Translation in Vietnam and Vietnam in Translation Language, Culture, and Identity University of Massachusetts Amherst University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass[.]
BEYOND THE CULTURAL TURN: TRANSLATION STUDIES AND THE
Rethinking Translation: The Subject and Political Change
In the preface to the third edition of her book Translation Studies, Susan Bassnett highlights the significant growth of translation studies since its first edition in 1980, noting the exciting trend of expanding the discipline beyond Europe Although she does not explicitly mention the "cultural turn" in translation studies or the "translation turn" in cultural studies, her observations resonate with many contemporary literary and translation scholars However, Bassnett's Eurocentric perspective positions Europe at the center of this expansion, overlooking the critical reality of multiple power centers in today’s world, particularly the United States While she acknowledges the divergent concerns of scholars in regions like Canada, India, and Latin America, she neglects to include the U.S., which exerts considerable cultural, political, and epistemological influence globally The works of scholars such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Tejaswini Niranjana, and Eric Cheyfitz illustrate this divergence, yet they also operate within this U.S.-centric framework Thus, any true expansion must engage with and challenge the restrictive foundations of knowledge and power that define the center.
In her latest book, "Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators" (2007), Maria Tymoczko critiques the discipline of translation studies for its reliance on Western translation norms and practices, highlighting her concerns about the narrow framework that has shaped the field.
Translation norms, as highlighted by scholars like Niranjana, Cheyfitz, and Venuti, are intertwined with ideologies and power dynamics, particularly in the context of globalization, where Western norms often dominate This dominance can be seen as a form of imperialism, as alternative translation practices are marginalized Tymoczko emphasizes the importance of expanding translation studies to include diverse cultural perspectives, advocating for a de-Westernization of the field Her concept of "enlarging" suggests a critical shift away from Western-centric frameworks, promoting a more inclusive understanding of translation that acknowledges various histories and practices.
To expand the understanding of translation, it is essential to re-conceptualize its definition as a Wittgensteinian cluster concept, which embraces the diverse meanings translation holds across different histories and cultures (2006; 2007: 54-106) Edwin Gentzler (2008a), inspired by Gideon Toury's insights, similarly advocates for an open definition within the field, emphasizing that varying definitions and national traditions often shape what is deemed translation He argues that rigid definitions can obscure "hidden" translations within cultures, citing China and the United States as key examples where such translations need to be rediscovered, a task he successfully undertook in his recent work, *Translation and Return*.
In "Identity in the Americas: New Directions in Translation Theory" (2008b), Gentzler emphasizes the importance of fostering dialogue between various translation traditions and cultures to enhance the interdisciplinary and international scope of translation studies He warns against the uncritical adoption of European models in a global context, advocating for a more nuanced approach to translation theory (2008a: 125).
The call for the internationalization of translation studies by Tymoczko and Gentzler reflects a response to postcolonial and poststructuralist theories that challenge established knowledge and power structures Influential thinkers like Foucault, Derrida, and Butler have scrutinized how ideology and discourse shape subjectivities and meaning, revealing that power and meaning are intertwined within social and cultural contexts This poststructuralist critique destabilizes previously accepted concepts such as authorship, originality, and identity, facilitating the evolution of translation studies into a distinct academic discipline Over recent decades, translation studies has demonstrated its adaptability by integrating insights from diverse fields, including cultural studies, gender studies, linguistics, and the sciences, thereby expanding its scope beyond the linguistic focus of early scholars like Jakobson and Nida.
Postcolonial studies have profoundly influenced translation theorists and scholars over the past decade, necessitating ongoing definitions of the term "postcolonial." It signifies both a historical transition following the decline of colonial institutions and a cultural positioning characterized by concepts such as hybridity and ambivalence This discourse has led to diverse modes of writing and critique that challenge the dominant narratives shaped by Western powers, as evidenced by pivotal works like Edward Said's "Orientalism," Homi Bhabha's analysis of ambivalence, and Gayatri Spivak's inquiry into subaltern voices The dynamics of modern migration and digital information flow have further complicated the notion of fixed identities, as highlighted by Theodor Adorno's assertion that true dwelling is now unattainable As Iain Chambers articulates, contemporary existence is marked by "mobile dwelling," where identity and belonging are fluid and constantly redefined through the interplay of languages and cultural experiences.
