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Front-Matter_2018_Green-Chemistry
Green Chemistry: AN INCLUSIVE APPROACH
Copyright_2018_Green-Chemistry
Copyright
List-of-Contributors_2017_Green-Chemistry
List of Contributors
Preface_2018_Green-Chemistry
Preface
1.1
1.1. Green Chemistry: Historical Perspectives and Basic Concepts
1.1.1 Emergence of Green Chemistry
1.1.2 Sustainable Production of Commodities: Principles and Basic Concepts
1.1.2.1 Principles of Green Chemistry
1.1.2.2 Principles of Green Engineering
1.1.3 Green Chemistry and the Environment
1.1.4 Regulatory Agencies
1.1.4.1 International: The United Nations
1.1.4.2 International: International Organization for Standardization
1.1.4.3 United States
1.1.4.4 Canada
1.1.4.5 European Union
1.1.4.6 Russia
1.1.4.7 China
1.1.4.8 India
1.1.4.9 Japan
1.1.4.10 Australia
1.1.5 Closing Thoughts
Problems
Recommended Reading
2.1
2.1. Environmental Chemistry, Renewable Energy, and Global Policy
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Environmental Challenges
2.1.2.1 Challenges by Air
2.1.2.2 Challenges by Sea
2.1.2.3 Challenges by Land
2.1.3 Topics in Environmental Chemistry
2.1.3.1 Toxicology
2.1.3.2 Soil Chemistry
2.1.3.3 Atmospheric Chemistry
2.1.3.4 Water Pollution
2.1.3.5 Emerging Contaminants
2.1.3.6 Energy
2.1.3.6.1 Solar
2.1.3.6.2 Organic Fuels
2.1.3.6.3 Wind
2.1.3.6.4 Geothermal
2.1.3.6.5 Nuclear
2.1.3.7 Environmental Policy
2.1.4 Conclusions
2.2
2.3
2.3. Integrating the Principles of Toxicology Into a Chemistry Curriculum
2.3.1 An Introduction to the Principles of Toxicology
2.3.2 Current Status of Toxicology in Green Chemistry
2.3.3 Current Status of Toxicology in the Chemistry Curriculum
2.3.4 Toxicology as a Core Component of a Complete Chemist's Education
2.3.5 Toxicology, Hazard, and Risk Assessment
2.3.6 Examples of Connecting Chemistry and Toxicology Principles
2.3.6.1 Chemistry Concept: Nucleophilic Substitution
2.3.6.1.1 Toxicology Concept Bridge
2.3.6.2 Chemistry Concept: pH/pKa/Ionization
2.3.6.2.1 Toxicology Concept Bridge
2.3.6.3 Chemistry Concept: Electrophiles
2.3.6.3.1 Toxicology Concept Bridge
2.3.6.4 Chemistry Concept: The Process of Oxidation and Reduction (Redox)
2.3.6.4.1 Toxicology Concept Bridge
2.3.6.5 Chemistry Concept: Molecular Size and Charge Influence Reactivity
2.3.6.5.1 Toxicology Concept Bridge
2.3.6.6 Chemistry Concept: Solvents
2.3.6.6.1 Toxicity Concept Bridge
2.3.6.7 Chemistry Concept: Metals
2.3.6.7.1 Toxicology Concept Bridge
2.3.7 Toxicology and Molecular Design
2.3.8 Conclusions
Disclaimer
2.4
2.4. Effects of Environmental Factors on DNA: Damage and Mutations
2.4.1 DNA Mutations
2.4.1.1 Base Changes
2.4.1.2 Genetic Code
2.4.1.3 Diseases Associated With Base Changes
2.4.1.4 Mutations
2.4.1.5 Base Deletions
2.4.1.6 Base Insertions
2.4.1.7 Deamination
2.4.1.8 Tautomerization
2.4.1.9 Chemical Mutagens
2.4.1.10 Intercalating Agents
2.4.2 Mutagenic Agents That May Affect DNA Sequence or Epigenetics
