INTRODUCTION
Speaking plays a crucial role in human communication, serving as a productive skill that allows individuals to express ideas, emotions, and reactions while fostering relationships within society According to Rivers (1987), effective speaking enables individuals to communicate their thoughts and respond to others, enhancing interpersonal connections Despite its importance, the teaching of speaking in foreign language education, particularly English as a Foreign Language (EFL), has often been overlooked due to factors such as the grammar-translation method, insufficient native speaker teachers, and large class sizes (Nation, 2011) However, the rise of communicative language teaching methods in recent decades has rekindled the focus on speaking skills, emphasizing their significance in language learning Ultimately, our speaking performance reflects our personality, self-image, knowledge, and reasoning abilities, making it a vital component of effective communication.
In the context of English language teaching, developing speaking ability is a lengthy process that involves mastering various competencies, including sound systems, appropriate vocabulary, clear thinking, and a deep understanding of the cultural nuances of the target language Effective communication also relies on the interlocutor's ability to comprehend and respond appropriately to maintain positive relationships and achieve communication goals Moreover, the assessment of speaking skills presents significant challenges, necessitating that it holds equal importance to teaching and learning to prevent negative impacts on learners Consequently, a well-structured and comprehensive rubric is essential for evaluating speaking proficiency, which is typically assessed during real-time, face-to-face interactions between interlocutors and candidates.
The shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred teaching styles significantly alters assessment formats, transitioning from discrete point testing to communicative testing However, in Vietnam, there appears to be a disconnect between teaching practices and assessment methods As noted by Inbar-Lourie (2008: 289), this incongruity highlights the challenges in aligning educational approaches with effective evaluation strategies.
The shift from a fragmented understanding of language knowledge to a focus on communicative competence and task-based language teaching has highlighted the mismatch in current assessment methods Since Morrow (1979) emphasized the need for alignment between language learning objectives and evaluation practices, there have been ongoing calls to reconcile communicative teaching goals with the testing procedures designed to measure them.
Despite the emphasis on communicative language teaching (CLT) principles, many educators remain entrenched in traditional, grammar-focused methods This disconnect is evident as teachers often measure student progress through grammatical accuracy rather than notional-functional categories, highlighting a resistance to fully embrace CLT practices This reluctance is particularly pronounced among experienced instructors and is also a challenge for novice teachers, whose pre-service training frequently lacks depth in communicative approaches.
Textbooks often feature speaking sections; however, they lack details on assessment types and criteria for evaluating speaking skills Furthermore, the final exam is conducted in a paper-based format rather than an oral one, leading to inadequate attention being given to the assessment of oral English proficiency.
Efforts to connect teaching and testing have intensified with the National Project 2020 and the introduction of VSTEP Despite these advancements, many English teachers in Vietnamese high schools still face challenges in effectively assessing speaking skills.
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of theories and practices related to EFL speaking assessment, focusing on key aspects such as assessment criteria, task design, and rating scales, along with considerations of validity, reliability, and practicality It will first outline the criteria used to evaluate speaking performance, followed by a discussion of the essential components involved in developing assessments, including test design, rating scale validation, and rater training Finally, the paper will address common challenges faced by teachers in conducting speaking assessments and propose potential solutions to these issues.
1.3 The scope of the study
This study examines the implementation of speaking assessments in high schools utilizing the new national textbooks—English 10, English 11, and English 12—authored by Prof Hoang Van Van and co-authors in 2015.
With this expectation in mind, we may allow ourselves to formulate the following questions:
1 What task types do teachers use when assessing speaking skill of students who are learning the new textbook?
2 What criteria do teachers use when assessing speaking performance?
3 What problems do teachers encounter when assessing students’ speaking performance?
1.5 The significance of the study
The study provides high school teachers with essential guidelines for speaking assessments, including marking criteria and the validity of speaking tests It highlights the critical issue of language assessment formats in final exams, emphasizing that these formats can either motivate or demotivate students in their English studies Although the curriculum encompasses the four macro skills—writing, reading, listening, and speaking—the final exams are predominantly paper-based Consequently, the use of pseudo-communicative testing approaches fails to effectively enhance students' speaking abilities.
1.6 The design of the thesis
The thesis is structured into three main sections, with Part I serving as the Introduction This section offers a concise overview of the study, detailing its rationale, objectives, scope, research methodology, and overall design.
