that readers with limited background may restrict their hypotheses, as effective predictions rely on a continuous evaluation of relevant knowledge and the reading task Conversely, failing to monitor predictions can hinder comprehension, as making assumptions without a solid knowledge base and neglecting to check their validity can negatively impact understanding.

Research indicates that generating and verifying predictions from text significantly enhances readers' comprehension, although most studies focus primarily on narrative texts (Pearson and Fielding, 1991) Hansen (1981) and Hansen and Pearson (1983) demonstrated that students could improve their understanding of stories by forming expectations about characters' actions based on past experiences Additionally, Fielding, Anderson, and Pearson (1990) found that prediction activities enhance overall comprehension only when predictions are explicitly compared to the text, highlighting the importance of the verification process alongside making predictions.

Research by Olson, Mack, and Duffy (1981; 1984) revealed that readers of expository texts tend to engage less in prediction and hypothesis testing compared to those reading narrative texts, indicating that text genre significantly affects readers' predictive strategies Conversely, Afflerbach (1990) and Johnston and Afflerbach (1984) found that skilled readers utilize predicting strategies even when reading expository texts Their findings suggest that both prior knowledge of the text's content and familiarity with the genre play crucial roles in shaping readers' predicting strategies Engaging with familiar materials enhances readers' formal and content schema, leading to more accurate predictions during the reading process (Anderson, Pichert, and Shirey, 1983).

Summary

This chapter emphasizes the critical aspects of reading comprehension, including language learning strategies, reading strategies, and instructional approaches The literature review indicates that reading involves the interaction between the text, the reader, fluency, and strategies, with a particular focus on the significance of strategies in enhancing comprehension Predicting strategies, as a subset of reading strategies, are shown to be particularly beneficial for improving reading comprehension A comprehensive examination of predicting strategies alongside reading strategy instruction supports the hypothesis that these strategies can enhance students' reading comprehension With this theoretical framework, the study aims to achieve positive outcomes.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research methodology, detailing the research context, key questions, and approach It also outlines the participants involved, the instruments used for data collection, the intervention implemented, and the procedures followed for both data collection and analysis.

Research Context

A study was conducted at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School in the suburbs of Hanoi, which serves over 1,000 students across 40 classes, including 13 classes of 10th graders Despite having studied English for at least seven years, these students exhibit low proficiency, particularly in reading Their primary challenge is a limited vocabulary, which hinders their understanding of texts Teachers have noted that students often read word-by-word at slow rates and frequently attempt to translate passages into Vietnamese, further complicating their reading skills.

The teaching staff consists of eight English teachers, all graduates from the University of Languages and International Studies at Vietnam National University, Hanoi Their experience ranges from under three years to over ten years, with four teachers boasting more than a decade of teaching The age of the teachers varies from 25 to 50, with four individuals being under 30 All teachers participated in a training workshop on the new teaching methodology organized by the Hanoi Department of Education and Training during the summer.

In 2006, a 35-year-old English teacher with approximately 10 years of experience is pursuing a postgraduate degree in English at the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi Her extensive background and knowledge in teaching English as a foreign language provide valuable insights for implementing effective instructional strategies in her courses.

The textbooks used as the official English materials for the students at this school are

The English textbooks for grades 10, 11, and 12 are designed with a standard syllabus that emphasizes theme-based and skill-based learning They incorporate popular teaching methods such as the learner-centered and communicative approaches, with task-based learning identified as the primary methodology (Van et al., 2006, p 12) The series covers essential themes including education, community, nature, environment, and recreation, encouraging students to participate in meaningful interactions and negotiate meaning through individual, pair, and group activities.

Task-based teaching is often not effectively implemented in the series of textbooks used, as they fail to provide activities that promote communicative language use with a clear outcome (Van et al., 2006; Willis, 1996) The essential stages of task-based learning are not clearly outlined, which places the responsibility for effective implementation on the teachers In Vietnam, particularly at Cao Ba Quat Upper School, English teachers are generally unfamiliar with task-based learning, leading to a lack of exposure for students to this approach Consequently, many Vietnamese students may struggle to adapt to task-based methodologies in their language studies.

It was the students‘ reading problems that urged the researcher to conduct a research to find a new way to improve her students‘ reading comprehension, and predicting strategy instruction was chosen.

Research Questions

This study aims to investigate the influence of predicting strategy instruction on students' reading comprehension and to identify effective techniques for teaching these strategies Two key research questions guide this exploration.

(1) To what extent does the use of predicting strategy instruction improve Cao Ba Quat school’s grade 10 students’ reading comprehension?

(2) What techniques are effective to teach these students’ predicting strategy, as perceived by the students and the teacher?

Research Approach

The study utilizes an Action Research approach, highlighting the importance of understanding this methodology for a comprehensive analysis of the research process Before outlining the specific steps involved, it is crucial to clarify the rationale behind the chosen methodology, as it forms the foundation for effective research understanding and evaluation.

Action research, as defined in Cohen and Manion (1994, p.186), is ―small-scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close examination of the effects of such intervention‖

Some characteristics of action research are stated in Hult and Lennung (1980) and Mc Kerman (1991) as follows:

- Aiming at improving the quality of human actions

- Being on an on-going cycle process, e.g., feedback from data collected can be used to improve the next steps in the research

- Being formative, e.g., their research may witness the alteration in definition, aims and methodology

- Contributing to a science of education

- Being collaborative, e.g., the research involves all contribution to the understanding and action

This study aimed to enhance English reading comprehension and contribute to the field of language education It involved the researcher’s intervention through predicting strategy instruction to improve participants' reading skills Additionally, the research faced various uncertainties, necessitating adjustments and improvements throughout the process.