Language, identity, home, and affiliation are increasingly challenged in a world marked by migration and the fluidity of thought, echoing Judith Butler's concept of "Gender Trouble." As Salman Rushdie observes, categories blur and realities intertwine, yet this complexity does not lead to a cohesive world devoid of mediation Instead, the ongoing movement of people and resources tests established norms of identity, emphasizing the necessity of translation as a means to understand ourselves and others In this context, translation becomes fundamental to our existence, as we are inherently "translated beings." Postcolonial individuals navigate the in-between spaces, finding agency and vitality at the borders of identity and culture, as noted by Trinh Minh-ha.
Navigating the boundaries of various categories and approaches involves existing in a space that is neither fully inside nor outside these definitions It requires relentless exploration to the fringes, where the risk of crossing into the unknown is ever-present This process entails a continuous cycle of deconstructing, reconstructing, and redefining these limits.
The concept of translation is fundamentally challenged by the realities of migration and the fluidity of cultural and linguistic borders Traditional views of translation as a simple transfer of fixed meanings across stable boundaries fall short in the face of postcolonial experiences, where individuals continually reshape and redefine these limits Translation is not merely an optional task or a profession for a select few; it is a crucial process that shapes knowledge, culture, identity, ideology, and power This redefined understanding underscores the complexities of translation in a world where boundaries are constantly being redrawn.
The French philosopher Paul Ricoeur (2004) even goes so far as to posit in his hermeneutics that to speak is already to translate, resonating Octavio Paz’s notion that
Language inherently embodies translation, as noted by Paz and echoed by Steiner, who asserts that understanding equates to translating Migrants experience a dual process of translation, constantly interpreting themselves and the Others they meet during their journeys This state of migrancy and transit, which increasingly defines global populations, necessitates a reevaluation of translation Such a rethinking should recognize translation not merely as a profession or a skill set learned in educational settings, but as a fundamental aspect of human interaction and communication.
Translation is not merely a theoretical exercise or a tedious classroom activity; it is a critical and urgent matter that holds significant importance in today's world The skill of translation is essential for effective communication and understanding across different languages and cultures.
(autonomous practices) or be translated (heteronymous practices) can in some cases indeed be a matter of life and death (2006: 45)
Translation is a critical issue for millions living and working in foreign languages and cultures, as highlighted by Cronin, who emphasizes its life-and-death implications for migrants relying on interpreting services for medical care However, as Edwin Gentzler (2008b) points out, the significance of translation extends beyond individual health to encompass the cultural identities of ethnic communities in the U.S., such as Amerindian reservations, Chinatowns, black urban ghettos, and Latino barrios The monolingual policies aimed at creating a homogeneous society have marginalized diverse ethnic cultures, leading to a repressed cultural narrative that shapes the identity and culture of the United States Gentzler argues that this strategic repression of translation plays a crucial role in defining culture and identity.
Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, particularly in his work The Raw and the Cooked (1969), suggests a progression from the natural to the cultivated in shaping culture and identity However, poststructuralist critiques challenge this notion, highlighting the suppression of practices and values that do not fit within cultural norms This structuralist view overlooks the complexities and repressed elements of culture, presenting it as a stable and complete transformation from "the raw" to "the cooked." Gentzler emphasizes that this perspective reveals the exclusionary mechanisms of identity politics and connects them to translation theory, illustrating how culture is perpetually influenced by what remains unacknowledged.
The repression of minority languages by English-only advocates allows the nation-state to shape its national identity; however, this suppressed element inevitably resurfaces, haunting the dominant majority and perpetuating the cycle of repressive ideology throughout time.