Part II, the Development, consists of three chapters
Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive literature review on assessment, focusing on three key areas: the general principles of language assessment, the specifics of speaking assessment, and an overview of previous research related to evaluating English speaking skills.
Chapter 2 focuses on the method of the study, the contextual factors of the case school and the data collection instruments and procedure
Chapter 3 provides a detailed analysis of the data collected, along with a discussion of the findings This chapter is structured into three sections, focusing on the insights gained from interviews and discussions.
Part III of the article presents the conclusions drawn from the research, highlighting the challenges related to English speaking assessment It offers recommendations to address these issues and discusses the study's limitations, along with suggestions for future research endeavors.
DEVELOPMENT
Speaking is a communicative activity that occurs orally between a speaker and a listener, where the primary goal is for the speaker to convey a message effectively For successful communication, both parties must understand each other, with the speaker producing sounds that represent the message while the listener receives, processes, and responds to it According to Byrne (1984), speaking involves multiple participants who engage with one another, reacting to what they hear and contributing to the conversation Each participant brings their own intentions and goals to the interaction, highlighting the dynamic nature of spoken communication.
Speaking serves a distinct purpose, requiring at least two participants to effectively communicate in the same language It is a process of conveying information, ideas, and emotions through well-structured sentences to ensure listener comprehension According to Fulcher (2003), speaking transcends mere skill; it embodies the fundamental ability that defines our humanity.
Speech is a "real time" phenomenon, requiring individuals to quickly plan, formulate, and articulate their thoughts (Bygate, 1987) Bygate distinguishes between language knowledge, which encompasses grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and their typical usage, and language skills, which involve actively applying this knowledge in interactions Skills can be practiced and imitated, highlighting the importance of both understanding and effectively using language in communication.
Brown (2001: 250) states that speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving, and processing
LITERATURE REVIEW
The nature of speaking
Speaking is a communicative activity that occurs orally between a speaker and a listener, where the primary goal is for the speaker to convey a message effectively For successful communication, both parties must understand each other; the speaker articulates sounds that represent their message, while the listener processes and responds to it According to Byrne (1984), speaking involves multiple participants who engage as speakers and listeners, reacting to each other's contributions Each participant has specific intentions or goals they aim to achieve during the interaction.
Speaking serves a specific purpose and requires at least two participants, as effective communication relies on a shared language It is a process of conveying information, ideas, and emotions through well-structured sentences to ensure the listener comprehends the message According to Fulcher (2003), speaking is not merely a skill; it embodies the very ability that defines our humanity.
Speech is a "real-time" phenomenon, requiring individuals to quickly plan, formulate, and articulate their thoughts (Bygate, 1987) Bygate distinguishes between language knowledge, which encompasses grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and usage, and language skills, which involve actively applying this knowledge in interactions While knowledge provides the foundational rules, skills represent the ability to effectively utilize that knowledge in conversation.
According to Brown (2001), speaking is an interactive process that involves producing, receiving, and processing information to construct meaning Effective communication requires both a speaker and a listener, emphasizing the necessity of at least two participants in the speaking process, particularly in dialogue Transactional dialogue is particularly effective for assessing students' speaking achievements, as it focuses on the clarity and accuracy of the message rather than the social interactions between participants Additionally, Itkonen (2010) highlights proficiency and coherence as essential features of speaking, while Louma (2003) identifies pronunciation and spoken grammar as key components.
Teaching speaking skills is more challenging for educators than other language skills (Rivers, 1987) A successful speaking classroom must focus on five key aspects: (1) Fluency, which involves the ability to speak smoothly and accurately, characterized by a reasonable speaking speed and minimal pauses (Harris, 1974) Fluency reflects the ease and speed of speech flow, allowing for effective dialogue between speakers (2) Grammar, as defined by Heaton (1991), pertains to students' ability to manipulate language structures and select the appropriate grammatical forms in context.
Grammar, as defined by 1978, refers to the correct arrangement of sentences in conversation Additionally, vocabulary plays a crucial role in effective communication; without a sufficient vocabulary, a speaker may struggle to convey their message, as noted by Syakur (1987) Furthermore, pronunciation is essential, as it encompasses the ability to articulate words clearly and understandably (Syakur, 1987).