2.4.2.1 Epigenetics
2.4.3 Transgenerational Inheritance
2.4.3.1 Water Contamination
2.4.3.2 Triclosan
2.4.3.3 Plasticizers
2.4.4 Bisphenol A (4,4′-Isopropylidenediphenol)
2.4.4.1 Phthalates
2.4.4.2 Volatiles
2.4.5 Repair of DNA Damage
2.4.5.1 Photoreactivation
2.4.5.2 Base Excision Repair
2.4.5.3 Nucleotide Excision Repair
2.4.5.4 Mismatch Repair
2.4.5.5 Transcription-Coupled Repair
2.4.5.6 Single- and Double-Strand DNA Break Repair, Recombination Repair
3.1
3.1. The Natural Atmosphere
3.1.1 Introduction to the Atmosphere
3.1.2 Layers of the Atmosphere
3.1.3 Energy in the Atmosphere
3.1.3.1 Solar Irradiation
3.1.3.2 Terrestrial Radiation
3.1.3.3 Photolysis
3.1.4 Gases in the Atmosphere
3.1.4.1 Measuring Atmospheric Composition
3.1.4.2 Fate of Chemical Species in the Atmosphere
3.1.4.3 Major Gases in the Atmosphere (N2, O2, Ar, Ox, H2O)
3.1.4.4 Oxidants (OH, O3, NO3)
3.1.4.5 Volatile Organic Compounds
3.1.4.6 Greenhouse Gases
3.1.5 Particulate Matter
3.1.6 Clouds
3.1.6.1 Warm Clouds
3.1.6.2 Ice Clouds
3.1.7 Research in Atmospheric Chemistry
3.2
3.2. Air Pollution and Air Quality
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Long-Range Transport
3.2.3 Ozone
3.2.3.1 Ozone Formation
3.2.3.2 Ozone Control
3.2.3.3 Regional Ozone
3.2.3.4 Climate Change
3.2.4 Fine Particulate Matter
3.2.4.1 Fine Particulate Matter Definitions
3.2.4.2 Organic Aerosol
3.2.4.2.1 Primary Organic Aerosol
3.2.4.2.2 Secondary Organic Aerosol
3.2.4.3 New Particle Formation
3.2.4.4 Light-Absorbing Carbon
3.2.4.4.1 Black Carbon
3.2.4.4.2 Brown Carbon
3.2.4.5 Exposure
3.2.4.6 Control Efficacy
3.2.5 Conclusion
References
3.3
3.3. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion and Recovery
3.3.1 Stratospheric Ozone
3.3.2 Ozone-Depleting Substances
3.3.3 Halogen Chemistry in the Stratosphere
3.3.4 Polar Ozone Loss
3.3.5 Midlatitude Ozone Loss
3.3.6 Future of Stratospheric Ozone
3.3.7 Success of the Montreal Protocol
3.4
3.4. The Greenhouse Effect, Aerosols, and Climate Change
3.4.1 Fundamentals
3.4.2 Sources and Sinks of Greenhouse Gases
3.4.3 Aerosols and Climate
3.4.4 Physics of Climate
3.4.4.1 Radiative Balance
3.4.4.2 Radiative Transfer
3.4.4.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change in Space and Time
3.4.4.4 Feedbacks and Climate Sensitivity
3.4.4.5 Consequences of Global Warming
3.4.4.6 Sea Level Rise
3.4.4.7 Ecological Consequences of Warming
3.4.4.8 Changes in Precipitation
3.4.5 Technology to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
3.5
3.5. Chemistry of Natural Waters
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Fundamental Chemistry of Water
3.5.3 Acid-Base Interactions
3.5.4 Solubility and Saturation
3.5.5 Complexation
3.5.6 Ionization
3.5.7 Redox Reactions
3.5.8 Persistence
3.5.9 Final Remarks
3.6
3.6. Water Contamination and Pollution
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.1.1 What is Water Pollution?