Following is Stephen Kemmis‘ simple action research model:

Nunan (1992) outlined seven essential steps for conducting action research: initiation, preliminary investigation, development of research questions, intervention, evaluation, dissemination, and follow-up This study adheres closely to Nunan's action research cycle, which will be detailed in Chapter 3: Results and Discussion.

Participants

The study involved a sample of fifty 10th grade students from Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School, comprising 48% female (24) and 52% male (26) participants All students had completed seven years of mandatory English education, beginning from grade 3, with some starting as early as grade 1 or nursery school According to the curriculum, they attended three English classes weekly, with one reading comprehension lesson for every five English sessions The accompanying table provides detailed background information on the participants, including gender, age, years of English study, and their reading proficiency as assessed by the teacher.

Number of years learning English

Male Female 4 7 > 7 Elementary Pre- intermediate

Table 2.1 Background Information on the Participants

The researcher chose grade 10 students as the focus of her study due to her belief that they have not previously been taught any reading strategies Specifically, she selected the 10A10 class, as it is the only 10th-grade group she is responsible for this year.

Data Collection Instruments

In order to collect sufficient data for the study, a number of instruments were employed: questionnaire, pre-test and post-tests, teacher’s diary and students’ journals:

2.5.1 Questionnaire: This ―vital tool in the collection of data‖ (Gajendra, 1999, p 117) seems to be the easiest and most effective method for collecting data from students For this reason, the researcher chose it as a data collection instrument for preliminary investigation aimed at identifying the problem analyzing the participants‘ needs

The construction of the questionnaire involved a number of phases:

1 Review relevant literature and previous related research

2 Develop the draft questionnaire; adapt the questionnaire from Mokhtari and

3 Submit to the supervisor and some other experts for first-stage pilot

4 Pilot on another sample of equal English proficiency

5 Revise the questionnaire carefully and complete the final version

Table 2.2 Procedures for Questionnaire Development

The questionnaire focused on two main topics: awareness of predicting strategy and its utilization Each topic featured eleven Yes/No questions translated into Vietnamese In specific areas like study habits, it may be more suitable to use true-false items when inquiring about the occurrence of various behaviors (Dornyei, 2003).

2.5.2 Pre-test and post-tests:

To assess students' progress in English reading comprehension, the researcher created two reading tests derived from the Interaction Access course book The first test served as a pre-test before the intervention, while the second was administered immediately after the intervention as a post-test, with a delayed post-test following later Modifications were made to ensure that both tests maintained equal value in vocabulary, content, and difficulty These achievement tests aimed to evaluate individual and collective learning outcomes, provide feedback on student progress, and assess the effectiveness of the teaching methods employed.

Each test includes two reading passages accompanied by five multiple-choice questions, requiring participants to select the best answer based on their understanding of the texts Test-takers are allotted fifteen minutes to complete each test To address the first research question effectively, the researcher focused on essential qualities of a good test, including validity, reliability, discrimination, practicality, and washback, during the test construction process.

1 Design the two tests based on the study purpose, the course syllabus and the students‘ reading competence

2 Submit to the supervisor and some other experts for first-stage pilot

4 Pilot on another sample of equal English proficiency

5 Revise carefully and complete the final version

Table 2.3 Procedures for Test Development 2.5.3 Teacher’s diary and students’ reflective jou rnal

Data collection involved the use of the researcher's diary and students' journals throughout the project's implementation Reflection, a key component of Kemmis' cycle, is highlighted through these documents, offering insights from both the teacher as the researcher and the students as participants.

Diaries serve as open-ended narrative texts that provide a first-person account of teaching and learning experiences (Bailey, 1990, as cited in McDonough, 2001) These subjective documents are written shortly after a teaching event, capturing details while they are still fresh in the writer's mind (McDonough, 2001) As a result, diaries are regarded as a trustworthy source of reflection, allowing writers to express their thoughts and feelings with complete honesty.

Journals have many of the attributes of diaries, but they can be written to be read as public documents They contain “both subjective and objective data” (McDonough, 2001, p

122) Therefore, they can be edited in the process of composition, which makes them lacked in truthfulness in comparison with diaries However, they are an excellent tool for reflection

This study employed diaries and journals for "reflection on action," which refers to the retrospective analysis of practice to reveal the knowledge applied in real-life situations through careful examination of recalled information (Fitzgerald, 1994, p 67) The entries were made immediately after each lesson, allowing for timely reflection.

Guided diaries and journals facilitate critical reflection by shifting focus from emotional release to deeper analysis, potentially uncovering underlying assumptions and biases in teaching practices.

In short, with the combination of these methods, it was expected that the researcher would have ―deeper understanding” and ―broader perspective‖ of the information (Mertens,

2005, p.21) so as to get more reliable results.

Intervention

Action research is characterized by the researcher’s intervention aimed at enhancing participants' awareness of predicting strategies This intervention is crucial for improving reading comprehension by effectively introducing these strategies to the participants.

In the predicting strategy instruction course, students participated in two 45-minute lessons and one 90-minute lesson that integrated predicting strategies with reading techniques like skimming and scanning Developed by the researcher, these lessons utilized the Direct Explanation model (Duffy et al., 1987), which provided explicit descriptions of the strategies, their appropriate usage, and involved teacher and student modeling The instruction emphasized guided practice with a gradual release of responsibility, culminating in independent application The lesson plan design also considered crucial elements such as background knowledge, reading group organization, reading materials and activities, and feedback mechanisms.

