Rationale
Humour is a vital aspect of human life and society, serving not only as a source of entertainment but also as a powerful tool for social criticism It helps to challenge negative attitudes, outdated beliefs, and discrimination, promoting progressive ideals and the pursuit of equality among lower-class individuals Laughter, often linked to humour, carries profound social significance and has a lasting presence in human culture In addition to laughter, humour encompasses various forms such as wittiness, jokes, and criticism This study will explore these categories to provide a comprehensive understanding of humour's role in society.
Aristotle is recognized as one of the earliest thinkers to explore the nature of humor, asserting that it possesses an aesthetic quality However, this aesthetic aspect of humor emerges primarily when it targets specific objects with profound social significance Humor originates from hostility; without human hostility, laughter—and the need for it—would not exist Consequently, contemporary forms of humor and wit still reflect this underlying hostile origin.
Humour reflects societal values and is expressed through various mediums such as humorous stories (HS), plays, cartoons, and films Among these, short humorous stories play a vital role in entertainment, using concise language to evoke laughter and offer satire on human flaws and societal issues Unlike other art forms, HS rely solely on language to convey humor, making them accessible and engaging for readers.
Phát triển không đồng đều
Buổi tối, anh thợ làm bánh mì thường dẫn người yêu ra ghế đá công viên Có lần anh hỏi:
- Em yêu, tại sao cứ nửa buổi hẹn hò là em đổi chỗ bên này qua bên kia vậy?
- Tại vì nếu em cứ ngồi mãi một bên như vậy thì cơ thể em sẽ phát triển không đồng đều
In the evening the baker often takes his girl friend to the park bench
- My dear, why do you change your side after the half-date?
- Because if I remain one side, my body would develop unequally
Historically, extensive research has been conducted on the nature of humor, involving scholars, humorists, philosophers, and psychologists from Plato and Socrates to Darwin and Freud, culminating in over 100 theories that explore the social and behavioral aspects of humor and laughter The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy provides a standard analysis of these diverse perspectives, highlighting the significance of humor in human interaction and understanding.
Humor theories are primarily categorized into three distinct groups: incongruity, superiority, and relief theories Among these, incongruity theory stands out as the most prominent, with notable historical figures like Immanuel Kant and Soren Kierkegaard contributing to its development This theory may trace its roots back to Aristotle's early observations on humor.
Rhetoric surrounding humor often aligns with various theories, notably the superiority theory championed by Thomas Hobbes, who posited that humor stems from a "sudden glory" experienced when we perceive ourselves as superior to others This perspective is also echoed by philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, who highlighted the aggressive emotions that drive humor In contrast, relief theory, associated with Sigmund Freud and Herbert Spencer, suggests that humor serves as a mechanism for releasing energy built up from repression Currently, notable linguists, including Salvatore, continue to explore these themes in the study of humor.
Attardo and Victor Raskin developed the Script-Based Semantic Theory of Humour (SSTH) and the General Theory of Verbal Humour (GTVH), respectively, which explore the underlying mechanisms of humor According to Avro Krikman (2006:31, internet 7), the primary hypothesis suggests that humor is rooted in the interplay of cognitive scripts and semantic structures, highlighting the complexity of verbal humor.
The Single-Joke-Carrying Text (SSTH) theory proposes that a text can be classified as such if it meets two specific conditions Firstly, the text must be compatible, either fully or partially, with two distinct scripts Secondly, these two scripts must be opposite in a particular sense, as defined in section 4, and overlap either fully or partially with the text in question.
GTVH is a theory that explains the perceived differences in jokes through six hierarchically ordered Knowledge Resources, which include knowledge of Language, Narrative Strategies, Targets, Situations, Logical Mechanisms, and Script Oppositions.
The exploration of linguistic devices that contribute to wittiness through discourse analysis is a significant area of study within linguistics globally While this topic has been extensively researched by many scholars, it remains relatively underexplored in Vietnam, particularly in the context of humor Specifically, there is a lack of professional and contrastive studies comparing English humorous stories (EHS) and Vietnamese humorous stories (VHS).
In 1996, Vũ Ngọc Khánh introduced the book "The Journey to the Land of Laughter," which provides a comprehensive overview of Vietnamese humor literature (VHS) This work explores both folklores and scholarly texts, examining the intricate connections between humor and the dimensions of time and space throughout history.