Pronunciation, as defined by Harris (1974), encompasses intonation patterns, while comprehension, according to Heaton (1991), refers to the ability to understand a speaker's intention and overall meaning Syakur (1987) further emphasizes that comprehension in oral communication involves both responding to and initiating speech This implies that a person's ability to articulate responses accurately demonstrates their understanding In language teaching, it is essential for both teachers and learners to excel in these five aspects of communication In speaking classes, teachers play a crucial role by providing stimuli, guidance, and support, acting as directors and facilitators in the learning process Additionally, motivating students to engage with the material is vital, as speaking skills are a key component of the language curriculum and a significant focus for assessment.
The nature of speaking assessments
The terms "assessment" and "test" are often used interchangeably in educational contexts, but they have distinct meanings Tests are structured evaluations that occur at specific times, requiring students to perform at their best while being measured In contrast, assessment is a continuous process that covers a broader scope Every time a student answers a question, makes a comment, or experiments with new language, the teacher instinctively assesses the student's performance (Brown, 2004).
Tests are just one method of assessment among many that teachers can use to evaluate student performance While they can be valuable tools, assessment encompasses a broader range of strategies Evaluation involves collecting and interpreting information about various aspects of the curriculum, including students, teachers, and materials, to inform decision-making (Brindley, 2001) Kendle (2000) distinguishes between internal and external evaluations; internal evaluations gather information to help managers make informed decisions about program implementation, fostering collaboration and commitment to program improvements In contrast, external evaluations are often necessary for funding and assessing long-term impacts through demographic indicators such as graduation rates and poverty levels Although evaluation and assessment are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings: assessment refers to the tasks students perform to demonstrate their competence, while evaluation assesses the effectiveness of those tasks in achieving educational goals.
Assessing students goes beyond simply assigning grades; it involves adhering to key principles that ensure effective testing According to Brown (2004), these principles include practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, and washback, all of which are essential for creating a meaningful and effective assessment.
According to Brown (2004), an effective test is characterized by its practicality, which includes being cost-effective, adhering to appropriate time limits, ease of administration, and having a clear and efficient scoring or evaluation process.
According to Brown, reliability in testing refers to the consistency of results when the same test is administered to the same student multiple times However, various factors can influence a student's performance, leading to grade changes These factors include fatigue, illness, anxiety, and other physical or psychological conditions Additionally, classroom environment conditions, such as external noise, varying light levels, temperature, and the comfort of desks and chairs, can also affect a student's ability to focus on the test.
Validity refers to the appropriateness and meaningfulness of test results in relation to the assessment's purpose A valid test effectively measures what educators intend to assess, ensuring that students engage with a well-structured format This includes familiar tasks, clear instructions, and coursework-related activities that present a reasonable challenge for learners.
A test that shows a natural language as is possible, contextualized items, meaningful topics and real-world tasks is what shows that a test is authentic
Assessment significantly influences teaching and learning through the concept of washback, which allows both teachers and students to provide feedback This feedback helps identify challenges in language learning and facilitates improvements, ultimately enhancing the educational experience.
Gross (1999) identifies four essential functions of tests in education Firstly, tests enable teachers to evaluate students' learning progress and determine if educational goals are being met Secondly, well-structured tests motivate students and help them organize their academic efforts Thirdly, they provide teachers with insights into the effectiveness of their material presentation Lastly, tests reinforce learning by highlighting areas where students need improvement However, it is important to acknowledge that testing can also lead to emotional stress and anxiety among students.
A well-structured test that adheres to specific parameters is advantageous for both teachers and students It allows educators to gain insights into student learning, while providing students with a valuable opportunity to showcase their knowledge and understanding of the material they have been taught.
Assessment is a vast area with extensive research and literature, yet much of it addresses assessment broadly rather than specifically focusing on English speaking Fulcher (2003) highlights that evaluating second language speaking poses greater challenges compared to other language skills, resulting in a limited number of publications dedicated to this topic.
Speaking and listening are inherently interconnected, making it challenging to separate oral production tasks from aural comprehension In most situations, assessing oral language requires the involvement of an interlocutor's listening skills As a productive skill, speaking is observable in real-time, yet the interplay between speaking and listening complicates the design of oral production tests, necessitating careful consideration of the factors influenced by aural intake (Brown 2004).
The assessment of speaking skills often falls behind their instruction in educational curricula, despite its critical role in providing essential feedback to both students and teachers regarding progress and areas for improvement Acknowledging the importance of backwash, many educators agree that to foster oral proficiency, it is essential to assess it directly (Hughes, 1989:44) However, challenges such as limited time, inadequate facilities, and the need for qualified personnel can deter teachers from implementing oral assessments Additionally, designing effective and relevant speaking tasks, along with ensuring consistency across different testing occasions, participants, and evaluators, further complicates the validity of these assessments.