1 To develop the strategies of predicting the topic from the title and predicting the content from the picture

2 To develop the strategies of predicting the main idea of a paragraph from the first sentence

3 To develop strategies of using prior backgrounds knowledge of the content and the knowledge of the textual structure to predict what to come next in the text

Table 2.4 Syllabus of Predicting Strategy Instruction Course

And here is the procedure for the construction of the lesson plans:

1 Identify the objectives of the course and of each lesson

2 Select the teaching approach: task – based learning

Select the material; expository texts from the book Interaction Access, based on students‘ content and formal schema, language proficiency, the time allowance and the text content

4 Design the tasks, plan and sequence the activities

5 Design the diary and journal format

6 Submit the lesson plans to the supervisor and some other experts for first-stage pilot

7 Pilot on another sample of equal English proficiency

8 Revise the lesson plans carefully and complete the final version

Table 2.5 Procedures for Predicting Strategy Instruction Development

Data Collection Procedures

The data collection procedures commenced in early April and ended in late July, 2011 All of the procedures involved in the following steps:

Step 1: In early April, the preliminary questionnaires were administered to the students from group 10A10 of Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School.: Each respondent was handed a copy of the questionnaire, and asked to answer all the question items in the questionnaires

However, in order to increase the quality and quantity of participant response, the researcher:

Prior to the study, participants were informed about the questionnaires through advance announcements and received a printed leaflet detailing the study's purpose, nature, and sample items The researchers reiterated the significance of the research, clarified the rationale for the chosen sample, ensured the confidentiality of responses, and closely monitored the questionnaire completion process.

Step 2: In the middle of April, a fifteen-minute reading comprehension test was conducted in the classroom of group 10A10 Before the test, the participants were told that they were expected to do the test as best as they could although the result of this test score would not be recorded in their school report During the pre-test, no participant was allowed to consult his/ her classmates‘ work When the time was up, all the papers were handed in immediately

Step 3: From the beginning of May to the beginning of July, the predicting strategy course was implemented, and at the end of each lesson, the teacher made a diary on the real teaching and the students were asked to write journals about that lesson

Step 4: In the middle of July, another reading comprehension test was given as the post-test, and one week later the first test was given again as the delayed post-test The procedures of conducting these tests were the same as that of the pre-test However, the participants were reminded that they should exploit what they had learned from the predicting strategy instruction to complete the test

Step 5: Based on the result of the first cycle of the study, the researcher decided whether to carry out the next cycle.

Data Analysis Procedures

Data collection yielded three distinct sets of information: the first set included 50 questionnaires, the second set comprised 50 pre-test and 50 post-test papers, and the final set consisted of teachers' diaries and students' journals.

After collecting the questionnaires, the researcher began coding the responses The closed-ended format allowed for a simple coding system, where "Yes" was assigned the value of 1 and "No" received the value of 2, with missing data designated as 999 for scoring purposes.

After coding the data, a quantitative analysis was conducted using a descriptive approach, with results presented as percentages These descriptive statistics were then visualized through graphs to clearly illustrate the findings of the preliminary investigation.

2.8.2 Pre-test and post-test

The study utilized pre-test and post-test assessments to evaluate improvements in participants' reading comprehension following instruction in a predicting strategy Each test comprised two reading texts accompanied by three multiple-choice questions After manually tallying the correct answers, the data was quantitatively analyzed using statistical tools to compare the percentage of correct responses This analysis enabled the researcher to identify any significant enhancements in reading comprehension resulting from the intervention.

The analysis of teacher diaries and student journals involved a thorough reading process to identify significant themes The researcher focused on three essential aspects: the frequency of mentions, their distribution, and the intensity of expression regarding each topic.

Summary

This study investigates the effects of predicting strategy instruction on the reading comprehension of 10th-grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School Conducted as action research within the researcher’s own classroom, the study aims to identify effective techniques for teaching predicting strategies Data collection involved a questionnaire, a pre-test, two post-tests, teacher diaries, and student journals, which were analyzed using descriptive statistics and content analysis The integration of these methods is intended to effectively address the research questions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Preliminary investigation

To investigate the students‘ awareness and use of predicting strategies before the instruction, a questionnaire was administered to the participants The participants gave Yes or

No answer to each item, and then the answers were counted and analyzed

3.1.1 Students’ Awareness and Use of Predicting Strategies

Figure 3.1 Students’ Awareness and Use of Predicting Strategies

The data reveals a significant awareness among participants regarding the benefits of predictive reading strategies, with 90% recognizing the importance of contextual clues like titles and images, and 80% valuing the activation of prior knowledge to form hypotheses Additionally, 71% of students acknowledge the role of textual structure in making predictions, while 63% emphasize the bottom-up skill of reading to confirm their predictions However, only one-third of respondents find it useful to predict the main idea of a paragraph based on its first sentence.

1 Predicting the topic from the title

2 Predicting the content from the picture

3 Predicting the main idea from the first sentence

4 Using the knowledge of the topic to predict the upcoming information

5 Using the knowledge of the textual to predict the upcoming information

6 Reading to confirm the prior predictions

A study comparing students' actual use of predicting strategies to their awareness of these strategies revealed that fewer students utilize them in practice However, the ranking of predicting strategies that students believe they use aligns closely with their reported awareness of these strategies.

3.1.2 Students’ Awareness and Use of Other Reading Strategies

Figure 3.2 Students ’ Awareness and Use of Other Reading Strategies

The chart highlights students' awareness and application of various reading strategies A significant majority, 77% and 80% respectively, believe that reading slowly and translating the text into their native language are essential for thorough comprehension, with nearly the same percentage actively employing these methods Conversely, only 6% of participants find it necessary to read aloud for better understanding Interestingly, more students tend to skip challenging words and concepts than those who advocate for this approach, while about 30% prefer reading the text sequentially from start to finish.