Rethinking translation in Gentzler’s formulation therefore involves a recovery of repressed translation, the least visible “bottom” of translation phenomena
The Cultural Turn: The Idea of Culture
Since the influential work of André Lefevere and Susan Bassnett in "Translation, History, and Culture" (1990), the concept of culture has become a fundamental assumption among translation studies scholars Their call for a cultural turn has significantly shaped the discourse in the field, prompting a deeper exploration of the interplay between translation and cultural contexts.
Sherry Simon highlights that translation studies often overlook the definition of "culture," treating it as if its meaning is clear and unambiguous (1996: 137) Tymoczko reinforces this notion, noting that little progress has been made since Simon's observation, as discussions on culture frequently revolve around superficial cultural elements at the intersection of language and material culture (2007: 223) Interestingly, Lefevere and Bassnett do not provide a specific definition of culture in their introductory essay for the volume they edit; instead, they approach the concept through a theoretical shift away from formalist translation methods, emphasizing a new understanding of culture.
An understanding of culture that contrasts with historical practices has significantly influenced the evolution of translation studies, presenting both benefits and challenges.
The concept of culture, extending beyond a purely linguistic approach, fosters a more open and receptive field in translation studies, as exemplified in Bassnett and Lefevere’s 1990 volume This work illustrates the diverse applications of culture, from Tymoczko’s exploration of literary translation to Sengupta’s insights into Tagore’s self-translation and Godard’s feminist perspectives According to Mona Baker (1996), while early cultural studies brought forth ideological concerns, these issues had been previously examined in critical linguistics The discourse has shifted from prescriptive methods of translation to a focus on the complex processes involving cultural signs, power, and ideology Researchers now investigate how translators navigate cultural landscapes, represent identities, and redefine meaning, informed by poststructuralist and postcolonial theories This evolution has solidified translation studies as an independent discipline, engaging with literary and cultural studies while expanding the political landscape for emerging identities and subjectivities, as highlighted by theorists like Derrida, Bhabha, Spivak, and Butler.
The concept of culture in translation studies is often too broad to effectively analyze its connection to the economic and material aspects traditionally linked to the political sphere While translation studies asserts its relevance in politics, it tends to shy away from engaging in discussions about the definitions and interactions of the political and cultural realms This avoidance includes a lack of discourse on the culturalization of politics or the politicization of culture, with many scholars accepting the problematic equation between the two as posited by poststructuralist and postcolonial theories Furthermore, the division between linguistic and cultural elements in translation studies, highlighted at international conferences, may dilute the potential for meaningful political action within the field Although translation studies has contributed valuable insights that broaden the political landscape, the current cultural turn appears to uncritically adopt concepts from cultural studies without sufficient scrutiny It is essential for translation studies to reevaluate the cultural turn in the context of broader developments in the humanities and social sciences, as well as the critiques emerging from diverse perspectives.
The cultural turn is a significant movement that has influenced various fields within the social sciences and humanities, altering traditional inquiry paradigms over the past few decades This shift is closely linked to the rise of culture as a key concept in literary and critical discourses, particularly alongside the emergence of postmodernism in the latter half of the twentieth century In his work, The Idea of Culture (2000), Terry Eagleton explores the etymology of "culture," highlighting its paradoxical semantic shifts that make the term fluid and historically adaptable He expresses discomfort with a particular appropriation of "culture" during the onset of postmodernism, where it comes to signify the affirmation of specific identities—such as national, sexual, ethnic, or regional—rather than transcending them.
Culture has traditionally represented a universal set of values that unites individuals beyond their specific identities, serving as a common ground for humanity amidst societal divisions However, according to Eagleton, this notion of culture has diminished, evolving into a battleground for conflict and contestation, as noted by Edward Said Eagleton argues that this shift, where culture becomes synonymous with politics rather than its antithesis, ultimately hinders political engagement and reduces politics to mere cultural practices.
