INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical background
2.1.1.1 Vocabulary and its importance in language learning
There are several definitions of vocabulary in the literature review, all of which appears to share the thought of what vocabulary is
Vocabulary is defined as a collection of lexemes, which includes single words, compound words, and idioms (Richard, Platt & Platt, 1992) This aligns with Hatch & Brown's (1995) description of vocabulary as a list of words specific to a language or used by individual speakers Additionally, McCarthy (1990) emphasizes the importance of treating multi-word units, such as idioms and phrasal verbs, as single lexical items due to their fixed meanings Hornby (2006) also contributes to this understanding in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, further highlighting the complexity of vocabulary in language.
A person's vocabulary encompasses all the words they know or use, while a language's vocabulary includes every word within that language Additionally, vocabulary refers to the words utilized in everyday conversation It can also denote a curated list of words along with their meanings, often found in educational resources for learning a foreign language.
It is evident from these definitions that vocabulary involves not only
Vocabulary encompasses both individual words and established expressions, as highlighted by Lewis (1993, cited in Nguyen, 2007: 7) He defines vocabulary as "individual words, or full sentences – institutionalized utterances – that convey fixed social or pragmatic meaning within a given community." This definition underscores the importance of understanding vocabulary in its social context.
Vocabulary refers to the collection of words derived from both written and spoken forms, essential for effective communication in language learning.
Importance of vocabulary in language learning
Many researchers (e.g., Nation, 2001; Richards & Renandya, 2002; Schmitt,
Vocabulary is a crucial element of language learning, as it supports the development of the four language skills (2010) Research by Balci and Çakir (2011) underscores its importance at all stages of language acquisition, highlighting that effective communication is impossible without an adequate vocabulary Scholars such as Willis (1990), Lewis (1993), and Folse (2004) assert that while syntax and grammar may be secondary, vocabulary is essential for meaningful communication Thornbury (2002) cites Wilkins, stating that “without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed,” reinforcing the idea that vocabulary is the foundation of language Lewis (1993) further emphasizes that "lexis is the core or heart of language." Consequently, a lack of vocabulary hinders learners from expressing their thoughts and understanding written and spoken texts, making vocabulary acquisition vital for achieving satisfactory language proficiency (Boers & Lindstromberg, 2008) Teaching vocabulary is therefore essential for helping students effectively communicate in English.
According to Nation (2001), effective word retention involves three key processes: noticing, retrieval, and creative use Noticing refers to the learner's active attention to a word, which can occur through deliberate study, contextual explanations, or its significance within contextualized input.
Noticing is a metacognitive process that involves decontextualization, where learners extract rules and strategies relevant to a situation, guided by a debriefer This process allows learners to articulate general principles without being tied to specific contexts Nation (2001) emphasizes that learners must view language items as components of a language system rather than mere messages He categorizes decontextualization into negotiation and definition, noting that while negotiated vocabulary is often more effectively learned, it is not the primary method for vocabulary acquisition Additionally, research indicates that concise definitions are more beneficial for vocabulary learning than elaborate ones Nation also highlights that learners often grasp meanings more quickly when explanations include first language translations Teachers play a crucial role in facilitating the noticing process by selecting the context in which vocabulary is presented.
9 teaching or consciousness-raising of the items before the activity and by using different attention-drawing techniques
Retrieval is the second crucial process in vocabulary acquisition, enhancing the learner's understanding of words Frequent retrieval significantly increases the likelihood of embedding vocabulary into long-term memory Effective repetition relies on the learner's previous exposure to the word, highlighting the importance of minimizing the time gap between encounters to reinforce retention.
According to Nation (2001), effective incidental receptive vocabulary learning requires learners to engage in regular listening and reading activities Specifically, ordinary learners should listen to stories at least three times a week for about twenty minutes each session and read one graded reader every two weeks.
The final and crucial stage of vocabulary acquisition is known as generation or generative use, which involves encountering previously learned words in new contexts This process encourages learners to reconceptualize their understanding of these words Generation can be categorized into receptive and productive forms Receptive generation occurs when words are encountered through listening or reading, regardless of whether they are familiar or completely new.
On the other hand, productive generation involves using the word in a new context while writing or speaking
Vocabulary acquisition progresses through three stages that align with Stahl's three-point scale for depth of processing, which includes association, comprehension, and generation.
The acquisition of second language vocabulary is heavily influenced by what learners focus on during their studies Researchers, including Ur (1996), emphasize that mastering vocabulary involves understanding various components such as pronunciation, spelling, grammar, collocation, word meaning, and word formation Ur highlights the importance of clearly explaining grammatical nuances, particularly for words with irregular forms He also identifies two levels of meaning: the first includes denotation, connotation, and context appropriateness, while the second encompasses relationships between words, such as synonyms and antonyms Thus, a comprehensive understanding of a word extends beyond its basic meaning and form, aligning with Harmer's perspective (1991).