A significant finding from the study reveals that over 60% of students recognize and utilize predicting strategies in reading comprehension However, there is a notable discrepancy between their awareness and actual application of these strategies, with usage being less frequent Additionally, many students believe that careful, slow reading and translating texts into Vietnamese enhance their understanding This suggests that students are aware of their active involvement in the reading process, engaging with texts through linguistic and contextual clues while drawing on their prior knowledge to construct meaning.

(1) Reading from beginning to end before thinking of the content

Students often skip challenging sections of text, impacting their comprehension While they employ both top-down and bottom-up reading strategies, the predominant approach remains unclear.

Students often unintentionally overlook challenging words or concepts in texts, leading to a lack of understanding if significant portions are skipped This issue can stem from two main factors: a limited vocabulary and insufficient knowledge of the topic, which disrupts the interaction between their word recognition skills and topic familiarity Additionally, students may struggle to effectively utilize both contextual and linguistic clues alongside their existing knowledge to compensate for their language proficiency gaps.

In conclusion, the initial investigation indicates that instruction on predicting strategies should enhance students' understanding of these techniques, including their nature, benefits, and application processes to improve reading comprehension It is essential for students to not only know which strategies to employ but also to master their effective use (Anderson, 1991) Furthermore, during the strategy instruction course, educators should ensure that both the language and content of the texts remain accessible to students.

Evaluation

3.2.1 To what extent does the use of predicting strategy instruction improve the students’ reading comprehension?

To address the research question, an analysis was conducted using students' journals, the teacher's diaries, and the results from pre-tests and post-tests The examination of students' journals and the teacher's diaries aimed to assess the students' awareness of predicting strategies, while the test results were utilized to evaluate the actual impact of predicting strategy instruction on students' reading comprehension.

Students’ Awareness of Predicting Strategies

In a recent study, participants demonstrated a strong recall of the predicting strategies taught in each lesson Specifically, 92% of participants reported learning to use the title and images to predict the topic and content in the first lesson However, recognition of the strategy involving the first sentence of a paragraph to identify the main idea decreased slightly to 84% in the second lesson Additionally, 80% of respondents acknowledged that the third lesson focused on leveraging background knowledge and understanding textual structure to anticipate upcoming content, with 68% confirming this strategy.

Figure 3.3 Students' Awareness of Predicting Strategies After the Course

In her diaries, the teacher also reported that all the students were aware of the predicting strategy taught in each lesson

Reflecting on the benefits of predicting strategies, a large number of the students agreed that predicting strategies provided them effective tools to facilitate their reading comprehension as they help them :

 grasp the text content more quickly and easily

 identify the reading purpose before reading

 reduce their dependence on the words

 engage actively in reading process Following is the typical piece of writing that supported this assumption:

Predicting is an essential reading strategy that enhances comprehension and confidence Before learning this technique, I would read texts from start to finish without making predictions, which often left me feeling discouraged when encountering unfamiliar words However, by anticipating the content before reading, I found the process much easier and more purposeful This approach allows me to leverage my background knowledge, improving my understanding even when I don't know every word Ultimately, predicting not only boosts my confidence but also facilitates a deeper understanding of the text.

However, a few students complained that the predicting strategy-reading the first sentence of a paragraph to predict its main idea was not useful because it only worked with a

100% Reading the Title to Predict the Topic

Looking at the Pictures to Predict the Content

Reading the First Sentence of a Paragraph to Predict its Main Ideas

Using Background Knowledge to Predict the Upcoming Information

Using Knowledge of the Textual Structure toPredict the Upcoming Information paragraph, the first sentence of which was also the topic sentence

The similar answers about the students‘ awareness of the predicting strategies together with their benefits can be found in the teacher‘ diaries:

In the lesson, my students practiced predicting the topic of a text by examining its title and accompanying picture These strategies proved effective in helping them establish a purpose for reading, which enhanced their motivation and engagement As a result, they found the text easier to understand and demonstrated improved comprehension.

Concerning how to do each of these predicting strategies, a majority of the students (86%) agreed on the following procedures:

Before reading the text, I look at its title and the picture to predict the topic

I read the first sentence of a paragraph to anticipate its main idea

I use my prior knowledge of topic of the text and the textual structure to predict the upcoming information in the text

Only a minority of the students wrote like this about how to do the strategies:

Whenever I read a text, firstly, I should look at its title and the picture accompanied to predict its main idea and some of its content Then, I must read the text very quickly to make sure whether this prediction is true or false and choose the best topic for the text

After reading the first sentence of a paragraph, I make a prediction about its main idea After that, I read the text quickly to confirm this prediction and choose the most suitable one

The study revealed that most students recognized the benefits of predicting strategies, noting they make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, and foster greater self-confidence (Oxford, 1990) Additionally, students reported that these strategies decrease their reliance on basic word recognition skills However, it was concerning that they did not fully understand the nature of predicting strategies, particularly the importance of verifying prior predictions alongside generating them Compared to the initial investigation, there was a notable improvement in students' awareness of predicting strategies.

Students’ Improvement in Their Reading Comprehension

Pre-test Immediate Post-test Delayed Post-test

Table 3.1 Percentage of the Students’ Correct Answers in the Pre-test and Post-tests

Predicting the main idea of the text from the title 40% 70% 66%

Predicting the content of the text from the picture 54% 92% 68%

Predicting the main idea of a paragraph from its first sentence 50% 66% 51%

Using the background knowledge of the topic to predict the upcoming information 76% 86% 66%

Using the knowledge of the textual structure to predict the upcoming information 40% 80% 80%

Table 3.2 Percentage of the Students’ Correct Answers to Each Question in the Pre-test and Post-tests

The implementation of the predicting strategy instruction significantly improved students' reading comprehension, as evidenced by the data in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 In the post-tests, 72% and 64% of participants answered reading comprehension questions correctly, up from 50% in the pre-test The percentage of students identifying the main idea rose from 40% in the pre-test to 70% and 66% in the immediate and delayed post-tests, respectively Additionally, correct responses for predicting content from images increased dramatically from 54% to 92% and 68% Notably, the number of students answering questions about textual structure correctly doubled, from 40% in the pre-test to 80% in both post-tests However, the training on predicting the main idea from the first sentence and utilizing background knowledge showed minimal improvement, with only slight increases in correct answers for these strategies.