In the 17th century, the Trạng Quỳnh collection emerged, humorously critiquing figures such as kings, officials, and religious leaders This era also saw the rise of notable scholar-authors like Nguyễn Bá Lân and Nguyễn Cư Trinh, alongside modern writers including Tú Mỡ, Tú Xương, Vũ Trọng Phụng, and Nguyễn Công Hoan Vũ Ngọc Khánh (1996) highlights that humor is deeply rooted in specific locales, such as Vĩnh Hoàng and Đông Anh villages Additionally, the use of language plays a crucial role in humor, incorporating elements like puns and slang, as illustrated by the phrase "Lên phố Mía gặp cô hàng mật, cầm tay kéo lại, hỏi thăm đường," which showcases the playful nature of Vietnamese linguistic expressions.
In her dissertation "Truyện Cười Dân Gian Việt Nam Dưới Góc Độ Dụng Học" (The Vietnamese Folklores: A Study of Pragmatics), Nguyễn Hoàng Yến (2011) explores the pragmatic mechanisms in Vietnamese folk tales, highlighting the role of implicatures in generating humor, particularly at the story closings She emphasizes that the implicatures present in the openings and body of the stories serve as essential components that lead to the moral lessons conveyed Similarly, Nguyễn Thị Hồng Nhung's master's thesis, "Implicature in English and Vietnamese Funny Stories," reveals that both English and Vietnamese utilize a comparable implicature mechanism, often achieved through flouting or violating conversational maxims, which is crucial for eliciting emotional responses from readers (Nguyễn Thị Hồng Nhung, 2010).
This study aims to explore humor through discourse analysis, focusing on the contrast between English and Vietnamese, an area previously unexamined by researchers in Vietnam It seeks to introduce a novel approach to understanding humor in literature, benefiting translators by enhancing their comprehension of linguistic devices and cultural nuances Additionally, the findings will assist teachers in effectively incorporating humor into their teaching practices, as a good sense of humor is essential for successful educators Ultimately, this research aspires to enrich the understanding of humor and its role in communication and culture.
The study explores how figures of speech serve as linguistic devices that contribute to humor, helping to explain why readers find entertainment in EHS and VHS.
- The role of context in the HS, then readers can understand the jokes by the context when reading them
THE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Discourse
Discourse is defined in linguistics as a set of meanings through which a group communicates about a specific topic, and it can be understood both narrowly and broadly A narrow definition may focus solely on spoken or written language, while a broader perspective encompasses the conventions that govern language use in extended texts According to Crystal, as cited by David Nunan, discourse refers to a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often forming a coherent unit like a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative Additionally, Cook, also referenced by Nunan, describes discourse as meaningful, unified, and purposive stretches of language.
Discourse is defined in various ways by different authors, leading to ongoing debates in the field Some view discourse as synonymous with text, while others emphasize its contextual language aspects David Nunan (1993: 5) supports the notion that discourse should be understood in terms of meaning, suggesting that coherent texts represent meaningful wholes.
Discourse analysis, a relatively new branch of linguistics, has gained significant attention in recent years As Nguyễn Hòa (2008:13) notes, it officially emerged as a field focused on the coherence and structure of texts, particularly during the era of "post-functional grammar." Additionally, Nguyễn Hòa references Harris in discussing the evolution and importance of discourse analysis within linguistic studies.
(1952) was the first to use the term of discourse analysis and this has been called until now (2008, p.13)
Discourse analysis, which examines language use, has gained significant attention in the latter half of this century It is closely connected to conversation analysis, pragmatics, and various aspects of text grammar and linguistics, focusing primarily on the concepts of cohesion and coherence within texts.
Nguyễn Hòa (2008) highlights the complexity of classifying discourse types due to the diverse communication situations in which language is used Different communication events lead to various discourse types, each with unique characteristics (David Nunan, 1993) Nguyễn Hòa also notes that Halliday was the first to enhance the concept of "register," which encompasses different discourse types, such as literature, science, press, and daily communication, along with their subregisters For instance, within the press register, one can find subregisters like news, reports, and advertising, while literature includes short stories, poetry, and plays (Nguyễn Hòa, 2008).
When exploring discourse analysis, it is essential to consider the concept of genre, which refers to a specific category of speech events recognized by the speech community as belonging to the same type This understanding of genre is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of communication within various contexts.
Different types of discourse can be categorized by their overall structure, as noted by David Nunan (1993) Genres include non-literature, literature, everyday/social discourse, and general genres Humorous discourse is unique in that it often falls under general discourse, containing hidden meanings that enrich its communicative value.
The relationship between genre and registers is significant, as various communicative events lead to distinct types of discourse, each characterized by unique features Texts differ markedly in their structure, grammar, and physical presentation, highlighting the diversity within written communication (David Nunan, 1993, p.51).