158) presents a more detailed and systematic summary of “learning a word” in the following chart:
Parts of speech Prefixes and suffixes Spelling and pronunciation
Verb complementation, phrasal verbs, Adjectives and adverbs: position,
Some researchers, such as Chapelle (1994), adopt a broader perspective on vocabulary learning, proposing a three-component model of vocabulary ability This model includes the context of vocabulary use, which can significantly influence lexical meaning, vocabulary knowledge and fundamental processes, which encompasses vocabulary size, understanding word characteristics, the organization of the mental lexicon, and the processes used to access lexical knowledge The third component involves metacognitive strategies for vocabulary use, which may include avoidance, paraphrasing, guessing meanings, consulting a teacher, or using a dictionary.
2.1.2.2 Explicit approach vs Incidental learning approach (Teaching vocabulary)
The distinction between explicit and implicit learning has garnered significant attention in applied linguistics and second language acquisition (SLA) According to Ellis (1994), implicit learning occurs incidentally and simultaneously, while explicit learning involves a conscious effort to understand structures and forms In vocabulary acquisition, incidental learning refers to vocabulary gained as a by-product of activities not specifically aimed at learning words, whereas intentional vocabulary learning focuses on deliberate efforts to memorize lexical information.
As regards explicit learning, the central idea is that the application of vocabulary learning strategies can greatly facilitate vocabulary acquisition,
Learners play a crucial role in actively processing information (Ellis, 1995) Consequently, many books have been dedicated to various activities and exercises aimed at explicit vocabulary study A survey by Sokmen (1997, as cited in Schmitt, 2000: 146) outlines essential principles for effective explicit vocabulary teaching.
- integrate new words with old
- provide a number of encounters with a word
- promote a deep level of processing
- make new words “real” by connecting them to the students’ world in some way
Review of previous studies
In a study conducted by Sanaoui (1995) involving English and French second language students in Canada, it was found that the proficiency level and type of instruction did not significantly impact performance on an individualized vocabulary assessment However, the structured use of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) played a crucial role in enhancing lexical learning The research utilized a comprehensive questionnaire to identify the vocabulary acquisition strategies employed by participants, revealing two distinct approaches: structured and unstructured These approaches differed in five key areas: learners' opportunities for vocabulary learning (independent study versus reliance on language courses), the extent of self-initiated vocabulary learning (extensive versus restricted), the systematic recording of vocabulary (extensive/systematic versus minimal/ad hoc), and the overall effectiveness of the strategies employed.
In a study by Sanaoui (1995), as cited in Ruutmets (2005), the focus was on the review of vocabulary usage, specifically contrasting extensive engagement with certain words against minimal or no engagement Additionally, the research examined whether learners actively practiced these lexical items by creating opportunities both inside and outside the classroom, rather than solely depending on classroom activities.
In a study involving 14 ESL students preparing for academic study in Canada, Lessard-Clouston (1996) utilized a questionnaire and an individualized vocabulary test, following Sanaoui’s model Although he replicated key elements of Sanaoui’s (1995) research, his findings indicated that a participant's vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) did not predict their language proficiency or performance on the vocabulary test Consequently, Lessard-Clouston (1996) concluded that membership in a group based on VLS was not a reliable indicator of language success.
“findings raise questions about the usefulness of categorizing students in groups according to structured, semi-structured, or unstructured approaches to lexical learning” (p 114).(cited in, Lessard-Clouston, 2008)
A study by Gu and Johnson (1996) involving 850 non-English major Chinese students identified self-initiation and selective attention as effective vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) positively influencing English proficiency, as indicated by college test scores The research highlighted that strategies such as contextual guessing, proficient dictionary use, attention to word formation, contextual encoding, and application of newly learned words correlated positively with test performance Furthermore, cluster analysis revealed five distinct vocabulary learning approaches: encoders, readers, active strategy users, non-encoders, and passive strategy users, suggesting that combinations of strategies, rather than isolated VLS, significantly enhance vocabulary acquisition (Xhaferi, 2008).
In 1997, Schmitt developed a vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) taxonomy based on Oxford's earlier work, categorizing them into discovery strategies for learning new words and consolidation strategies for retaining and utilizing those words Through a survey of 600 Japanese EFL learners, Schmitt identified six commonly used and helpful strategies: using a bilingual dictionary, written repetition, verbal repetition, pronouncing new words aloud, studying spelling, and taking class notes His analysis revealed that the use of certain VLS varied among different groups, including middle school, high school, university, and adult learners, indicating that strategy preferences may evolve over time (Xhaferi, 2008).