Postmodernism fully integrates cultural studies, yet Eagleton argues that it overlooks the distinction between political issues and cultural differences He emphasizes that not every cultural difference carries political significance, highlighting a critical gap in postmodernist thought.
In "Common Culture," Eagleton critiques the cultural Left for reducing politics to mere cultural discourse, arguing that this shift has led to a decline in revolutionary politics and collective action He advocates for a reintegration of culture into its original context, asserting that the contemporary political significance of culture fails to address the pressing issues of the new millennium, such as war, famine, poverty, disease, debt, drugs, and environmental pollution, which he believes are fundamentally non-cultural problems.
Eagleton's argument raises several troubling issues, particularly his apparent disregard for ongoing global injustices where individuals face imprisonment or death for their beliefs and identities He reduces complex issues to mere material concerns, neglecting the significance of language, identity, and symbolism, which are equally vital in the discourse of life and death This narrow perspective suggests that he only recognizes death as significant when it occurs on a large scale, potentially overlooking the daily struggles faced by marginalized individuals By confining political discourse to prominent events manipulated by mass media, Eagleton fails to address the critical life-and-death challenges that many endure under various regimes.
Contemporary Society (1999) has really opened our eyes to forms of social suffering that remain largely invisible in the political public sphere and unarticulated by social movements
Eagleton argues that the intertwining of culture and politics represents a uniquely American political agenda that paradoxically seeks to universalize a concept that opposes universalism This raises the question of whether culture as a battleground is an American invention or a broader discovery that has been uncritically adopted by other nations Addressing this inquiry demands further exploration from Eagleton, while Edward Said has effectively tackled a related question in his work, "Culture and Imperialism."
Eagleton's perspective in "Imperialism" (1994) suggests that the rest of the world, particularly Britain, passively adopts American ideologies, overlooking the complex and contested nature of culture As James Clifford (1988) emphasizes, culture is historically dynamic and politically charged, rather than static and uncritical Even in its "original" form, as envisioned by Arnold, culture has always involved contestation and negotiation, where individuals and groups strive for recognition, acceptance, or dominance This ongoing struggle highlights the multifaceted nature of cultural identity and power dynamics.
Arnold emphasizes that culture is defined by its ongoing process of growth and development, rather than a static state of being He highlights the importance of intersubjectivity in this continuous journey of becoming, while also acknowledging the potential risks of straying from essential communal connections.
To achieve personal growth and perfection, individuals must actively support and uplift others in their journey, as neglecting this responsibility can hinder their own development This principle underscores the shared duty of culture and religion to foster collective progress, emphasizing the importance of contributing to the greater good of humanity.
Arnold's writing reflects his later belief that the self is a battleground between the higher self of conscience and rationality and the lower self of appetite and animality, as noted by Stefan Collini Eagleton's nostalgia overlooks the more complex aspects of Arnold's later work, which redefines culture as a site of conflict rather than a pursuit of unity This ongoing struggle within culture is not merely a collapse into politics but a transformation of the nature of conflict, evolving from Arnold's dichotomy of self to the poststructuralist and postcolonial tensions between the dominant and the dominated.
Translation and the Moments of Cultural Studies
Cultural studies have significantly influenced translation studies, as highlighted by Mona Baker (1996), who differentiates between culture studies and cultural studies approaches to translation The former provides neutral insights into cultural disparities, while the latter critiques translation as a politically charged act aimed at challenging hegemonic processes A notable challenge in translation arises from the specific lexicalization in different languages, such as the numerous words for rice in Vietnamese compared to the singular term used in English This disparity exemplifies the cultural studies perspective, which often examines such gaps factually In contrast, the cultural studies approach, as noted by Baker, utilizes Venuti's "foreignizing" strategies to emphasize the ideological implications of translation practices.