Data analysis revealed that the predictive strategy instruction led to a modest enhancement in students' reading comprehension skills Students demonstrated improved abilities in identifying topics, answering detailed questions using visual aids, and anticipating forthcoming information However, the course was less effective in enhancing students' competence in identifying the main idea of paragraphs and utilizing their background knowledge to pinpoint specific information.

Several possible factors may have contributed to this improvement in the students‘ reading comprehension

Students' awareness of predicting strategies significantly enhanced their performance in reading comprehension tests By effectively utilizing simpler predicting techniques, such as deriving insights from titles and images, they excelled in identifying main ideas and answering detailed questions Their understanding of textual structure further aided their ability to anticipate forthcoming information However, misconceptions regarding the nature of these strategies limited their effectiveness; students believed that predictions were solely based on contextual and linguistic cues Research by Fielding, Anderson, and Pearson (1990) emphasizes that prediction activities enhance comprehension only when predictions are compared to text ideas, highlighting the importance of verification This misunderstanding led students to underestimate reading tasks and overly rely on prior predictions, ultimately hindering their comprehension due to a lack of effective monitoring.

Secondly, the students‘ vocabulary of the topic may have influenced their application of the predicting strategies to their reading comprehension As Goodman (1975) and Wardhaugh

Reading is an active and creative mental process where comprehension relies on both textual clues and the reader's background knowledge Students require a strong vocabulary to understand key elements like the title and first sentence, enabling them to make predictions and develop ideas from the text However, many students struggle to grasp the main idea of a paragraph because they lack the necessary vocabulary to anticipate or connect with the information presented This deficiency hinders their ability to generate accurate predictions and monitor their understanding, ultimately leading to misconceptions about the text.

Students' prior knowledge of both the topic and textual structure significantly influenced their use of predicting strategies in reading comprehension According to schema theory, readers draw on their existing knowledge, or schemata, to forecast the structure and content of texts (Anderson and Pearson, 1984) Research shows that a lack of content schemata, as seen in the text about "Niagara Falls," hindered students' ability to make predictions compared to when they read "Rain Forests and the Earth's Climate." Consequently, their comprehension of the former text was weaker However, when specific content schemata were underdeveloped, students relied on their understanding of textual structure, which helped them compensate for limited vocabulary and excel in anticipating upcoming information from the text.

The most significant factors affecting reading comprehension were the students' prior knowledge and vocabulary Even when students understood the importance of making predictions before reading, their lack of adequate background knowledge and vocabulary hindered their ability to comprehend the text effectively.

In conclusion, the implementation of predicting strategy instruction has led to a modest enhancement in students' reading comprehension This improvement is understandable, as reading involves a complex interplay of four key elements: the reader, the text, fluency, and the use of effective strategies (Anderson).

Meaning in reading is constructed through the integration of a reader's background knowledge with the text itself While language learning strategies enhance the learning experience by making it easier, faster, and more enjoyable, they are not the sole determinants of successful reading comprehension Predicting strategies represent just a small part of the broader spectrum of language learning techniques Thus, it is evident that instruction in predicting strategies can significantly enhance students' reading comprehension Teachers must consider the key factors that contribute to effective reading and understand their interrelationships.

3.2.2 What are effective techniques to teach predicting strategies as perceived by the students and the teachers?

The students‘ journals and the teacher‘s diaries allowed more precise insights into how the strategy instruction course was implemented, and then recommended effective techniques to teach predicting strategies

In a recent survey, students reported that their teacher effectively presented a strategy by first explaining its purpose, then modeling the process, followed by conducting guided practice, and ultimately providing opportunities for independent practice, with responses consistently ranging from 54% to 54%.

Summary

The analysis of data gathered from questionnaires, pre-tests, two post-tests, teacher diaries, and student journals allowed the researcher to effectively address the two research questions regarding the influence of predicting strategy instruction on students' reading comprehension and the most effective techniques for teaching these strategies.

The study indicated that the implementation of predicting strategy instruction led to a modest enhancement in students' reading comprehension It highlighted that both the reading strategies employed and external factors, such as the text itself and the individual reader, play significant roles in influencing comprehension outcomes.

Research indicates that incorporating explicit strategy instruction alongside engaging, real-life tasks significantly enhances the effectiveness of predicting strategy instruction Utilizing interesting and relatable reading materials, fostering collaboration through pair and group work, providing constructive feedback, and offering clear, detailed task instructions are essential components for successful implementation.

This chapter encapsulates the key findings of the study in relation to the research questions, explores the implications and limitations of the research, and offers recommendations for future investigations.

The study investigated the effects of predicting strategy instruction on the reading comprehension of 10th-grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School and identified effective techniques for teaching these strategies, as perceived by both teachers and students Data collected from 50 participants through questionnaires, pre-tests, post-tests, teacher diaries, and student journals revealed significant insights into the impact of this instructional approach.

The instruction on predicting strategies has led to a modest enhancement in students' reading comprehension, significantly increasing their awareness and application of these strategies However, the overall impact remains limited, as reading comprehension is affected by various factors, including the text itself, the reader's vocabulary, and their background knowledge Additionally, predicting strategies represent only a small part of the broader spectrum of language learning strategies In summary, while predicting strategy instruction has positively contributed to students' reading comprehension, its influence is just one piece of a larger puzzle.