3.6.1.2 Types of Water
3.6.1.3 Sources of Water Pollution
3.6.2 Water Quality and Sustainability
3.6.3 Types of Contaminants
3.6.3.1 Anthropogenic Sources of Organic Chemical Pollutants
3.6.3.2 Marine Debris and Plastic in the Environment
3.6.3.3 Metals and Metalloids
3.6.3.4 Nutrients
3.6.3.5 Radionuclides
3.6.3.6 Bacterial Contamination and Other Water Pathogens
3.6.3.7 Algal Toxins
3.6.4 Case Study of Lead (Pb) in Drinking Water—Flint, MI
3.6.5 Case Study—The St. Clair River and Chemical Valley Sarnia
3.7
3.7. Contaminants of Emerging Concern, With an Emphasis on Nanomaterials and Pharmaceuticals
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 The Toxicology of Contaminants of Emerging Concerns
3.7.3 Two Contaminants of Emerging Concern Case Studies
3.7.3.1 Case Study #1: Nanomaterials
3.7.3.1.1 Complex Environmental Interactions
3.7.3.1.2 Toxicological Considerations
3.7.3.1.3 Current Status and Future Outlook
3.7.3.1.4 Green Chemistry's Approach to Nanomaterials
3.7.3.2 Case Study #2: Pharmaceuticals
3.7.3.2.1 Predictable Environmental Interactions
3.7.3.2.2 Toxicological Considerations
3.7.3.2.3 Endocrine Disrupting Compounds
3.7.3.2.4 Current Status and Future Outlook
3.7.3.2.5 Green Chemistry's Approach to Pharmaceuticals
3.7.4 Conclusions
3.8
3.9
3.9. The Composition of Soils and Sediments
3.9.1 Introduction
3.9.2 Origin of Soils and Sediments
3.9.3 Factors Affecting Composition of Soils and Sediments
3.9.3.1 Parent Material
3.9.3.2 Climate
3.9.3.3 Topography
3.9.3.4 Biota
3.9.3.5 Time
3.9.4 Properties of Soils
3.9.4.1 Physical Properties
3.9.4.1.1 Soil Texture
3.9.4.1.2 Soil Color
3.9.4.1.3 Soil Density
3.9.4.2 Chemical Properties
3.9.4.2.1 pH
3.9.4.2.2 Plant Nutrients
3.9.4.2.3 Soil Carbon
3.9.4.2.4 Soil Salinity and Sodicity
3.9.4.3 Biological Properties
3.9.4.3.1 Classification of Organisms According to Size
3.9.4.3.2 Classification According to Genetic Similarities
3.9.4.3.3 Classification According to Ecological Function
3.9.5 Properties of Sediments
3.9.5.1 Physical Properties
3.9.5.2 Chemical Properties
3.9.5.3 Biological Properties
3.9.6 Importance of Soils and Sediments
3.9.7 Conclusions
3.10
3.10. Heavy Metal Pollution and Remediation
3.10.1 Introduction
3.10.1.1 Arsenic
3.10.1.2 Lead
3.10.1.3 Mercury
3.10.1.4 Cadmium
3.10.1.5 Chromium
3.10.2 Remediation of Heavy Metals
3.10.2.1 Physical Methods
3.10.2.1.1 Soil Replacement
3.10.2.1.2 Soil Washing
3.10.2.1.3 Vitrification
3.10.2.2 Chemical Methods
3.10.2.2.1 Immobilization
3.10.2.2.2 Extraction
3.10.2.3 Biological Remediation
3.10.2.3.1 Phytoremediation
3.10.2.3.2 Limitations of Phytoremediation
3.10.3 Conclusions
3.11
3.11. Application of Green Chemistry in Homogeneous Catalysis
3.11.1 Introduction
3.11.2 Metal-Based Catalysis
3.11.2.1 Oxidation Reactions
3.11.2.2 Reduction of CC and CX Double Bonds
3.11.2.3 Cross-Coupling Reactions
3.11.2.4 Cycloisomerization Reactions
3.11.3 Organocatalysis
3.11.3.1 CC Bond Formation Reactions
3.11.3.1.1 Amine-Based Catalysts
3.11.3.1.2 N-Heterocyclic-Carbene-Based Catalysts
3.11.3.1.3 Chiral Phosphoric Acids Catalysts
3.11.3.1.4 Carbohydrate-Based Catalysts
3.11.3.2 Oxidation Reactions
3.11.4 Conclusion
3.12
3.12. Heterogeneous Catalysis: A Fundamental Pillar of Sustainable Synthesis