Kojic-Sabo and Lightbown (1999) conducted a study utilizing a questionnaire based on Sanaoui’s research, alongside a Yes/No academic vocabulary test and a cloze test, to examine the vocabulary learning strategies of 47 EFL and 43 ESL students in Yugoslavia and Canada Their findings reinforced Sanaoui’s conclusions, indicating that the frequent and elaborate use of vocabulary learning strategies correlates with successful language acquisition, while insufficient effort from learners is associated with lower achievement.
Research indicates that time and learner independence are crucial factors linked to successful vocabulary acquisition and overall proficiency in English (Ruutmets, 2005, p 176).
Fan (2003) conducted a large scale research, studying Chinese EFL learners in Hong Kong, evaluating the vocabulary tests and strategy questionnaires completed by more than 1,000 university students Fan
In her study, Fan (2003) found that highly proficient participants employed a variety of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS), such as utilizing multiple sources, dictionaries, guessing, and familiar word techniques, more frequently than their less proficient counterparts She supported Sanaoui's (1995) emphasis on the critical role of review and consolidation in vocabulary acquisition Additionally, Fan observed that strategy use is complex, with significant discrepancies between the frequency of VLS usage and participants' perceived effectiveness Ultimately, she stressed the importance of assisting EFL students in recognizing the value of VLS and fostering the development of their own effective strategies.
In contrast to large-scale studies that focus on reported strategy use, Gu (2003) conducted in-depth case studies on the vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) of two successful non-English major Chinese EFL students Utilizing reading tasks, think-aloud protocols, and interviews, Gu documented the participants' strategic approaches to vocabulary acquisition The study revealed that, based on their preferred auditory and visual learning styles, the students were highly motivated and employed a variety of cognitive and metacognitive strategies Gu concluded that this combination of strategies formed a 'vocabulary-learning art,' showcasing each participant's adeptness in analyzing, selecting, and executing strategies tailored to their individual learning preferences Additionally, Gu's research highlighted the importance of interviews and case studies in VLS research (Lessard-Clouston, 2008).
There are some other notable researches Peacock and Ho (2003) surveyed 1,006 Hong Kong EAP students in eight different disciplines and
A study by Peacock and Ho (2003) found that students across various fields employ distinct language learning strategies, with some strategies showing a stronger correlation to English proficiency The research highlighted that cognitive and metacognitive strategies were the most commonly utilized by students Additionally, follow-up interviews with 48 participants indicated that students from non-humanities disciplines tended to use fewer strategies and perceived the importance of studying English as lower compared to their field of study.
Parks and Reymond (2004) conducted a study with 28 Chinese non-native English-speaking (NNES) MBA students in Canada, revealing that their language learning strategies varied significantly and evolved over time, particularly as they interacted with native English-speaking (NES) peers in regular classes The researchers concluded that language learning strategy use is a complex and socially situated phenomenon, intricately linked to personal identity, challenging the simplistic views often associated with effective language learners.
In a recent study by Atay and Ozbulgan (2007), the vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) of 50 military English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners in Turkey were examined over a three-week period Participants attended two separate classes, each lasting six hours a day To compare the effectiveness of the two "Air Traffic Terminology" classes, the researchers utilized a multiple-choice vocabulary test and a strategies questionnaire The study included a control group, which received no special training, and an experimental group that was introduced to VLS and dedicated one hour each day to focused strategy instruction.
“memory strategy instruction” (p 44) On the vocabulary knowledge post- test, learners in the experimental group gained significant higher test scores than the control group (p 45) The results of the strategies questionnaire
26 among learners in the experimental group also indicated a major “increase in the percentage of use and variety of strategies in the post-test” (p 46) (Cited in Atay & Ozbulgan, 2007)
In Vietnam, learner autonomy in English vocabulary acquisition is often overlooked, with many EFL students still adhering to a passive, teacher-centered approach to learning (Duong, 2015; Tran & Nguyen, 2017) This reliance on memorization of extensive vocabulary lists provided by teachers has resulted in a lack of proficiency in vocabulary among learners (Nguyen, 2013) Consequently, students are frequently spoon-fed vocabulary instead of engaging in independent learning (Duong, 2015; Tran & Nguyen, 2017).
Researchers have explored language learning strategies, particularly in vocabulary acquisition, with notable studies conducted by Luu (2011), Le (2013), Duong & Seepho (2014), and Nguyen (2014) Luu's study at the University of Finance-Marketing focused on first-year students' attitudes towards vocabulary learning autonomy and the strategies they employed The research involved 140 students from four pre-intermediate English classes and 13 teachers Findings revealed that despite recognizing the importance of vocabulary learning autonomy, students reported poor vocabulary skills and exhibited low intrinsic motivation and confidence in their vocabulary learning abilities Many students perceived vocabulary learning as challenging and self-assessed their skills as inadequate.