The dominant "fluent" translation strategy in the Anglo-American context is intertwined with Western colonial and imperial agendas To challenge this ideological complicity, it is suggested that "foreignizing" translation methods be employed, which can help de-hegemonize Western translation norms and better represent non-Western cultures Baker emphasizes that awareness of cultural differences has long been a part of translation studies, predating the cultural studies approach Notable scholars like Eugene Nida, Peter Newmark, and Baker herself have integrated pragmatic and cultural elements into their work As early as 1954, Joseph Casagrande highlighted that translation involves not just languages but the cultural contexts behind them.
Nida's concept of dynamic equivalence highlights the importance of cultural asymmetries in translation theory (Baker 1996: 13) Over three decades, Nida recognized the pivotal role of culture in translation techniques, contrasting it with purely linguistic approaches He emphasized that while comparing source and target languages is essential, effective interlingual communication transcends mere linguistic similarities (Nida 1994: 1; cited in Schọffner 1995: 1).
Baker emphasizes the importance of cultural contexts in her design of translation exercises and the selection of illustrative examples, notably incorporating non-European languages like Arabic, Chinese, and Japanese to address the European language bias in translation studies Her comprehensive exploration of linguistic issues in translation is attuned to the cultural dimensions of language The central theme across her works is the engagement with sociolinguistics and pragmatics, focusing on language as it is used within specific socio-cultural contexts rather than as a purely abstract system Importantly, this cultural perspective remains neutral, examining the interaction between language and material culture without imposing political constructs or agendas.
The cultural studies approach to translation actively addresses numerous political issues, highlighting the significance of culture as a key analytical category in translation studies This perspective has introduced a diverse array of topics derived from cultural studies Established in Britain post-World War II, Cultural Studies emerged as an academic discipline, with influential figures like Raymond Williams and Edward Said playing pivotal roles in its development.
The Birmingham School, notably influenced by scholars like Richard Hoggart and Stuart Hall, significantly shaped the early development of Cultural Studies through the establishment of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in 1964 Since its inception, Cultural Studies has evolved considerably, embracing a variety of approaches and methodologies, as highlighted by Hall.
Cultural Studies has always been a complex and multifaceted field, as noted by Hall, who reflects on its early days filled with debates and disagreements He dismisses the notion of a unified "Birmingham School," arguing that such a label misrepresents the chaotic and diverse nature of Cultural Studies in the 1960s.
The plurality of Cultural Studies is best captured by Chris Rojek, who in his book
Cultural Studies identifies four key "moments" that illustrate the field's evolution, emphasizing the interconnectedness of research and debate (2007: 39) The first moment, termed the “National-Popular,” draws from Antonio Gramsci's critique of classical Marxism, highlighting the significance of group formation and cultural hegemony in politics This period marked a transformative intellectual shift that shaped the political agenda across various branches of Cultural Studies, from its British roots to developments in North America and South Africa It aimed to challenge conventional inquiries by addressing overlooked aspects of cultural relations, such as the lived experiences of the working class, mass media, state power, and race, particularly influenced by Stuart Hall Key themes included a commitment to socialist change, an integration of diverse theories, and a rejection of cultural essentialism and elitism, encapsulated in Hall’s editorial for the New Left Review.
Discussing cinema and teenage culture in NLR is not merely about staying trendy; it is crucial for understanding the imaginative resistances of individuals living under capitalism These cultural elements reflect the growing social discontent and deeply-felt needs of people today Our current experience of life is highly fragmented, and socialism must engage with individuals at their points of frustration and discontent By doing so, it can develop a deeper understanding of contemporary issues and resonate with the realities of modern life.
Rojek identifies the second phase of Cultural Studies as the “Textual-world,” emphasizing the production of texts and the construction of meaning This phase, influenced by semiotics and structural linguistics, particularly the works of Roland Barthes, sought to unravel the representational world by revealing the underlying processes of meaning construction that establish order and hierarchy Instead of viewing social phenomena as direct reflections of experiences and realities, they were interpreted as signs requiring decoding to understand the foundational codes of signification, symbolic conventions, and the structures of power and ideology A notable work exemplifying the methodology of this phase is A.C.H Smith’s "Paper Voices: The Popular Press and Social Change 1935."