Context
There is no doubt that context plays the central role in discourse analysis because communication cannot happened in the vacuum (Nguyễn Hòa, 2008, p.281)
Context plays a crucial role in language, communication, and discourse, as highlighted by David Nunan (1993), who identifies two types of context: linguistic context, which encompasses the surrounding language of a discourse, and non-linguistic or experiential context, which includes the communicative event, its topic, purpose, setting, participants, and their relationships Nguyễn Hòa (2000) further emphasizes that context extends beyond language, incorporating elements such as the addressor and addressee, audience, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key, and purpose Thus, context serves as the situational backdrop that shapes and influences discourse.
In certain situations, context alone may be insufficient for interpretation, making it essential to consider co-text, which pertains specifically to linguistic elements Halliday, as cited by Nguyễn Hòa (2000:43), defines co-text as "the stretch of language that occurs before or after the utterance that needs to be interpreted."
The same evening I went ashore The first landing in any new country is very interesting (Brown & Yule, 1983: 47)
Based on landing in the previous discourse, it is easy to interpret the utterance: The person came ashore or travelled by ship, and did not arrive by plane.
Humour and Its Categories
Humour can be understood in both broad and narrow contexts Broadly, it encompasses all forms of literature and informal communication aimed at amusement In contrast, the narrow definition differentiates humour from wit, satire, and laughter Some humor studies suggest that laughter serves as a release of energy through the incongruity mechanism, while others argue that the essence of wittiness can still be appreciated even if it does not elicit laughter As noted by John Lippit (1995), humour often leads to laughter, but at times it may only evoke a sense of wittiness Wei Liu (2010) further defines humour as a form of communication—whether written or verbal—that includes teasing, jokes, wittiness, satire, cartoons, and puns, all designed to induce amusement, regardless of whether it results in laughter or smiling.
John Dewey's ideas, as referenced by John Lippit (1995:11), suggest that laughter is primarily a form of humor In contrast, other thinkers differentiate between the two, noting that laughter stems from a pleasurable psychological shift, while humor emerges from a delightful cognitive shift.
The terms humor, irony, sarcasm, and laughter are often closely related, as studies in semantics reveal a rich and complex field surrounding humor Salvatore Attardo and Victor Raskin (1994) categorize humor as the primary concept, with irony, sarcasm, and wittiness serving as subcategories, highlighting the intricate relationships within this semantic field.
Figure 1: The semantic field of humour
Defining humor and its categories is challenging due to its complex neuro-physiological manifestations, such as laughter (Salvator Attardo & Victor Raskin, 1994) Despite extensive philosophical discourse over 2,500 years, a consensus on the nature of humor remains elusive, and it continues to be an understudied area within philosophy The term "humor" is often used as an umbrella concept that encompasses various interpretations, as noted by Woody Allen (2008), with linguists, psychologists, and anthropologists recognizing it as a broad category that includes anything that provokes laughter or amusement Attardo and Raskin (1994) describe humor as having a "least restricted sense," indicating that humor and wittiness are interchangeable terms that refer to what is considered funny, regardless of whether laughter accompanies it.
Overview of Humourous Stories
In this study, the object is the EHS and VHS, in which EHS is the main target of investigation
For some authors, the HS tells the behaviors of the character (including the speech acts) to trigger laughter The behaviors can be aimed at the disadvantages or the misfortunes
The language used in storytelling is carefully crafted to convey the intentions and implications of the speakers, with all elements—structure, content, characters, and language—focused on eliciting humor and laughter A common trait among these stories is the element of surprise, often delivered in the final sentence, which plays a crucial role in generating laughter for the audience Nguyễn Hoàng Yến (2011: 110) emphasizes that the implicature derived from this concluding sentence is essential for creating humor within the narrative.
People can laugh at the blind, the stingy, the high class; the low-educated persons and the out-date thought The below HS is the type of satire:
Một người cha 50 tuổi có cậu con trai 30 tuổi lười biếng, không chịu làm ăn mà chỉ sống dựa vào cha Một ngày nọ, thầy tướng đã xem tướng cho cậu và đưa ra những lời khuyên về tương lai.
- Bố anh sống 80 tuổi, còn anh sống tới 62 tuổi
Cậu ta thấy thế liền òa lên khóc Thầy tướng lấy làm lạ hỏi:
- Tôi bảo bố con anh đều thọ cả, cớ sao lại khóc?
- Bố tôi chết trước hai năm Thế thì hai năm ấy ông bảo ai nuôi tôi mà tôi chẳng khóc?
A 50-year-old man had got a 30-year-old son but the son was too lazy, he did not work and lived on the father One day, a fortune teller told him:
- Your father will live 80 years, and you will live 62 years
He burst into cry The fortune teller felt strange and then asked him:
- I told you that both of you live long, so why do you cry?
- My father will die before I will two years So, within such the duration, who will nurse me?