Secondly, the predicting strategy instruction was effective when the following techniques were included:

 Exciting, real-life, practical and useful tasks that equip the students with sufficient vocabulary and knowledge related to the text, and help them practice the strategies effectively

 Interesting and comprehensible reading texts of familiar topics

 Pair work and group work

 Clear and detailed task instructions

2 Pedagogical Implications of the Study

This study explores the influence of prediction strategies on the reading comprehension of 10th-grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School, highlighting effective techniques for teaching these strategies The findings provide valuable pedagogical insights for enhancing reading instruction in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts at the upper secondary level.

The study demonstrates that predicting strategy instruction has significantly enhanced the reading comprehension of students, particularly for 10th graders at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School This suggests that mastering the predicting strategy is beneficial for EFL learners Additionally, it is recommended that other reading strategies be incorporated into lessons to further improve students' reading comprehension skills.

To enhance learners' effective use of reading strategies like predicting, teachers must engage in thoughtful planning that helps students understand the reading process and the need to adjust their reading behaviors This involves assessing students' awareness of strategy use, emphasizing the importance of strategic reading, introducing a variety of strategies to improve comprehension, and providing explicit strategy instruction Moreover, teachers should recognize that fostering strategic reading goes beyond merely teaching strategies; it requires ongoing modeling and immediate feedback throughout the entire instructional process to ensure mastery.

The study emphasizes the importance of integrating strategic reading with enhanced content and formal schemata, particularly content schemata It reveals that students struggle to utilize predicting strategies effectively due to a lack of prior knowledge about the text's topic, its structure, and insufficient vocabulary Even when they comprehend linguistic cues, their inability to make predictions often stems from inadequate relevant knowledge Therefore, it is crucial for teachers to help students expand their knowledge and vocabulary through extensive reading Teachers should regularly assign diverse reading materials and encourage students to summarize these texts using semantic maps or networks, which will broaden their vocabulary and structural understanding Additionally, during strategy instruction, teachers should employ various techniques to activate students' prior knowledge and review essential vocabulary and textual structures, enabling them to leverage their existing knowledge to enhance reading comprehension.

For some reasons, the study still bears some limitations in terms of the data collection instruments

The study assessed participants' awareness and use of predicting strategies solely through self-reported questionnaires and journals, reflecting their perceived rather than actual awareness To enhance the reliability of the findings, incorporating think-aloud protocols could have offered deeper insights into participants' genuine use of predicting strategies during reading comprehension However, the rich qualitative data obtained from think-aloud methods is typically limited to smaller sample sizes.

The adapted reading comprehension tests, developed with careful consideration of reliability and validity, may still have limitations Notably, the familiarity ratings of the topics and the range of vocabulary in the included texts may not be consistent.

An effective action research process should involve ongoing cycles where feedback from collected data informs improvements for subsequent cycles However, this study only implemented a single cycle due to the necessity of allowing sufficient time between successive cycles.

The study focused on the students of class 10A10 at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to all 10th-grade students at the institution.

The current study examined how predicting strategy instruction enhances reading comprehension among subjects and identified effective techniques for teaching these reading strategies Additionally, it provided recommendations for future research in this area.

Firstly, it was suggested that further research be conducted on other reading strategies such as skimming, scanning, inferring or guessing unknown vocabulary in contexts

Secondly, it would be of great value if further research on the same issue was carried out with the think-aloud protocols

Finally, further research may be devoted to investigating the impact of extensive reading on the participants‘ knowledge and vocabulary

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Pedagogical Implications of the Study

This study explores the influence of predicting strategies on the reading comprehension of 10th-grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School, highlighting effective techniques for teaching these strategies The findings provide valuable pedagogical insights for enhancing reading instruction in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts at the upper secondary level.

The study demonstrates that predicting strategy instruction significantly enhances reading comprehension among EFL learners, particularly 10th grade students at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School This suggests that mastering the predicting strategy is essential for improving reading skills Additionally, it is recommended that other reading strategies be incorporated into lessons to further develop students' reading comprehension abilities.

Teachers play a crucial role in helping learners effectively utilize reading strategies, such as predicting, by engaging in thoughtful planning To foster this skill, educators should first assess students' awareness of their strategy use, potentially using tools like the SORS Next, it’s essential to emphasize the significance of strategic reading and introduce a variety of strategies to enhance comprehension Additionally, explicit instruction in these strategies is vital Importantly, developing students' strategic reading is not merely about introducing techniques; it requires ongoing modeling and immediate feedback from teachers throughout the entire instructional process.

The study emphasizes the importance of integrating strategic reading with enhanced content and formal schemata, particularly content schemata It found that students struggled to utilize predicting strategies in reading comprehension due to gaps in their prior knowledge of the text topic, textual structure, and vocabulary Even when linguistic cues were understood, a lack of relevant prior knowledge hindered their ability to make predictions To address this, teachers should focus on expanding students' knowledge and vocabulary through extensive reading Assigning diverse reading texts and encouraging students to summarize them using semantic maps can enhance their vocabulary and structural understanding Additionally, teachers should employ various techniques to activate prior knowledge and review textual structures and vocabulary during strategy instruction, enabling students to leverage their existing knowledge for improved reading comprehension.

Limitations of the Research

For some reasons, the study still bears some limitations in terms of the data collection instruments

The study assessed participants' awareness and use of predicting strategies solely through self-reported questionnaires and journals, reflecting their perceived rather than actual strategies The reliability of the results could have been enhanced by incorporating think-aloud protocols, which offer qualitative insights into participants' genuine use of predicting strategies during reading comprehension However, the application of think-aloud methods is limited to small sample sizes due to the depth of data they provide.