In 1965, Elizabeth Immirzi and Trevor Blackwell collaborated with Stuart Hall, who introduced a project aimed at analyzing how the popular press interprets social change for its audience and developing close analysis methods within cultural studies Hall emphasized that news should not be viewed as a transparent entity; instead, it requires an examination of how news is constructed within a broader context, including readership, practices, and traditions that shape its definition and presentation The analyst's role is to move beyond the surface content of news to uncover its deeper meanings, employing a blend of literary-critical, linguistic, and stylistic methods to reveal the patterns and codes that influence news production and reception.
The dissemination of news is a structured social process involving both the collection and consumption of information Early cultural analysis aimed to uncover the underlying structures of meaning, exploring their historical development, evolution, and eventual breakdown.
The early phase of the second moment, influenced by structural linguistics and semiotics, underwent significant transformation with the rise of theoretical movements like poststructuralism, Lacanian psychoanalysis, and deconstruction This shift marked a decline in the belief in a singular, decodable meaning of signs, leading to the emergence of new concepts such as Derrida’s différance, Barthes’ polysemy, Volosinov’s multi-accentuality, and Bakhtin’s heteroglossia The once-held notion of fixed meaning gave way to an acceptance of ambivalence and ambiguity, highlighting the free play of signs and intertextuality as essential to understanding meaning Consequently, the focus shifted from the neo-Marxist principle of class struggle to the multiplicity of political perspectives, emphasizing how meaning is constructed through texts and representations.
In "Subculture: The Meaning of Style" (1979), Hebdige exemplifies textual-representational analysis by revitalizing Lévi-Strauss’s concept of bricolage He explores how marginalized groups appropriate and resignify consumer culture objects to parody that culture and redefine their identities Starting with the idea of "style as a form of Refusal," Hebdige delves into how objects acquire new meanings within subcultures, emphasizing the process of resignification, which he describes as "crimes" or "meaningful mutations," rather than focusing solely on the final objects themselves.
In "meaning-again," Hebdige explores the concept of polysemy, highlighting its potential to challenge dominant values and institutions that assert fixed meanings He argues that polysemy allows texts to produce an infinite array of interpretations, suggesting that cultural analysis should shift focus from deriving a final set of meanings to examining the aspects of a text where meaning becomes uncertain This perspective marks a significant departure from structuralist approaches that prioritize langue, emphasizing instead the role of the speaking subject within discourse.
Concluding the second moment of Cultural Studies, Rojek points out that
Towards the Singularity and Contingency of Translation
The cultural turn in translation studies highlights an uncritical acceptance of concepts from cultural studies, primarily due to an assumed affinity in interdisciplinarity The concept of culture remains inadequately examined in translation studies, influenced by the evolving meanings and research paradigms in cultural studies over time Despite this, the evolving nature of cultural studies has introduced diverse objects and methods in translation studies, fostering openness to new insights Additionally, the translation turn in cultural studies enhances the Saidian humanism framework, which challenges the notion of culture confined to modern nation-states, as noted by Emily Apter This translingual and transcultural perspective explores dynamics of cultural domination, resistance, and issues of acculturation By integrating insights from translation studies, cultural studies gains a new analytical lens through which to understand cultural dynamics across nation-states and various discourses.
Translation studies has evolved significantly since the 1980s, yet it still retains a descriptive approach that focuses on documenting translation cases through similarities, differences, and translational behaviors While early research aimed to establish norms and laws of translation, contemporary studies, as noted by Gentzler in "Contemporary Translation Theories" (2001), have moved beyond mere description to explore the cultural and political contexts influencing translation choices This shift emphasizes the importance of understanding the translator's role within ideological and power dynamics, suggesting that translation processes are deeply embedded in specific cultural frameworks Despite this progress, translation studies often oscillate between textual and contextual descriptions, with researchers frequently linking texts to their socio-political environments and articulating the translator’s objectives Ultimately, the cultural turn has integrated cultural considerations into translation analysis, enriching the field and providing valuable insights applicable across various disciplines.