3.12.1 Introductory Remarks
3.12.2 Preparation of Catalysts and Their Use in Various Chemical Reactions
3.12.2.1 Metals, Supported Metals, Metal Nanoparticles, Supported Metal Nanoparticles
3.12.2.1.1 New Emerging Supports
3.12.2.2 Oxides, Mixed/Supported Oxides
3.12.2.3 Pristine (Nonfunctionalized) Micro- and Mesoporous Materials
3.12.2.4 Immobilized Hybrid Materials
3.12.2.4.1 Immobilization via Covalent Bonds
3.12.2.4.2 Immobilization via Electrostatic Interactions
3.12.2.4.3 Immobilization via Secondary Bonding Interactions
3.12.2.5 Functionalized Hybrid Materials
3.12.2.6 Miscellaneous Methods and Catalysts
3.12.2.6.1 Auxiliary Methods Making the Heterogeneous Catalytic Reactions Greener
3.12.2.6.2 Ionic Liquids as Catalysts
3.12.2.6.3 Molecular Organic Framework-Based Catalysts
3.12.3 Catalytic Conversion of the Biomass
3.12.4 Selected Recent Reviews Concerning the Advances in Performing Reaction Types in a Green Way and Transforming the Biomass
3.12.5 Conclusions and Outlook
3.13
3.13. Phase Transfer Catalysis: A Tool for Environmentally Benign Synthesis
3.13.1 Asymmetric Phase Transfer Catalysis
3.13.1.1 Catalysts
3.13.1.2 Asymmetric Alkylation
3.13.1.3 Conjugate Addition
3.13.1.4 Cyclization Reactions
3.13.1.4.1 Epoxidation
3.13.1.4.2 Aziridination and Michael Addition
3.13.1.4.3 Synthesis of Pyrazolidine Derivatives
3.13.1.4.4 Synthesis of Triazolines
3.13.1.4.5 Synthesis of Carbocycles
3.13.2 Polymer-Anchored and Multisite Phase Transfer Catalysts
3.13.3 Nanoparticle-Supported Phase Transfer Catalysts
3.13.4 Conclusions and Outlook
3.14
3.14. Biocatalysis: Nature's Chemical Toolbox
3.14.1 Introduction
3.14.1.1 Bioengineering of Biocatalysts
3.14.1.2 Hybrid Enzymatic/Synthetic Methods
3.14.2 Benefits and Drawbacks of Biocatalyst Development
3.14.3 Case Studies of Biocatalysts
3.14.4 Case Study 1: Terpenes
3.14.4.1 Introduction
3.14.4.2 Terpenoids
3.14.4.3 Terpenoid Synthases as Biocatalysts for Terpene and Terpenoid Production
3.14.4.4 Production of Bio-Isoprene
3.14.4.5 Chemical and Biocatalytic Synthesis of Menthol and Limonene
3.14.4.6 Bioengineering Yeast to Produce Artemisinic Acid for the Treatment of Malaria
3.14.4.7 Plant Cell Fermentation of the Potent Antitumor Agent Paclitaxel
3.14.4.8 Reprogramming Terpenoid Synthases
3.14.5 Case Study 2: Polyketide and Nonribosomal Peptide Natural Products
3.14.5.1 Introduction
3.14.5.2 Biosynthesis of Polyketide Synthase and Nonribosomal Peptide Synthetase Products
3.14.5.3 6-Deoxyerythronolide B Synthase
3.14.5.4 Yersiniabactin Synthetase
3.14.5.5 Manipulating Polyketide Synthase/Nonribosomal Peptide Synthetase Systems
3.14.6 Case Study 3: Ribozymes as Biocatalysts
3.14.6.1 Diels-Alderases: Ribozymes That Catalyze Diels-Alder Reactions
3.14.7 Benefits and Drawbacks of RNA Catalysts
3.14.8 Conclusions
3.15
3.15. Organic Solvents in Sustainable Synthesis and Engineering
3.15.1 The Role of Organic Solvents in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
3.15.2 Rationale for Solvent Selection
3.15.2.1 Solvents as Reaction Media
3.15.2.2 Solvents for Crystallization
3.15.2.3 Solvents for Adsorption
3.15.2.4 Solvents for Extraction and Partitioning