Adapted reading comprehension tests, developed with careful consideration of their reliability and validity, may still have limitations One notable issue is the potential disparity in familiarity ratings of the topics and the range of vocabulary used in the texts, which could affect the overall effectiveness of the assessments.

An effective action research process should involve ongoing cycles, allowing feedback from collected data to enhance subsequent iterations However, the study in question only implemented a single cycle due to the necessity of a sufficient interval between successive cycles, which was constrained by the time limitations of the research.

The study focused on the students of group 10A10 at Cao Ba Quat Upper Secondary School, which may not fully represent all 10th-grade students at the institution Consequently, the generalization of the study's results may be limited.

Suggestions for Further Research

This study investigated how predicting strategy instruction enhances reading comprehension among subjects and identified effective techniques for teaching these strategies Additionally, it provided recommendations for future research in this area.

Firstly, it was suggested that further research be conducted on other reading strategies such as skimming, scanning, inferring or guessing unknown vocabulary in contexts

Secondly, it would be of great value if further research on the same issue was carried out with the think-aloud protocols

Finally, further research may be devoted to investigating the impact of extensive reading on the participants‘ knowledge and vocabulary

AD-Heisat, M A., Mohamed, S., Krishnasamy, K A S a p., & Issa, J H (2009) The use of reading strategies in developing students' reading competency among primary school teachers in Malaysia European Journal of Social Sciences, 12(2)

Aebersold, J A., & Field, M L (1997) From Reader to Reading Teacher New York:

Afflerbach, P., and Johnston, P (1984) On the use of verbal reports in reading research

Afflerbach, P (1990) The influence of prior knowledge on expert readers' main idea construction strategies Reading Research Quarterly, 25

Afflerbach, P., Pearson, D., & Paris, S G (2008) Clarifying the differences between reading skills and reading strategies The Reading Teacher, 61(5)

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APPENDIXES Appendix 1: Table 1.1 Language Learning Strategies (O’ Maley and Chamot, 1990)

Previewing the main ideas and concepts of the material to be learned, often by skimming the text for the organizing principle

Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant distracters

Planning for and rehearsing linguistic components necessary to carry out an upcoming task

Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of input, often by scanning for key words, concepts and/ or linguistic markers

Self-management Understanding the conditions that help one learn and arranging for the presence of those conditions

Checking one‘s comprehension during listening or reading or checking the accuracy and/or appropriateness of one‘s oral or written production while it is taking place

Self-evaluation Checking the outcomes of one‘s own language against a standard after it has been completed

Resourcing Using target language reference materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, or textbooks

Repetition Imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent rehearsal

Grouping Classifying words, terminology or concepts according to their attributes or meaning

Deduction Applying rules to understand or produce the second language or making up rules based on language analysis

Imagery Using visual images (either mental or actual) to understand or remember new information

Auditory Planning back in one‘s mind the sound of a word, phrase or longer representation language sequence

To effectively remember a new word in a second language, one can utilize two key strategies: first, identify a familiar word in the first language (L1) that resembles the new word in sound or appearance; second, create vivid mental images that connect the L1 homonym with the new word in the second language (L2) These techniques enhance recall and facilitate language learning.

Relating new information to prior knowledge, relating difference parts of new information to each other, or making meaningful personal associations with the new information

Transfer Using previous linguistic knowledge or prior skills to assist comprehension or production

Inferencing Using available information to guess meaning of new items, predict outcomes or fill in missing information

Note taking Writing down key words or concepts in abbreviated verbal, graphic or numerical form while listening or reading

Summarizing Making a mental, oral or written summary of new information gained through listening or reading

Recombination Constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language sequence by combining known elements in a new way

Translation Using the first language as a base for understanding and/or producing the second language

Eliciting from a teacher or peer additional explanations, rephrasing, examples or verification

Working together with one or more peers to solve a problem, pool information, check a learning task, model a language activity, or get feedback on oral or written performance

Self-talk Reducing anxiety by using mental techniques that make one feel competent to do the learning task

Appendix 2: Table 1.6 Task-based Learning Framework Reproduced by J Willis, 1996)

Pre-task (Including topic and task)

 Introduces and defines the topic

 Uses activities to help students recall/ learn useful words and phrases

 Ensures students understand task instructions

 May play a recording of others doing the same of similar task

 Note down useful words and phrases from the pre-task activities or the recording

 May spend a few minutes preparing for the task individually

 Do the task in pairs/ small groups It may be based on a reading/ listening text

 Acts as monitor and encourages students

 Prepare to report to the class how they did the task and what they discovered/ decided

 Rehearse what they will say or draft a written version for the class to read

 Ensures the purpose of the report is clear

 Helps students rehearse oral reports or organizes written

 Present their spoken reports to the class, or circulate/ display their written reports

 Acts as chairperson, selecting who will speak next, or ensuring all students read most of the written reports

 May give brief feedback on content and form

 May play a recording of others doing the same or a similar task

 Do consciousness-raising activities to identify and process specific language features from the task text or transcript

 May ask about other features they have noticed

 Reviews each analysis activity with the class

 Brings other useful words/ phrases/ patterns to students‘ attention

 May pick up on language items from the report stage

 Conducts practice activities after analysis activities where necessary, to build confidence

 Practice words, phrases and patterns from the analysis activities

 Practice other features occurring in the task text or report stage

 Enter useful language items in their language notebooks

Appendix 3: Pre-test and Delayed post-test

READING COMPREHENSION TEST Read the following passages and choose the best answer for each question

A Niagara Falls, one of the most famous North American natural wonders, has long been a popular tourist destination Tourists today flock to see the two falls that actually constitute Niagara Falls: the 173 –foot Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side of the Niagara River in the Canadian province of Ontario and the 182- foot high American Falls on the U.S side of the river in the state of New York Approximately 85 percent of the water that goes over the falls actually goes over Horseshoes Falls, with the rest going over American Falls