The HS covers a diverse range of themes, including jokes about teachers, politicians, priests, doctors, and lawyers These topics provide readers with insights into the relationships and emotions between characters, as well as societal attitudes towards these professions For instance, a humorous take on a teacher can illustrate the dynamics of the educator-student relationship.
A new teacher, trying to make use of her psychology courses, started her class by saying, ‘ Everyone who thinks you’re stupid, stand up.’
After a few seconds, little Johnny stood up The teacher said, ‘ Do you think you’re stupid, Johnny?’
‘ No Ma’am,’ he said, ‘But I hate to see you standing up there all by yourself.’
The shape of the HS is so special that it has the turn-taking in the conversation of the character or just one sentence as follows:
Trên bức tường của một trường học, người ta nghi: ‘Cấm không được chửi bậy’
On a wall of the school, it is noted that: ‘Forbid not to swear’
The article humorously highlights the irony of a school permitting students to swear, as the use of double negatives in the notice adds to the comedic effect This clever phrasing not only captures attention but also elicits laughter from readers, showcasing the playful nature of language.
The conversation in the HS can be long or short, in some cases there is a mini-talk like the following jokes:
Mother: ‘What did you learn in the school today, Clarence?’
Clarence: ‘How to whisper without moving my lips.’
The HS, characterized by its brevity, typically consists of a single sentence or an average of around ten sentences (Nguyễn Thiện Khanh, 2012, internet 11) Despite their short length, these stories are complete narratives featuring an opening, development, and conclusion The openings and closings are crucial to the story's theme, with the final sentence often eliciting laughter from readers.
The Incongruity Theory in Humour
Humour has been extensively studied by scholars, philosophers, and psychologists from Plato and Aristotle to Darwin and Freud, leading to over 100 theories exploring its social and behavioral aspects This complex field encompasses psychology, physiology, cognition, culture, and language Recent research by Salvatore Attardo and Victor Raskin focuses specifically on the linguistic theory of verbal humour, emphasizing the importance of incongruity and the use of linguistic devices such as metaphor and metonymy.
Avro Krikmann (2006) refers to the theory of incongruity as the inconsistency or contradiction in humor, emphasizing its cognitive nature based on the objective characteristics of humorous texts or situations Schopenhauer and Kant (1970) further elaborate that a humorous situation arises when multiple real objects are interpreted through a single concept, revealing the striking differences among them while highlighting the one-sided applicability of that concept This incongruity occurs when a singular real object is subsumed under a concept, leading to a sudden realization that different objects can be understood through a singular interpretation.
Incongruity refers to elements that are inconsistent or unsuitable, often leading to disappointment According to Nguyễn Đức Dân (1977), laughter typically arises at the conclusion of a story, where incongruity plays a key role in delivering surprise and humor He outlines three stages of humor: the opening, development, and closing In the opening, the narrative appears to flow smoothly, leading readers to anticipate a specific outcome (result A) However, the conclusion presents an unexpected result (result C), which deviates significantly from their expectations The greater the disparity between the anticipated result and the actual outcome, the more engaging and humorous the story becomes.
According to Alison Ross (1998), humor arises from the conflict between expectations and reality in a joke This concept aligns with the idea that incongruity often stems from "frustrated expectation." The incongruity theory emphasizes the element of surprise, prompting readers to smile as they recognize the inappropriate within the appropriate In any community, certain attitudes are deemed suitable for specific situations, leading to the development of stereotypes (Hantoro, S, 2004).
Schopenhauer and Kant (1970) proposed a theory in their work "Critique of Judgment," suggesting that laughter stems from the abrupt shift of a strained expectation into nothingness For a joke to be effective, it must lead to an interpretation that highlights incongruity (Arjun Karande, 2006).
Figure of Speech as Linguistic Devices in Humourous Stories
These linguistic devices are mentioned by Alison Ross (1998: p.p1-63) and they contribute to make the laughter in the humour
Metaphor is a crucial component of semantics and a key aspect of figurative language It is extensively and intricately employed in literature and poetry, as well as in everyday speech The interpretation of metaphors is heavily influenced by cognitive models and cultural elements, leading to diverse understandings While interpretations may vary, a common thread among them is the presence of analogy.
Metaphors involve the transfer of meaning from one concept to another, influenced by specific properties According to Edward Finegan (2004), a metaphor extends a word's usage beyond its primary meaning Sebastian Lobner (1999) adds that a metaphor creates a new concept in the target domain that shares certain elements with the original concept from the source domain, although it may not encompass all aspects of that source concept.