27 students reported high familiarity to using bilingual dictionary, asking for L2- L1 translation, spoken repetition and word list for vocabulary retention Le
In a 2013 study conducted at a private university in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, researchers explored students' beliefs about and performance in learner autonomy (LA) while integrating learner training with Listening and Speaking 3 language courses The findings revealed that students primarily perceive LA as the ability to take initiative in self-study, although they face challenges such as time constraints, a strict syllabus, and the dynamics of teacher-student relationships.
METHODOLOGY
Context of the study
In Hanoi, English is a mandatory subject in secondary schools, structured across four levels: 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th grade Each level features 12 units covering diverse topics, with each unit divided into seven 45-minute lessons The curriculum begins with "Getting Started," where students engage in conversations that introduce vocabulary and grammar "A Closer Look 1" focuses on topic-specific vocabulary and phonetics, while "A Closer Look 2" delves into grammar The "Communication" lesson emphasizes practical tasks like surveys and discussions "Skills 1" hones listening and writing abilities, whereas "Skills 2" targets reading and speaking Finally, the "Looking Back and Project" lesson allows students to review their knowledge and present related projects.
By the end of 2019, the English performance of my three ninth grade classes had significantly declined, with students displaying a lack of interest in homework and vocabulary review, leading to low first-term results To address these challenges, I conducted research to identify effective vocabulary learning strategies that could assist students in overcoming their difficulties, particularly given the constraints of limited in-class time.
To enhance vocabulary acquisition during self-study, it is essential to foster students' awareness of learner autonomy Additionally, teaching effective vocabulary learning strategies can significantly aid in this process To achieve these goals, I implemented a vocabulary learning strategy training program as part of an action research initiative with my students.
The aim of research is to solve the problem; therefore, the methodological approach was action research using mixed methods for data collection
Kemmis and McTaggart (2000) recognize that the stages in the Action Research Spiral model can overlap, and that the initial research plan may quickly become outdated due to various factors.
They describe it as participatory research The authors state that action research involves a spiral of self-reflective cycles
The Kemmis and McTaggart’s Action Research Spiral is presented in Figure 1
Figure 1: Action Research Spiral (Kemmis and McTaggart, 2000:595)
Elliot's model, influenced by Lewin's 1940s research, aligns closely with the frameworks of Kemmis and McTaggart It encompasses a systematic process that begins with identifying a general idea, followed by reconnaissance or fact-finding, planning, action, evaluation, amending the plan, and implementing a second action step, as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Elliot’s action research model (1991: 71)
O’Leary’s (2004) model of action research illustrates it as a cyclical process where knowledge is continuously developed and refined This approach emphasizes the dynamic nature of action research, highlighting how insights emerge through iterative cycles of reflection and action.
Cycles in action research enhance situational understanding and improve implementation by integrating evaluative practices that oscillate between action and critical reflection O’Leary characterizes action research as an experiential learning method aimed at fostering change, where the objective is to continuously refine techniques, data, and interpretations based on insights gained from each preceding cycle.
Figure 3: O’Leary’s cycles of research (2004: 141)
The action research consisted of four main stages (Planning, Acting, Observing and Evaluation) which are detailed
As a first step, I did pre-treatment question survey to find out students' problems in learning vocabulary and strategies they used
Secondly, strategy training was integrated into the vocabulary section of the English lesson in class so that students can learn both vocabulary and strategies at the same time
The next step, students were required to complete post-treatment survey to assess the effective is the strategy training programme
And the last step, I synthesized and analyzed the results obtained
The action research involved 54 ninth-grade students from a secondary school in Hanoi, including myself as the research teacher Most participants have been studying English for over seven years, with 20 students having around ten years of experience According to the European 6-level framework, their English proficiency is at the A1 level The students utilize textbooks provided by the Ministry and attend three lessons per week, with each unit comprising seven lessons, each lasting 45 minutes.
With five years of experience at the school, I have been teaching students since they were in 6th grade In this action research project, I serve as both a teacher and a researcher, responsible for designing and implementing a vocabulary learning strategy training program, as well as collecting and analyzing the data.
Research design
3.2.1 Implementation of the action research
The study was conducted to answer the following research questions:
1 What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
2 How well and how much do the students use the taught strategies in their guided vocabulary practice?
3 To what extent do the students maintain the taught strategies in their autonomous vocabulary learning?
4 How effective is the strategy programme in helping the students learn vocabulary, as perceived by the students?
In order to answer these research questions, a vocabulary learning strategy training program was carried out as an action research for the following reasons:
The primary aim of this study is to enhance students' vocabulary acquisition during self-study sessions To achieve this, action research, which focuses on addressing specific problems, is employed According to Burns, action research involves applying fact-finding to solve practical issues in social contexts, ultimately improving the quality of actions through collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and community members.