B Most visitors come between April and October, and it is quite a popular activity to take a steamer out onto the river and right up to the base of the falls for a close- up view It is also possible to get a spectacular view of the falls from the strategic locations along the Niagara River, such as Prospect Point or Table Rock, or from one of the four observation towers which have heights up to 500 feet

C Tourists have been visiting Niagara Falls in large numbers since the 1800s; annual visitation now averages above 10 million visitors per year Because of concern that all these tourists would inadvertently destroy the natural beauty of this scenic wonder, the state of New York is 1885 created Niagara Falls Park in order to protect the land surrounding American Falls A year later Canada created Queen Victoria Park on the Canadian side of the Niagara,

Horseshoe Falls, located in Canada along the Niagara River, is a stunning natural wonder The surrounding area is managed by government agencies, ensuring that effective measures are implemented to maintain the pristine beauty of this iconic destination.

1 According to the passage, what which of the following best describes Niagara Falls?

A Niagara Falls consists of two rivers, one Canadian and the other American

B American Falls is considerably higher than Horseshoe Falls

C The Niagara Rivers has two falls, one in Canada and one in the United Sates

D Although the Niagara River flows through the United States and Canada, the falls are only in the U.S

2 According to the passage, why was Niagara Falls Park created?

A To encourage tourists to visit Niagara Falls

B To show off the natural beauty of Niagara Falls

C To protect the area around Niagara Falls

D To force Canada to open Queen Victoria Park

3 The paragraph following the passage most probably discusses

A additional ways to observe the falls

B steps taken by government agencies to protect the falls

C a detailed description of the division of the falls between the United States and Canada

D further problems that are destroying the area around the falls

A Twenty years ago, most people listened to music on records or tapes The sound quality was not very good Then, in the early 1980s, the compact disc (CD) appeared on the market The sound quality was better, and CDs were easier to take care of Nobody thought records were going to disappear, but now records are not manufactured (made), and very few people buy them The next question is: Will the CD ever disappear? How will we be listening to music twenty years from now? Some people think the CD will disappear as well Already, people are listening to MP3 files (digital music files) and downloading music from the Internet Downloading is when you move files from the Internet to your own computer

B Napster was the first company to use the Internet to help people share music A college student named Shawn Fanning started the company in 1998 Shawn discovered a way to allow people to download songs from each other's computers Over 70 million people used Napster The record companies were very angry They thought that people were using Napster to steal music The record companies took Napster to court In 2000, a judge ordered Napster to close Will that be the end of free online music sharing? Probably not

C Napster is starting a new Web site together with a record company On this new site, people will pay money to share music But most of the 70 million people who used Napster want their music for free They are finding many other file-sharing sites that help them share MP3 files, such as Audiogalaxy, BearShare, and Aimster These Web sites are not actual companies, so the record companies cannot take them to court

D Are people going to stop buying CDs and get all their music online? Or are the record companies going to stop music sharing forever? No one knows for sure CDs are convenient and easy to use Many people still don't have computers, and downloading music can be very slow One user sums it up: "I download music all the time—about 100 to 150 songs a day I have over 4,000 songs on my computer But I'll never stop buying CDs because it's important for people to support the musicians they like." For now, the CD is alive and well, but for how long?

4 Which phrase below best tells the topic of the passage?

A The future of music B The return of record

C The disappearance of CDs D The benefit of Internet

5 The main idea of Paragraph D is

A File sharing will become more popular than CDs

B CDs and file sharing may or may not be around for a long time

C The record companies will probably stop file sharing

D CDs will become popular again

READING COMPREHENSION TEST Read the following passages and choose the best answer for each question

Rain Forests and the Earth’s Climate

The Importance of Rain Forests

Rain forests, covering only six percent of the Earth's surface, are crucial ecosystems characterized by high rainfall and towering ancient trees, with some regions receiving up to 33 feet of rain annually Predominantly found in Africa, Asia, Australia, Central America, and South America, these biodiverse habitats are home to more than half of the world's plant and animal species Remarkably, over 25 percent of modern medicines are derived from rain forest plants, and scientists continue to uncover new species with potential medicinal benefits, highlighting the importance of preserving these vital environments.

The Effects of Rain Forests on the Earth's Climate

Rain forests play a crucial role not only for the diverse plants and animals that inhabit them but also for their significant impact on the Earth's atmosphere and climate As global warming leads to hazardous changes in climate, rain forests offer a natural solution by helping to combat this issue They cool the atmosphere by absorbing solar heat and play a vital role in reducing carbon dioxide levels, a key contributor to global warming By soaking up excess carbon dioxide, rain forests act as natural cleansers of the air, highlighting their importance in maintaining ecological balance and mitigating climate change.

How We Are Destroying Rain Forests

Rainforests play a crucial role in maintaining the Earth's climate, yet they are being rapidly cut down and burned primarily for wood, paper, and agricultural land This deforestation poses significant threats to our environment by eliminating natural cooling mechanisms and releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, accounting for approximately 30 percent of global emissions Alarmingly, experts predict that if current trends continue, all rainforests could be destroyed within 40 years, raising serious concerns about the future of our planet's climate.

1 What is the main idea of this passage?

A Rain forests are important because they are very old and most of our medicines come from their plants

B We need to protect rain forests because they are important to the earth in many ways

C We are destroying the rain forests very quickly

D The rain forests are important, but they do not have major effects on the earth‘s climate

2 Rain forests can be helpful to the earth because _

A they heat the atmosphere B they put carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

C they burn carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

D they absorb the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

A helps farmers grow strong crop B adds carbon dioxide to the air

C cools the atmosphere D cools the carbon dioxide in the air