3.15.2.5 Solvents for Membrane Processes
3.15.2.6 Recent Trends
3.15.3 Carbon Footprint of Organic Solvents
3.15.4 Solvents for Sustainable Chemistry
3.15.5 Solvent Recovery and Recycling
3.15.5.1 Distillation Processes
3.15.5.2 Adsorption Processes
3.15.5.3 Membrane Processes
3.15.6 Adverse Impact of Organic Solvents
3.15.6.1 Exposure and Health Effects of Organic Solvents
3.15.6.2 Impact on the Environment
3.15.6.2.1 Organic Solvents in Water and Mitigating Technologies
3.15.6.2.2 Organic Solvents in Air and Mitigating Technologies
3.15.6.2.3 Organic Solvents in Soil and Mitigating Technologies
Acknowledgment
3.16
3.16. Ionic Liquids as Novel Media and Catalysts for Electrophilic/Onium Ion Chemistry and Metal-Mediated Reactions
3.16.1 Introduction
3.16.2 Electrophilic Alkylation and Acylation Reactions
3.16.2.1 Alkylation, Adamantylation, Alkenylation, and Benzylation
3.16.2.2 Acylation in Ionic Liquids
3.16.3 Generation of Tamed Propargylic and Allylic Cations in Ionic Liquids for Facile Propargylation and Allylation
3.16.4 Electrophilic Nitration in Ionic Liquids
3.16.5 Halofunctionalization of Arenes in Ionic Liquids
3.16.5.1 Fluorofunctionalization
3.16.5.2 Chloro-, Bromo-, and Iodofunctionalization
3.16.6 Synthesis of High-Value Small Molecules via Dediazoniative Functionalization in Ionic Liquids
3.16.7 Ionic Liquids as Solvent and Catalyst for the Synthesis of Heterocycles
3.16.8 Ritter Reaction
3.16.9 Schmidt Reaction
3.16.10 Metal-Mediated Cross-Coupling and Cyclization Reactions in Ionic Liquids
3.16.10.1 Heck Cross-Coupling
3.16.10.2 Sonogashira Cross-Coupling
3.16.10.3 Suzuki Cross-Coupling
3.16.10.4 Some Featured Coupling and Cyclization Reactions
3.16.10.5 Hydroformylation of Alkenes
3.16.10.6 Formylation of Amines and Alcohols
3.16.11 Diels-Alder Reaction in Ionic Liquids
3.16.12 Wittig Reaction in Ionic Liquids
3.16.13 Concluding Remarks
3.17
3.17. Solvent-Free Synthesis of Nanoparticles
3.17.1 Introduction
3.17.2 Mechanochemistry
3.17.2.1 Ball Milling and Rheomixing
3.17.2.2 Mortar and Pestle Milling
3.17.3 Solvent-Free Synthesis of Nanoparticles Through Thermal Treatment
3.17.3.1 Thermal Decomposition/Thermolysis of Metal Salt Precursor
3.17.3.1.1 Thermal Decomposition of Metal Salt Precursor Nanostructure
3.17.3.1.1.1 Other Synthetic Routes for Preparation of Functionalized Nanoparticles Using Thermal Treatment
3.17.3.1.2 Thermal Decomposition of the Metal Acetate Precursor Nanostructures With Capping Agents
3.17.3.2 Solvent-Free Synthesis by Heating via Microwave Energy
3.17.4 Conclusions
3.18
3.18. Application of Microwaves in Sustainable Organic Synthesis
3.18.1 Introduction
3.18.2 Multicomponent Reactions
3.18.3 Cyclization/Cycloaddition Reactions
3.18.4 Radical Cyclizations
3.18.5 Reactions by Solid Catalysts
3.18.6 Metathesis
3.18.7 Solid-Phase Synthesis on Polymer Supports
3.18.8 Combination of Ionic Liquids and Microwave Irradiation
3.18.9 Microwave Heating Effect
3.18.10 Conclusions and Future Outlook
3.19
3.19. Application of Sonochemical Activation in Green Synthesis
3.19.1 Organic Synthesis
3.19.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Nanostructures
3.19.3 Conclusion
3.20
3.20. Principles of Electrocatalysis