Second, this study is not intended to generalize but provide a profound picture of the teaching practice of teachers - researchers with a class of 54 students
Action research is an ideal choice for this study as it emphasizes individual or small-group professional practice rather than making broad generalizations (Wallace, 1998: 18) Its context-specific focus on identifying and solving problems aligns perfectly with the aims of this research Additionally, action research allows the teacher-researcher to conduct the study concurrently with their teaching responsibilities, ensuring that the research process does not disrupt the educational environment.
The action research was conducted during the second semester term of the school year 2018 – 2019 It was divided into 3 phases as follows:
The aims of this phase were to answer research question 1: “ What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
In Week 1, students were thoroughly introduced to the vocabulary strategy training program, ensuring they understood their responsibilities for the second semester The research employs a direct instruction approach, which is favored for its clear advantages over implicit training methods It was emphasized that participation in this project was entirely voluntary and would not impact their final assessment Subsequently, research questions were distributed to the students.
During Weeks 2 to 4, students receive one vocabulary learning strategy each week, integrated into the vocabulary section of their English lessons This approach allows students to learn vocabulary and strategies simultaneously, ensuring that the strategies align with the lesson's vocabulary and do not disrupt the Ministry's general curriculum Based on Schmitt's (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, nine strategies have been selected and grouped into three sets according to their interrelatedness.
Strategy Set Strategy Group Strategy
MEM Study the spelling of a word
MEM Study the pronunciation a word
MEM Remember part of speech
COG Take notes in class
MEM Group words together to study them
3 Studying affixes DET Analyze affixes and roots
MEM Remember affixes and roots
The lesson plans for these three strategy-training lessons can be seen in
Appendix 2 The activities of the lessons were designed to present the strategy sets and offer some controlled practice of the strategies
This phase is intended to answer research question 2: “ How well and how much do the students use the taught strategies in their guided vocabulary practice?”
Over the course of three weeks, students engaged in guided practice of previously taught strategy sets from Phase One Each week, they received a word-learning record to complete during their self-study time.
This phase aimed at answering the last two research questions:
3 To what extent do the students maintain the taught strategies in their independent vocabulary learning?
4 How effective is the strategy training programme in helping the students learn vocabulary, as perceived by the students?
In phase three, students are tasked with maintaining a free-style vocabulary learning diary This initiative aims to explore how students can practice and enhance their vocabulary acquisition independently.
36 finished vocabulary-learning strategy training The diary details are shown in the section of Instrument of data collection
By the end of the second semester, a post-treatment questionnaire survey was carried out to reveal the students’ perception of vocabulary-learning strategy training
3.2.2.1 Description of the pre-treatment questionnaire
The pre-treatment questionnaire consists of two key questions designed to assess students' vocabulary learning challenges and strategies Question 1 identifies students' vocabulary learning issues by having them rate five specific problems, categorized into context-based (items A, B, C) and task-based (items D, E) issues Question 2 explores the frequency of vocabulary learning strategies employed by students, focusing on three training programs: dictionary use, vocabulary recording, and affix learning Students respond using a Likert scale from 1 to 5, indicating how often they utilize each strategy, with 1 representing the lowest frequency of use.
The Likert scale used in the pre-treatment questionnaire categorizes responses from "never" (1) to "always" (5), allowing for a range of answers regarding vocabulary learning strategies This closed-ended format effectively gathers specific insights into students' practices, while an "Other" option enables them to include additional strategies they utilize For further details, refer to Appendix 5.
3.2.2.2 Description of the vocabulary – learning records
The three vocabulary - learning records supplied students with guided
The article outlines a structured approach to vocabulary learning through 37 practice sessions that build on strategies taught in phase one Each session includes a short reading text followed by two tasks Task 1 evaluates students' application of Strategy Set 1 (Dictionary-related strategies) and Set 2 (Recording vocabulary), while Task 2 focuses on their use of Strategy Set 3 (Studying affixes) These sets are interconnected, allowing learners to employ multiple strategies simultaneously The tasks are divided into two parts: Part A assesses the quality of strategy usage, requiring students to analyze five words from the reading text, while Part B encourages autonomous learning by allowing students to select and record up to five words of their choice A scoring criteria for evaluating the records is provided in Table 1, with additional vocabulary-learning records available in Appendix 3.
Table 1 Criteria for accessing word – learning records
A To access the performance of the strategy
The performance is ranked based on the percentage of correct items out of the answered items
B To access the participation in the use of the strategy
Total items to fill in: 4 x 5 = 20 items
The participation is ranked based on the percentage of filled-in items out of the total 20
Performance : the extent of correctness when the students use the taught strategies
Participation : how much the students use the taught strategies
3.2.2.3 Description of the vocabulary learning diary
The free-style vocabulary diaries aimed to reveal students' independent vocabulary learning practices following strategy training Students had the freedom to structure their diary entries without adhering to a strict model Each entry required them to describe the context of the vocabulary items, including the source, time, and place of their self-study, while recording the items in a manner they found appropriate.