In "Semantics & Description," Jonh I Saeed (2003) discusses key terminology related to metaphor, particularly the concepts of target and source domains He posits that metaphor exists outside of standard language, necessitating unique interpretative efforts from listeners or readers This perspective underscores the significance of metaphor in facilitating the understanding of one experience through the lens of another For instance, the metaphorical group "up-down" associates "up" with positive attributes such as happiness, awareness, health, and life, while "down" conveys negative connotations like sadness, unconsciousness, illness, and decline.
Various linguists adhere to traditional theories of semantics, such as the comparison theory and interaction theory, as highlighted by Stephen C Levinson (2000: 147) For instance, the metaphor "Iago is like an eel" exemplifies these theories Regardless of whether one aligns with traditional or modern perspectives on metaphor, the researcher maintains that the primary focus should be on how these theories evoke laughter in jokes.
Humorous stories often utilize metaphors to evoke laughter, drawing on linguistic and cognitive theories of humor established by Raskin in 1985 and Attardo in 1994 Metaphors play a crucial role in discourse and their relationship with humor, frequently arising from wordplay that presents ideas in a fresh and witty manner.
A rich beautiful young girl said to her dancing friend
My ideal future husband is a handsome man with a beautiful singing voice who can uplift me with my favorite songs during difficult times He should be a talented pianist, preferably famous, and have a deep knowledge of literature and history to share captivating stories Additionally, he must be fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish, enabling us to embark on extensive travels around the globe Importantly, he should also be someone who does not smoke or drink I seek advice on how to find such a remarkable partner.
- You have to buy a television set!
In the story, the phrase "a television set" symbolizes the girl's ideal husband, leading readers to anticipate that she desires a partner with specific qualities The humor arises from the unexpected twist that the girl ultimately refers to a television, which ironically fulfills her criteria for a perfect husband Contextual clues, such as the girl's status as a "rich beautiful young girl" and her reference to "my future husband," suggest that she is seeking a man with desirable traits However, the punchline reveals that her dancing partner's response—a television—highlights the incongruity, as it is an object that ironically meets her expectations while defying the common assumption that a husband must be human.
In Meaning And Reading, Sebastian Lobner (2002: 49) defined metonymy as a term
The term primarily designates a specific category of objects, but it can also be applied to refer to items associated with those objects For instance, as illustrated in Sebastian Lobner's work, this concept highlights the broader implications of categorization in language.
(a) The university lies in the eastern part of the town
(b) The university has closed down the faculty of agriculture
(c) The university starts again on 15 th April
The term "university" can refer to different aspects: the physical campus, the institutional body, and the courses offered This reflects a metonymic shift, where the word transitions from its standard meaning to a key element of the broader concept Importantly, metonymy operates within the same domain, utilizing a component of the original idea while maintaining connections to other related elements (Sebastian Lobner, 1999, p.50).
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1984) argue that we attribute human characteristics to non-human entities such as theories, diseases, and inflation This phenomenon occurs even when there are no actual humans involved For instance, when we say, "The ham sandwich is waiting for his check," we are not referring to a person named "the ham sandwich." Instead, this phrase uses one entity to represent another related concept, where "the ham sandwich" symbolizes the customers who purchase it.
Metonymic concepts allow us to understand one idea through its connection to another, as illustrated by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1984) For instance, when we think of Nixon, we associate him with various attributes such as being male, the President of the United States, and his involvement in the Vietnam War Therefore, the phrase "Nixon bombed Hanoi" signifies that Nixon was the decision-maker behind the action, rather than implying he personally carried out the bombing.
This section provides a theoretical framework for discourse, context, humor theory, and figures of speech It defines discourse and its types, emphasizing the relationship between genre and register, as different communicative events yield distinct discourse characteristics, influencing structure, grammar, and appearance (David Nunan, 1993, p.51) Context and co-text are crucial for interpreting jokes, with humor shaped by elements such as structure, topic, and character interaction Among the numerous humor theories, the researcher focuses on incongruity theory due to its linguistic aspects Figures of speech, including metaphor and metonymy, introduce hidden meanings and ambiguity that elicit laughter While ready-made linguistic devices are found in dictionaries and reflect societal norms, living linguistic devices are created by speakers and may pose challenges for readers' understanding.
THE STUDY
Methodology
This section aims to investigate the use of figures of speech as linguistic devices in selected stories The researcher has identified 50 samples from recently reprinted books that have garnered significant reader interest These books, part of the HS series compiled by various editors and publishing houses, include titles such as "120 English-Vietnamese HS" (episodes 1 and 2), "Best Funny Stories," "The World of English Humour," "Teacher – Jokes, Quotes, And Anecdotes," "Nụ Cười Nước Anh," "Tiếu Lâm Việt Nam Hiện Đại," "Cười…Hở Mười Cái Răng," and "Truyện cười dân gian Việt Nam."