Language testing and assessment approaches from the early 1970s to the early 1980s remain influential today, despite some evolution in testing methods The discrete point test is based on the premise that language can be segmented into its individual components, which include various language skills and units, allowing for effective assessment In contrast, integrative tests, such as cloze tests and dictation, evaluate language proficiency in a more holistic manner (Brown, 2004).
By the mid-1980s, language testing transitioned to a communicative language testing approach, emphasizing tasks that reflect authentic real-world activities Brown (2005) outlines five essential requirements for communicative tests: (1) meaningful communication, ensuring tests are relevant to students' personal needs and promote useful language; (2) authentic situations, allowing students to use the target language in real contexts to demonstrate their proficiency; (3) unpredictable language input, mirroring the natural unpredictability of spoken communication; (4) creative language output, recognizing that responses are influenced by the input received; and (5) integrated language skills, requiring learners to employ multiple language skills simultaneously, akin to real-life interactions.
Brown and Abbeywickrama (2010) categorize oral skills into five distinct types The first is the Imitative category, where students focus solely on repeating what others have said, emphasizing intonation and pronunciation without creating original sentences The second category, Intensive, involves larger linguistic segments, assessing how well students produce sentences with attention to intonation, stress, and juncture, while still not prioritizing meaning The third category, Responsive, introduces interaction between individuals, typically featuring pre-planned exchanges like "Hi, how are you?" The fourth category, Interactive, builds on the Responsive category but includes more complex interactions, which can be further divided into Transactional, aimed at exchanging information, and Interpersonal, focused on maintaining personal relationships.
Studies in the field of speaking assessment
3.1 Speaking assessment in the world
A study conducted by Kim, H in 2003 explored the types of speaking assessment tasks utilized by Korean Junior Secondary School English teachers, focusing on their administration and the teachers' perceptions of practical constraints in EFL classrooms Using qualitative methods, the research involved ten teachers who completed a questionnaire regarding their views on speaking assessment, along with four participants who engaged in interviews for deeper insights The findings revealed that the speaking assessment tasks favored by these teachers were designed to minimize psychological stress for students, were time-efficient, and prioritized ease of construction and administration, eliminating the need for teachers to adopt an interviewer role.
In a study by Lee (2010), the effectiveness of classroom speaking assessment in Korean middle schools was examined, focusing on alternative assessment tools and pedagogical values Data was gathered through questionnaires and interviews involving 51 English teachers and six in-depth interviews The findings indicated that performance-based tasks are commonly used in speaking assessments, and students receive some informative feedback through criterion descriptions and marking scores However, a significant reliance on traditional formal testing persists, leading to a generally pessimistic outlook among teachers regarding the positive impact of such assessments on teaching and learning outcomes.
Grada, T K A (2014) conducted a research entitled "An investigation into
The study "Libyan EFL Novice Secondary School Teachers’ Current Knowledge and Practice of Speaking Assessment: A Socio-Cultural Perspective" investigates the understanding and implementation of speaking assessment by novice EFL teachers in Libyan secondary schools Utilizing an interpretive paradigm and social constructionism, the research employs both quantitative and qualitative methods in two sequential phases Findings reveal that these teachers possess a complex understanding of speaking assessment, as evidenced by their varied interpretations and beliefs about its implementation in the classroom Three key issues emerged: first, teachers tend to prioritize linguistic content over communicative effectiveness in their assessment practices; second, there is a greater emphasis on summative assessment rather than formative assessment; and third, their focus is more on the content being assessed than on the assessment process itself Additionally, while contextual factors are acknowledged, the teachers’ understanding of assessment concepts significantly influences their practical application of speaking assessment.
In a study by Agasster (2015), the assessment of oral competence in English by teachers at Norwegian lower secondary schools was investigated to identify any gaps between teachers' assessment practices and students' understanding Utilizing mixed methods, including a survey of 130 students and interviews with 7 teachers and 21 students, the research provided a comprehensive analysis of the findings The results indicated that while students have opportunities to showcase spontaneous language through various classroom activities, such oral production is seldom graded separately Instead, most teachers rely on impression judgments based on their reflections of students' oral skills While some students recognize this assessment practice, others mistakenly believe that their grades are primarily influenced by their performance in structured assessment scenarios, such as prepared presentations Furthermore, the study revealed a variation among students regarding their awareness of assessment criteria, with some teachers more effectively communicating this information than others.