The researchers committed to providing accurate insights into vocabulary learning through the use of vocabulary diaries, which revealed each student's unique learning style and strategy These diaries offered a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness of three specific trained strategy sets for students Additionally, the vocabulary diaries served as a valuable tool for assessing the students' retention of these strategies Samples of the students' vocabulary learning diaries can be found in Appendix 4.
A detailed rubric was developed to evaluate students' consistent application of three strategy sets, as shown in Table 2 This comprehensive scale assesses overall language performance, providing a score that reflects the students' proficiency in utilizing these strategies effectively.
The 39 scale provides a unified score reflecting overall performance, emphasizing students' strengths Typically, comprehensive rubrics consist of four to six points This research specifically focused on assessing how consistently students applied the taught strategies Utilizing the rubric, each vocabulary learning diary received three scores that indicated the maintenance levels of the three strategy sets being examined.
Table 2 Holistic rubric for marking the maintenance of the trained strategy sets
This article presents a diverse range of strategic occurrences, ensuring that each entry is thoroughly detailed with an appropriate word count Each strategy is elaborated with precision, providing comprehensive explanations The content is well-organized and features a rich variety of vocabulary, enhancing clarity and engagement.
A sufficient quantity of strategy occurrences; an adequate quantity of words for each strategy occurrence; includes satisfactory elaborations of each word; (clear, easy – to – follow organization)
A limited number of strategy occurrences; just a few words for each strategy occurrence; includes only some sketchy details of each word; (little variety of vocabulary organization)
1 Few or no strategy occurrences; just one or two words for each strategy occurrence; few details of each word; (no variety of vocabulary organization)
Strategy occurrence is counted according to the number of diary entries in which the strategy is used
Those in brackets are ONLY supplemented to mark Set 2 - Recording vocabulary
3.2.2.4 Description of the post – treatment questionnaire
The post-treatment questionnaire is designed to assess students' memorization and their perceptions of the three trained strategies It consists of four sections, with the first part requiring students to circle their responses.
FINDINGS
Phase One
The data collected from the pre-treatment questionnaires in this phase were to answer research question 1: What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
Students were tasked with ranking five vocabulary learning challenges based on their difficulty, assigning number 1 to the most difficult problem and the highest score to the least challenging issue.
Figure 4 illustrates the challenges faced by the class in learning vocabulary, highlighting that the most significant issue is a lack of effective vocabulary learning strategies, rated at 2.2 The second challenge is the limited time dedicated to vocabulary acquisition, with a score of 2.5 Additionally, students express similar concerns regarding a lack of interest in self-directed vocabulary study and uncertainty about which words to focus on Lastly, the least pressing issue identified is the insufficient access to learning materials, such as dictionaries and computers, rated at 4.
Figure 4: Students'problems in independent vocabulary learning
Phase Two
The goal of this phase was to answer research question 2: “ How well and how much do the students use the taught strategies in their guided vocabulary practice?”
To answer research question 2, three word-learning records of each learner were marked in terms of performance score and participation score
Performance reflects the accuracy with which students apply taught strategies, while participation indicates the frequency of their use during guided vocabulary practice The performance and participation scores for each word-learning record were calculated using the criteria outlined in Table 1 from Chapter 3.
4.2.1 Research question 2a: Students’ performance in the use of the taught strategies
4.2.1.1 Students’ performance in the use of strategy set 1 and set 2
The students’ performance in the use of Strategy Set 1 (Dictionary- related strategies) and Set 2 (Recording vocabulary) through three word- learning records is presented in Table 3
Not feel interest Not know how to learn
Not known what to learn
Table 3 Students’ performance in the use of Dictionary-related strategies and Vocabulary - recording strategies
Word record 1 Word record 2 Word record 3 Students % Students % Students %
A significant majority of students, specifically 52 out of 54, achieved satisfactory performance scores ranging from marks 3 to 5, indicating effective use of dictionary-related and vocabulary recording strategies Only two students received substandard marks, highlighting their struggle with these strategies Notably, the number of students attaining the highest score of 5 increased progressively across three assessments (18, 42, and 50), demonstrating a growing proficiency in employing the taught strategies during guided vocabulary practice.
4.2.1.2 Students’ performance in the use of strategy set 3
Table 4 illustrates the performance of students utilizing Strategy Set 3, which focuses on studying affixes Remarkably, 52 out of 54 students achieved standard marks ranging from 3 to 5, highlighted in orange Approximately 48% of the students earned a mark of 4, while nearly half received a mark of 5 for word records 1 and 3 This indicates that the majority of students effectively employed affix-studying strategies during their guided vocabulary practice However, only two students received a substandard mark, indicated in green, demonstrating difficulty in applying this strategy set.