This study analyzes 50 selected samples of verbal humor from English and Vietnamese literature, focusing on the intricate nature of humor as discussed in the previous chapter The research aims to explore relevant cases involving metaphor and metonymy as linguistic devices, while deliberately excluding any unrelated examples to maintain the integrity of the investigation.
The data classification will be presented through tables that showcase various types of jokes in both English and Vietnamese, along with accompanying texts for description and analysis.
An in-depth analysis will quantify the occurrences of each phenomenon across various fields, with the results presented in tables The counting process will be conducted manually, and the findings will be expressed in percentage form.
Alison Ross (1998) identified two primary approaches to humor study: the functional and the descriptive The functional approach focuses on the socio-psychological elements of joke-telling, while the descriptive approach highlights the semantic and structural characteristics of jokes Despite these differing perspectives, humor researchers agree that jokes, which often elicit laughter, are intentional acts rooted in humor, wittiness, and the essence of the joke itself.
Data Analysis
The study identified a total of 50 samples from the chosen high school books, comprising 37 metaphorical jokes and 13 metonymical jokes These jokes are further categorized into English and Vietnamese types, highlighting the linguistic diversity within the humor presented in the texts.
This study focuses on the use of metaphors as a linguistic device, highlighting their significance in humor A total of 37 metaphorical jokes were analyzed from humorous storybooks, with 18 (49%) in English and 19 (51%) in Vietnamese, indicating a minimal difference between the two languages Table 1 presents the frequency and percentage of metaphor jokes found overall and within each language, emphasizing the comparable nature of metaphor usage in English and Vietnamese humor.
Table 1: Metaphor jokes in EHS and VHS
Table 1 reveals that the percentages of EHS and VHS are quite similar, indicating that both English and Vietnamese speakers enjoy using metaphorical jokes in their humorous narratives This suggests a shared appreciation for metaphor as a linguistic device in storytelling across both cultures.
Mrs Robinson, a teacher in a large American school, engaged her diverse class by discussing cultural differences in funeral attire She highlighted that while many Asian countries associate white clothing with mourning, in America and Europe, white is worn to signify happiness This prompted her to ask a student, Mary, about the traditional color worn by brides in their country, fostering an interactive learning environment about cultural practices.
Mary said: ‘ White, Miss, because she’s happy.’
‘ That’s good, Mary’, Mrs Robinson said, ‘ You’re quite right She wear white because she’s happy’
But then one of the boys in the class put his hand up
‘ Yes, Dick’, Mrs Robinson said, ‘ Do you want to ask something’
‘Yes, please, Miss’, Dick said, ‘Why do men wear black in this country when they marry, Miss?’
In cognitive metaphor theory, colors like black and white serve as universal concepts that extend beyond their literal meanings to embody deeper figurative interpretations These colors are not only primary but also rich in metaphorical significance, shaping our understanding of abstract ideas As George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1984) assert, "The concepts that govern our everyday thought are not just matters of the intellect; our conceptual system plays a central role in defining our everyday realities."
In this narrative, the teacher illustrates the symbolism of colors, where black represents sadness, sorrow, and mourning, while white signifies new beginnings, happiness, and purity This cultural distinction leads Westerners to choose their clothing colors based on the context of the occasion However, the male students struggle to grasp these concepts, as evidenced by one student's seemingly mechanical question: "Why do men wear black in this country when they marry, Miss?" This inquiry, though simplistic, highlights the contradiction of wearing black at a joyful event like a wedding.
I’m Not Superstitious Personnel Manager: ‘ Have you had any business experience?’
Applicant: ‘ No, I’ve just finished school’
Personnel Manager: ‘What kind of job are you looking for?’
[1] The paragraphs are cut because the story is too long to put the full content in this study For seeing the full content of the story, see appendix
Applicant: ‘I’d like to be some sort of an executive Maybe a vice-president’
Personnel Manager: ‘But we already had twelve vice-presidents’
Applicant: ‘That’s all right I’m not superstitious It’s ok if I’m thirteenth’
The number thirteen is often viewed as unlucky, particularly among superstitious individuals in Western cultures Many believe that it symbolizes evil, reflecting a widespread cognitive concept that associates this number with misfortune.
In Western culture, predominantly influenced by Christianity, the number thirteen holds significant religious connotations, as seen in events like the Last Supper, where thirteen individuals were present Despite recognizing the abstract meaning of the number, the applicant in the story prioritizes securing the job over these beliefs.
In a scenario where a jackass is on one side of a wide river and a load of hay is on the opposite side, with no bridges available and swimming not an option, the question arises: how can the jackass reach the hay?