Many students lack adequate understanding of assessment criteria and the competencies their teachers use to determine oral grades Therefore, it is essential to communicate this vital information to students more clearly.
3.2 Speaking assessment practice in Vietnam
In Vietnam, research on speaking assessment has gained traction, particularly a study by Tran and Nguyen (2017) that examined EFL teachers' perceptions of in-class English speaking assessment The study focused on teachers' understanding of speaking assessment, the types of tasks involved, and their roles in implementing assessments Utilizing questionnaires and interviews, the research gathered responses from 42 EFL teachers across various high schools in Quang Tri, with five participating in follow-up interviews The findings indicated that teachers generally had appropriate perceptions regarding the assessed aspects, yet they displayed limited knowledge about using oral portfolios and expressed a need for further training on implementing self-assessment in English speaking evaluations.
In her 2014 research, Phan N.H.N identified significant constraints in English language teaching in Vietnam, primarily due to an exam-oriented curriculum that emphasizes receptive skills Through qualitative interviews, she found that two-thirds of participants reported their students lacked opportunities to practice English and interact with diverse speakers globally Consequently, students appeared overly focused on textbooks and displayed limited motivation to learn the language.
Lect3: Students study a lot but they don’t have time to practise for reproduction
Students at my university have limited opportunities to interact with foreigners, resulting in a lack of diverse cultural exchanges While there are some chances for engagement, the variety of nationalities available for interaction is not extensive Engaging with real people offers a different experience compared to merely listening to audio recordings in class.
Lect11: I think we have limited opportunities for students to use English
We try to create a lot of practical situations for students but they are not exactly the same in reality, so they tend to forget what they have learned
Students face challenges in developing their speaking skills due to a lack of immersive environments, as they only attend three lessons per week The presence of 35 to 40 students in each language class significantly reduces their chances to practice the target language effectively Additionally, participants noted that the high student-to-teacher ratio is linked to inadequate teaching facilities and resources, further hindering language acquisition.
Nguyen and Tran (2018) conducted a study examining EFL teachers' perceptions of in-class English speaking assessment, focusing on their understanding of speaking assessment, task types, and the implementation of assessments The findings revealed that teachers generally held positive views, with an overall mean score of 4.17, indicating a high level of understanding Additionally, the participants expressed favorable perceptions regarding various task types used in speaking assessments, achieving a mean score of 3.92.
3.3 Speaking in the new textbooks in Vietnam
The assessment of oral proficiency in Vietnam, based on the New textbook by Prof Hoang Van Van, presents significant challenges for English teachers in upper-secondary schools The English curriculum comprises three courses—English 10, English 11, and English 12—each designated for grades Ten, Eleven, and Twelve Each course is accompanied by its respective textbook: Tiếng Anh 10, Tiếng Anh 11, and Tiếng Anh 12, and is delivered over 105 periods of 45 minutes each, totaling approximately 315 periods or 236 hours for the entire curriculum.
The three books maintain a consistent structure centered around specific themes, featuring 10 units each, along with 4 revision lessons Each unit comprises 8 lessons, ensuring a comprehensive learning experience.
The introductory section includes a menu outlining the languages and skills covered in the unit, a conversation that presents the overall topic, relevant vocabulary, key grammar points, and various activities designed to assess students' understanding.
This section emphasizes the importance of enhancing language skills through targeted practice in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar Additionally, it includes a reading component featuring a text that encompasses nearly all the key lexical items from the unit, accompanied by tasks and exercises designed to improve comprehension and reinforce vocabulary usage.
Speaking: This lesson is usually built up on the same theme with the reading text but provides students with different tasks so that they can develop their speaking skills
Listening: Different listening strategies are taught in this lesson It also offers students opportunities to learn some more new words on the theme
Writing: This lesson aims to develop students‟ writing skills by following the product-oriented approach in grade ten and the process-oriented approach in the other two
This section emphasizes the reinforcement of previously acquired knowledge while introducing additional vocabulary It also offers insights into the cultural aspects of Vietnam and other nations, enriching students' understanding of global communication.
Project: this part provides students with opportunities to apply language and skills they learnt to perform a task in real-life situation