3.20.1 Fundamentals of Cyclic Voltammetry
3.20.2 Electrocatalysis
3.20.2.1 Overpotential
3.20.2.2 Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer
3.20.2.3 Rate Analysis of a Homogeneous Electrocatalyst
3.20.2.4 Foot-of-the-Wave Analysis
3.20.3 A Case Study in Homogeneous Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction
3.20.4 Highlights in Homogeneous Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction by First-Row Transition Metals
3.20.4.1 Cyclam and Pincer Complexes
3.20.4.2 Polypyridyl Complexes
3.20.4.3 Iron Porphyrin Catalysts
3.20.5 Conclusions
3.21
3.21. Principles of Photochemical Activation Toward Artificial Photosynthesis and Organic Transformations
3.21.1 Introduction
3.21.2 Solar Energy Distribution
3.21.3 The Jablonski Diagram
3.21.4 Principles of Photochemical Activation
3.21.5 Evaluating the Efficiency of a Photocatalytic System
3.21.6 Examples of Photocatalytic Systems
3.21.6.1 Principles of Artificial Photosynthesis: Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction and H2O Oxidation
3.21.6.2 Photocatalysis in Organic Synthesis
3.22
3.22. Biopolymers: Biodegradable Alternatives to Traditional Plastics
3.22.1 Introduction
3.22.2 Protein: A Ubiquitous Biopolymer
3.22.2.1 Collagen and Gelatin
3.22.2.2 Silk
3.22.3 Polysaccharides
3.22.3.1 Starch
3.22.3.2 Cellulose
3.22.3.3 Chitin/Chitosan
3.22.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate—A Natural and Diverse Polyester
3.22.5 Conclusion and Outlook
3.23
3.23. Modern Applications of Green Chemistry: Renewable Energy
3.23.1 The Static Concentration of Energy in Chemical Bonds and the Physical Double Layer: Modern Methods of Energy Storage
Outline placeholder
3.23.1.1 Introduction
3.23.1.2 Heat Engine
3.23.1.3 Energy and Electron Transfer or “Cold Combustion”
3.23.1.4 Electrochemical Energy Storage
3.23.1.4.1 Fundamentals
3.23.1.4.2 Ideal vs. Real Behavior: Energy Losses
3.23.1.5 Electrochemical Energy Devices
3.23.1.5.1 Batteries
3.23.1.5.2 Fuel Cells
3.23.1.5.3 Electrochemical Capacitors
3.23.2 The Movement of Electrons in Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors: Methods of Energy Delivery
3.23.2.1 Introduction
3.23.2.2 Batteries
3.23.2.2.1 Battery Types
3.23.2.2.1.1 Alkaline Battery
3.23.2.2.1.2 Lead Acid Battery
3.23.2.2.1.3 Ni Metal Hydride Battery
3.23.2.2.1.4 Lithium Ion Battery
3.23.2.2.2 Challenges
3.23.2.2.3 Current Research
3.23.2.3 Fuel Cells
3.23.2.3.1 Fuel Cell Types
3.23.2.3.1.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell
3.23.2.3.1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
3.23.2.3.1.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
3.23.2.3.1.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
3.23.2.3.1.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
3.23.2.3.1.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
3.23.2.3.2 Current Research
3.23.2.4 Supercapacitors
3.23.2.4.1 Electrolytes and Electrodes
3.23.2.4.2 Classifying Supercapacitors
3.23.2.4.3 Challenges
3.23.2.4.4 Current and Future Research
3.23.2.4.4.1 Electrode Materials
3.23.2.4.4.2 Hybrid Electrochemical Capacitors
3.23.3 Applications of Renewable Energy From Green Chemistry: Electric Vehicles, Smart Grids, Smart Roadways, and Smart Bui ...