- Well, That’s just what the other jackass did
The cognitive metaphor of the jackass reveals distinct cultural interpretations between Western and Eastern societies While both cultures recognize the jackass as a symbol of stubbornness, encapsulated in the idiom "as stubborn as a donkey," Western cultures further associate the jackass with stupidity This dual characterization allows for a clever metaphor in which a character, John, is implied to be foolish when he fails to solve a math problem involving the jackass reaching hay The connection between John and the jackass highlights both stubbornness and perceived lack of intelligence, enhancing the story's wit.
A father had been lecturing his young hopeful upon the evils of staying out late at night and getting up late in the morning
- You will never amount to anything – he continued – Unless you turn ove a new leaf Remember that the early bird catches the worm
- How about the worm, father? – inquired the young man – wasn’t he rather foolish to get up so early?
- My son – replied the father solemnly - that worm hadn’t been to bed all night, he was his way home!
The metaphors of the worm and the bird carry distinct meanings in different cultures While their literal interpretations are straightforward—one representing an insect and the other a bird—their figurative meanings vary significantly between Vietnamese and Western contexts In Vietnam, the bird symbolizes the male sex organ, whereas the worm represents corrupt officials or harmful individuals within society This cultural nuance highlights the importance of understanding local idioms and metaphors.
The saying "One scabby sheep is enough to spoil the whole flock" highlights cultural differences in how hard work and laziness are perceived In Western culture, the bird symbolizes industrious individuals, while the worm represents those who are idle This contrast is humorously illustrated in a conversation between a father and son, where the father refers to the lazy worm that sleeps all day and avoids work This story emphasizes the significant variations in conceptualizations across cultures, showcasing that while some ideas may be universal, others are defined by entirely different frameworks.
Put your poetry into the fire Poet: Do you think I should put more fire into my poem?
Editor: No, quite the reserve
In the context of cognitive metaphor, fire symbolizes both burning and heat, representing universal knowledge that transcends its literal meaning According to Eastern philosophy, fire is one of the five essential elements that facilitate transformation, marking the end of the old and the beginning of the new within the Yin-Yang cycle Additionally, fire is associated with the rebirth of the phoenix, symbolizing innovation, passion, and enthusiasm Interestingly, the humor arises when the poet employs fire metaphorically, while the editor interprets it literally, suggesting that the poetic works lack value and should be discarded This disparity highlights the editor's cleverness and underscores the incongruity between the poet's intentions and the editor's perception, ultimately provoking laughter.
Chồng hơi bực nên sẵng giọng:
- Anh muốn hỏi cô ấy là ai, người thế nào… cứ nói không đầu không đuôi như thế, bố ai hiểu được, bộ định true chọc anh chắc?
Vợ mỉm cười thật tươi bảo:
- Rồi em đi xa khỏi cái gương, cô ấy lập tức biến mất
Chồng chuyển từ tức giận sang tức cười mà rằng:
- Ối giời ơi! Thì ra nãy giời anh cứ tưởng…Đúng là mèo!
The husband annoyed and explained severely:
- I just want to ask who she is and how she is…You keep talking about her without opening and closing, do you tease me?
The wife smile and said:
- And then I move away from the mirror, she disappreared immediately
The husband changed from the annoyance to the smiling and then said:
- Gee! I have thought that you talked about someone else for a short while…You, cat!
Cats are often seen as graceful mammals, capable of agile movements, and known for their comforting presence, much like the characterizations found in Lev Tolstoi's fable "Cat and Sheep." This portrayal positions cats as symbols of femininity, particularly representing fragile and delicate traits that seek admiration In the story, the husband draws a comparison between his wife and a cat, illustrating a metaphorical connection where he implies that his wife enjoys being praised rather than stating it outright This use of metaphor highlights the traditional theory of substitution in literature, allowing readers to interpret deeper meanings behind the husband's words.
Mr William, a skilled gardener, began working for Mrs Elphinstone, a wealthy but garden-ignorant elderly woman who frequently meddled in his work Frustrated by her interference, Mr Williams insulted her by calling her an elephant After being brought before a magistrate, who found him guilty, Mr Williams cheekily questioned whether he was now prohibited from using the term "elephant" to refer to her.
‘That is quite correct’, the magistrate answered
‘And am I allowed to call an elephant a lady?’, the gardener asked
‘Yes, certainly’ the magistrate answered
Mr Williams looked at Mrs Elphinstone and said ‘Goodbye, lady’
Discussion and Contrastive Findings
The study analyzed 50 samples from selected high school books, revealing that 37 were metaphorical jokes and 13 were metonymical jokes These jokes were further categorized into English and Vietnamese types.