Table 4 Students’ performance in the use of Affix - studying strategies
Word record 1 Word record 2 Word record 3 Students % Students % Students %
The comparison of mark-five scorers reveals that students excelled in dictionary-related (18) and vocabulary-recording strategies (42 and 50), while performance in affix-studying strategies was notably lower (22, 10, 26) This suggests a greater effectiveness in using dictionary and vocabulary recording techniques compared to affix analysis The difficulty in mastering affix-studying strategies may stem from the need for extensive practice and a solid understanding of word formation, including prefixes, suffixes, and compound words, which typically requires more time to develop than the skills associated with dictionary use and vocabulary recording.
In conclusion, most students demonstrated strong performance across the three instructional strategy sets: dictionary-related techniques, vocabulary-recording methods, and affix study approaches This indicates that the students effectively applied the strategies learned during their guided vocabulary practice.
4.2.2 Research question 2b: Students’ participation in the use of the taught strategies
4.2.2.1 Students’ participation in the use of strategy set 1 and set 2
Table 5 illustrates the participation of students in Strategy Set 1 (Dictionary-related strategies) and Set 2 (Vocabulary-recording strategies) during their guided vocabulary practice The data reveals that only approximately two-thirds of participants achieved scores within the standard range of 3 to 5, indicating a low utilization of the required dictionary-related and vocabulary-recording strategies Conversely, the remaining one-third of students scored 1, highlighting a significant gap in their engagement with these essential learning tools.
In a recent study, two sets of strategies were utilized minimally by students during guided vocabulary practice, with only a small percentage fully engaging in dictionary-related and vocabulary-recording techniques Notably, nearly half of the students achieved the highest marks (5) in these areas, with 48%, 26%, and 33% excelling in the three respective word records This significant variation in participation across the five mark groups highlights an inconsistent level of student engagement throughout the vocabulary exercises.
Table 5 Students’ participation in the use of Dictionary-related strategies and Vocabulary - recording strategies
Word record 1 Word record 2 Word record 3 Students % Students % Students %
4.2.2.2 Students’ participation in the use of strategy set 3
Table 6 illustrates student participation in Strategy Set 3, which focuses on affix studying strategies Similar to the participation scores observed for dictionary-related and vocabulary-recording strategies, students demonstrated notable engagement in these learning methods.
Over two-thirds of the participants, specifically 70.5%, 66%, and 89%, utilized affix-studying strategies during their guided vocabulary practice However, the application of these strategies varied significantly among the three word records, as evidenced by the inconsistent proportions of scores across the groups Notably, the percentage of mark-five scorers saw a considerable decline, dropping from 48% to 22% and then to 26%.
Table 6 Students’ participation in the use of Affix - studying strategies
Word record 1 Word record 2 Word record 3 Students % Students % Students %
Phase Three
Phase Three aims at answering the last two research questions:
This study investigates the extent to which students retain the vocabulary learning strategies taught to them and evaluates the perceived effectiveness of the strategy training program in enhancing their vocabulary acquisition.
Research question 3 is answered by calculating the maintenance scores of the taught strategies by means of the free-style vocabulary-learning diaries
Vocabulary learning diaries allow students to engage in self-study, offering insights into their independent vocabulary acquisition, unlike the structured approach of three-word records The findings related to Research Question 4 are derived from the post-treatment questionnaire.
4.3.1 Research question 3: Students’ maintenance of the taught strategies in independent vocabulary learning
According to the holistic rubric, each vocabulary-learning diary received three marks reflecting the maintenance levels of the three trained strategy sets Figure 5 shows that approximately half of the students achieved a mark of 3 (on a four-point scale) for their use of dictionary-related strategies and vocabulary recording, with 55.6% and 44% respectively This indicates that a significant portion of the class continued to effectively utilize these strategies for self-study after instruction In contrast, nearly two-thirds of the learners demonstrated low maintenance of affix-studying strategies, with 63% receiving a mark of 1, suggesting that they employed these strategies only minimally in their independent vocabulary learning.
Figure 5: Students’ maintenance of the taught strategies in independent vocabulary learning
The analysis of the mark-three and mark-four groups reveals that dictionary-related strategies were the most consistently maintained, followed by vocabulary-recording strategies, while affix-studying strategies showed minimal maintenance This is likely due to the extensive knowledge required for studying affixes, which limits their retention over a short ten-week period Additionally, the findings indicate that students predominantly utilized dictionary-related strategies for vocabulary self-study, with affix-studying strategies being the least employed of the three.