3.23.3.1 Introduction
3.23.3.2 The History of Electric Vehicles
3.23.3.2.1 Electric Vehicle Power Train Configurations
3.23.3.2.2 Advancements in Electric Vehicle Batteries
3.23.3.3 Smart Grids
3.23.3.4 Smart Roadways
3.23.3.5 Smart Buildings (Green Buildings and Homes)
3.23.3.6 Home and Community Solar Harvesting and Energy Storage Systems
3.23.4 Innovations and Future Opportunities for Renewable Energy From Green Chemistry
3.23.4.1 Introduction
3.23.4.2 Future Electric Vehicle Batteries: The Hybridization of Battery and Supercapacitor Technology
3.23.4.3 Future Smart Grid and Smart Road Opportunities
3.23.4.4 Future Smart Building and Smart Home Opportunities
3.23.4.5 Final Words
3.24
3.24. From Ethanol to Biodiesel: A Survey of Green Fuels
3.24.1 Introduction
3.24.2 Bioethanol Production
3.24.3 Higher Alcohols
3.24.3.1 n-Butanol
3.24.3.2 Isobutanol
3.24.4 Biodiesel: Lipid-Derived Biofuel
3.24.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
3.25
3.25. Solar Energy Conversion
3.25.1 Solar Energy and Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
3.25.2 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Design, Mechanism, and Thermodynamic Considerations