The analysis reveals that English metaphors account for 49% and Vietnamese metaphors for 51%, indicating that metaphor is a prevalent feature across cultures Metaphors express similarities between the semantic vehicle (source) and the semantic tenor (target), playing a crucial role in conveying figurative meanings The interpreter navigates the initial incongruity before addressing the deeper connection between the vehicle and tenor, identifying relevant attributes that bridge the two This process highlights the resolvable incongruity between the compared domains, enhancing the understanding of both humorous potential and metaphorical meaning The interplay between concrete and abstract concepts, as well as non-human and human elements, facilitates the transfer of relevant attributes, enriching the metaphorical landscape.
Fundamental concepts must be simple and basic, as they are essential for our understanding of the world Researchers, including George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, argue that our ordinary conceptual system is inherently metaphorical In fact, metaphors shape our thoughts rather than just our language, playing a crucial role in how we conventionally perceive and interpret the world around us.
The use of metaphors as a rhetorical tool in humorous stories varies based on the context This study analyzes metaphor samples to determine their frequency as anticipated By examining examples from both EHS and VHS, we can gain insights into the representation of metaphors in these narratives.
The analysis reveals a cultural difference in the use of figures of speech between Vietnamese and English speakers, with EHS representing 38% and VHS 62% Vietnamese individuals tend to prefer metonymy, utilizing one entity to represent another, particularly when referring to institutions In contrast, metonymies are less commonly employed in English humor, highlighting the distinct communication styles of the two cultures.
Metonymical concept structures shape our thoughts, attitudes, and actions regarding our surroundings, much like metaphors do These structures are rooted in our experiences, which aid in interpreting metonymy Additionally, context plays a crucial role in this interpretation, a topic that will be explored further in the following section.
2.3.1.3 Context in the interpretation of jokes in the HS
The researcher discovered that context plays a crucial role in helping readers comprehend stories and interpret humor For instance, consider the following narrative:
Có một người chuyên lừa đảo và cướp của người khác, nhờ đó trở nên giàu có và xây dựng nhiều ngôi nhà Một ngày nọ, khi có bạn đến chơi, anh ta đã dẫn bạn đi tham quan một tòa nhà mới xây và tự hào khoe khoang về thành quả của mình.
- Gỗ làm nhà này tôi ngâm dưới nước hằng ba, bốn tháng, không đời nào mọt được
- Mọt ở trong bụng là thế nào?
Mọt trong bụng tượng trưng cho sự tham lam, giống như những kẻ lừa đảo luôn tìm cách chiếm đoạt của cải của người khác Khi thấy người khác sở hữu trâu béo hay ruộng tốt, họ sẽ không ngần ngại lừa gạt để chiếm đoạt Nếu trong lòng có mọt tham lam, thì cuộc sống của bạn cũng sẽ bị ảnh hưởng bởi sự tham lam đó.
A man who amassed wealth through deceit built an impressive estate filled with lavish homes One day, while hosting a guest, he proudly showcased his grand residence, highlighting his ill-gotten success.
- The wood for house were sunk into the water for three or four month, so it cannot be destroyed by the woodeaters
- How is the woodeater in the stomach?
The "woodeater" symbolizes greed and deception, often manifesting in individuals who covet the possessions of others, such as valuable livestock and fertile land This insatiable desire leads them to employ various tactics to manipulate and exploit those with wealth, ultimately aiming to steal their money and property Consequently, the presence of this metaphorical woodeater in one's stomach can also result in a similar destructive force within the household.
The narratives reveal the presence of both linguistic and non-linguistic contexts, with the term "woodeater" serving as a key linguistic element This term is intricately linked to the triangle of language, communication, and context By examining various contextual features, we can clarify the implicature present in the stories.
+ The addressor/addressee: the owner and the guest
+ The setting: newly- build house
+ The purpose: criticizing the greedy owner
According to David Nunan (1993), context encompasses the circumstances that give rise to discourse and in which it is situated Nguyễn Hòa (2000) further elaborates that context extends beyond language itself, highlighting essential features such as the addressor and addressee, audience, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key, and purpose Understanding these elements is crucial for effective communication.
In the narratives, the term "woodeater" lacks sufficient linguistic context for accurate interpretation, highlighting the importance of considering the surrounding context both before and after its usage This analysis reveals the need to examine the broader linguistic stretch that encompasses "woodeater" to fully understand its meaning within the stories.
Before encountering a woodeater, individuals with valuable buffalo and fertile rice fields often fall victim to various deceptive tactics employed by this animal, aimed at stealing their money and possessions.
+ Occurring after woodeater: there is the woodeater in house as a result