4.3.2 Research question 4: Students’ perception of the effectiveness of the strategy training programme
The pre-treatment and post-treatment questionnaires were used to explore the students’ perception of the vocabulary-learning strategy training programme
It was revealed through a comparison between their reported frequency of
Figure 5: Students’ maintenance of the taught strategies in independent vocabulary learning
Dictionary-related strategies Vocabulary-recording Affix-studying
The effectiveness of the training program was assessed by evaluating the three strategy sets utilized before and after the training This evaluation focused on the perceived usefulness of the strategies by the students, alongside their overall assessment of the training program itself.
4.3.2.1 Students’ frequency of using the taught strategies before and after the training programme
To evaluate the effectiveness of the vocabulary-learning strategy training program, a comparison was made between the average frequency of using three trained strategy sets before and after the training The results, illustrated in Figure 6, show the students' vocabulary strategy usage before and after the implementation of the training.
Figure 6: Frequency of vocabulary strategy use before and after training
The frequency of strategy use among students increased significantly after participating in the training program, indicating a greater reliance on all three taught strategy sets Notably, the order of frequency for these strategies remained consistent before and after the training, with dictionary-related strategies being the most frequently utilized.
Dictionary-related strategies Vocabulary-recording Frequency
51 and then came vocabulary-recording strategies and lastly, affix studying strategies were the least-frequently used among the three strategy sets
4.3.2.2 Usefulness of the taught strategies
Figure 7 illustrates students' perceptions of the effectiveness of various strategy sets taught in the course Notably, nearly all students rated dictionary-related and vocabulary-recording strategies as highly useful, with scores ranging from 3 to 5 Specifically, 51.9% of students rated dictionary-related strategies with a score of 4, indicating a strong belief in their usefulness Additionally, 18.5% of learners considered both dictionary-related and vocabulary-recording strategies to be extremely beneficial, awarding them a score of 5 In contrast, two-thirds of students evaluated affix-studying strategies within the same scoring range.
3 to 5, considered this strategy set quite useful The other one-third thought affix-studying strategies had only limited usefulness (7% gave mark 1 and 26% gave mark 2 for affix-studying strategies)
Figure 7: Frequency of vocabulary strategy use before and after training
Dictionary-related strategies Vocabulary-recording Affix-studying
In conclusion, dictionary-related strategies were identified as the most effective among the three categories studied, followed by vocabulary-recording strategies, while affix-studying strategies ranked last These results align with Schmitt's (1997) research, which surveyed 600 Japanese students and company employees about their actual strategy use and perceived effectiveness, revealing that consulting a bilingual dictionary was the top strategy in both aspects This finding is further supported by the studies conducted by Gu and Johnson (1996) and Wu.
(2005) found that the majority of students selected “bilingual dictionary” as the most used and the most helpful strategy
4.3.2.3 Students’ evaluation of the strategy training programme
The vocabulary-learning strategy training program demonstrated significant effectiveness, with 78% of students rating it positively, as indicated by 67% giving a score of 4 and 11% a score of 5 In contrast, only 7% of the participants rated the program poorly, with just two out of 27 students assigning a score of 2, reflecting a very limited effectiveness.
Figure 8: Effectiveness of the vocabulary-learning strategy training programme
The positive feedback from students regarding the strategy training program is reinforced by the results of the post-treatment questionnaires In response to questions 3 and 4, all 54 students expressed a desire for additional training in vocabulary-learning strategies, citing various reasons that can be categorized into five distinct groups.
Firstly, 24 out of 54 students stated that the strategy training made them know how to learn vocabulary effectively As one student put it,
“Vocabulary-learning strategy training made me more self-aware of learning vocabulary; helping to learn vocabulary better, faster and more effectively”
Sharing the same idea, another student pointed out that “Not everyone has a good way of learning vocabulary for themselves Accordingly, vocabulary learning strategy training is vital for learning English”
Ten students identified the benefits of vocabulary-learning strategy training as a key factor in enhancing their vocabulary acquisition They noted that the training encouraged them to dedicate more time to studying vocabulary, leading to more consistent learning and an expansion of both their word knowledge and the meanings of those words Notably, several students expressed that the training significantly improved their ability to memorize vocabulary, with one student stating, “Because of the vocabulary learning strategies, I am now more active in learning vocabulary.”
I enhance my vocabulary by learning not just from lessons, but also from songs and newspapers By recording new words, I find that my lessons become more manageable and I can retain the vocabulary more effectively.
Six students reported increased motivation and interest in learning as a result of the strategy training One student noted, “I felt more interested in English; therefore, I learned more effectively I was motivated to learn vocabulary in a self-aware manner and could memorize more words.”
Four students reported that the training program significantly enhanced their speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills One student emphasized, “The training program helped me to effectively use words in both writing and speaking.”