3.25.3 Optimization of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Design
3.25.3.1 Mesoporous Metal Oxide Working Electrode
3.25.3.2 Counter Electrode
3.25.4 Dye Sensitizers and Anchoring Groups
3.25.4.1 Metal Coordination Complexes
3.25.4.2 Organic Dyes
3.25.4.3 Surface-Anchoring Groups
3.25.4.4 Redox Mediators and Supporting Electrolyte Formulations
3.25.4.4.1 Triiodide/Iodide
3.25.4.4.2 Tribromide/bromide
3.25.4.4.3 Organic Redox Mediators
3.25.4.4.4 Transition Metal Complex Mediators
3.25.5 Perovskites: Emerging Solar Cell Photosensitizers
3.25.5.1 Perovskite Solar Cells
3.26
3.26. Toward a Sustainable Carbon Cycle: The Methanol Economy
3.26.1 Introduction
3.26.2 Why Methanol?
3.26.3 Methanol Production From Fossil Fuels With Reduced or No CO2 Emission
3.26.3.1 Steam Reforming of Methane
3.26.3.2 Partial Oxidation of Methane
3.26.3.3 Dry Reforming of Methane
3.26.3.4 Bi-reforming of Methane (Natural Gas) for Methanol Production
3.26.3.5 Addition of CO2 to Syngas From Methane Steam Reforming
3.26.3.6 Production of H2 From CH4 Without CO2 Formation and the Carnol Process
3.26.3.7 Coal to Methanol Without CO2 Emissions
3.26.4 Sustainable Production of Methanol
3.26.4.1 Biomass- and Waste-Based Methanol and Dimethyl Ether: Bio-methanol and Bio-Dimethyl Ether
3.26.4.1.1 Limitations of Biomass
3.26.4.2 Methanol Through CO2 Recycling
3.26.4.2.1 Methanol From CO2 and H2
3.26.4.2.1.1 Heterogeneous Catalysts for the Production of Methanol From CO2 and H2
3.26.4.2.1.2 Reduction of CO2 to Methanol With Homogeneous Catalysts
3.26.4.2.1.3 Two-Step Route for CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol
3.26.4.2.2 CO2 Reduction to CO Followed by Hydrogenation
3.26.4.2.3 Electrochemical Routes From CO2 to Methanol
3.26.4.2.3.1 Direct Electrochemical CO2 Reduction to Methanol
3.26.4.2.3.2 Methods for High Rate Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
3.26.4.2.4 Photochemical Reduction of CO2 to Methanol
3.26.4.2.5 Practical Applications of CO2 to Methanol
3.26.4.3 Production of Dimethyl Ether From CO2
3.26.5 Where Should the CO2 Come From?
3.26.5.1 Capture of CO2 From Any Source
3.26.5.2 CO2 From Biomass and the Atmosphere
3.26.6 The Path Toward an Anthropogenic Carbon Cycle
3.27
3.27. Natural and Nature-Inspired Synthetic Small Molecule Antioxidants in the Context of Green Chemistry
3.27.1 Introduction
3.27.2 Identification, Isolation, and Structural Characterization
3.27.3 Limitations of Therapeutic Applications
3.27.4 Chemical Modifications and Formulations to Improve Druglike Properties and Therapeutic Potential
3.27.5 Conclusions
3.28
3.28. The Value-Adding Connections Between the Management of Ecoinnovation and the Principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engine ...
3.28.1 Introduction
3.28.1.1 Importance of Sustainability to Business and the Connections to the Principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering
3.28.1.1.1 Connections Between Sustainability, Value Creation Levers, and the Principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering
3.28.1.1.2 Connections Between Sustainability Literacy and the Principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering
3.28.1.2 What Are Principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering in the Context of Business Sustainability?
3.28.1.3 What Do the Principles Offer to Managers, Leaders, and Their Companies?
3.28.2 Discussion
3.28.2.1 What Is Ecoinnovation? What Is the Relevance of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering Principles to Ecoinnovation?
3.28.2.2 Who Are the Actors Involved in the Management of Ecoinnovation, and Who Can Implement or Use the Principles of Green Chemis ...
3.28.2.3 Management of Ecoinnovation and the Value-Adding Connections to the Principles of Green Chemistry and Green Engineering
3.28.2.3.1 Overview
3.28.2.3.2 Framework of the Innovation Management Process: Opportunities to Apply the Principles
3.28.3 Conclusions and Summary
Funding Sources
3.29
3.29. The International Chemicals Regime: Protecting Health and the Environment
3.29.1 The International Regime for Regulation of Chemicals and Hazardous Waste
3.29.1.1 Chemicals and Hazardous Waste Regulation
3.29.1.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants
3.29.1.3 Mercury
3.29.1.4 Institutional Framework
3.29.1.4.1 Secretariats
3.29.1.4.2 Conference of the Parties
3.29.1.4.3 Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management
3.29.1.5 Scientific Input to the Chemicals and Waste Conventions
3.29.2 Implementing the Basel and Stockholm Conventions
3.29.3 International Chemicals and Waste Regulation at the National Level: Country Case Studies
3.29.3.1 Canada: Using the Input of the Scientific Community and Other Stakeholders
3.29.3.2 European Union: Regional Approaches to Chemicals Management and Safety
3.29.3.3 Colombia: Calling for Additional Knowledge and Technical Capacity
3.29.3.4 United States: Nonparties and Their Domestic Regulation on Chemicals and Waste
3.29.3.5 Brazil: Legislation and Interagency Partnerships for Implementation
3.29.4 Sustainable Development Goals: Future for Chemicals and Waste Regulation?
3.295
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
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