What I want to emphasize here is the fact that more attention needs to be paid to the social and cultural effects of the translator’s work that such scholarship should illuminate and turn into instructive frameworks for translators My contention is that on each particular translating occasion, the translator should be able to articulate his/her own theory, amid theories, that applies for that particular translation project, something that I attempt to do in Chapter 4 As translation scholars attempt to answer questions such as how the translator mediates in between cultures, how a certain translation affirms authority, reinforces domination or resists power, so on and so forth, research also needs to be geared towards the seemingly outdated question of how to translate Such a positing does not aim to reinstate the prescriptive stance, since this how-to-translate is not retrospectively speculated and imposed on translators by an individual or a group deemed to be authorial in making determinate and final claims about translation Rather, the enunciation of how-to is a matter of personal strategizing informed by insights of the cultural and ideological forces at work coupled with the translator’s knowledge of his/her own position within the continuum of power relations and the specific translating task at hand The how-to is therefore never universal and final, but specific, singular, and contingent It comes out of every specific occasion of translating, and for that reason, it comprises of a contingent set of investigations and reflections on the part of the translator that are text-and-task specific
Tymoczko's "holistic approach" to cultural translation, as outlined in *Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators* (2007), emphasizes the importance of understanding the singularity and contingency of translation strategies Her theory provides concrete guidance for translators, encouraging them to delve deeper than surface-level cultural elements Translators are advised to explore the "embodied and situated knowledge" of both source and target cultures, akin to a habitus, prior to selecting a translation strategy Tymoczko's holistic toolbox includes essential elements such as signature cultural concepts, discursive formations, and cultural practices that should inform a translator's approach She also highlights the metonymic nature of translation, suggesting that only certain aspects of the habitus will be relevant for any specific text.
Translation projects are inherently singular and contingent, necessitating a nuanced theoretical exploration that recognizes their uniqueness, which challenges the validity of overarching translation theories The relationship between singularity and the holistic cultural analysis proposed by Tymoczko raises questions about whether cultural analysis is a one-time endeavor in a translator's career or should be revisited for each project, given the dynamic nature of cultures and the metonymic nature of translation Although Tymoczko acknowledges the incompleteness of cultural analysis, her approach risks reverting to Saussurean structuralism, framing culture as a dialectic between langue and parole This raises concerns about the translator's agency, particularly if they are entirely enveloped in the habitus Judith Butler’s critique of Bourdieu’s habitus offers a valuable perspective for understanding cultural translation, emphasizing the translator's agency and the potential for alternative interpretations beyond the constraints of cultural norms.
In the realm of translation studies, it is essential to not only describe and critique translations to uncover their cultural foundations but also to focus on specific translating instances that reveal unique strategies Theorizing translation should extend beyond merely outlining these strategies as they relate to holistic cultural analyses; it must also encompass practical guidance on how to translate effectively This involves connecting textual and cultural specifics to the translator’s habitus, as suggested by Tymoczko, while also addressing the need to transcend this habitus for democratic change Foucault's perspective highlights that the habitus is where power dynamics manifest through the body and embodied knowledge, underscoring the importance of navigating these complexities in translation.
Gayatri Spivak has done in her translations of Mahasweta Devi’s stories collected in
Imaginary Maps (1995) exemplifies performed theorizing, where the translator goes beyond mere translation to express her perspective on the cultures involved and her relationship with the text and its author In this work, Spivak's approach highlights the complexities of translation as a dynamic interaction, emphasizing the translator's role in shaping meaning and context.
The article presents a comprehensive exploration of translated stories that serve as an extension of a broader project, rather than the project itself Through the poignant narratives of Indian tribals, the translations are intricately woven into the translator’s theoretical framework, aligning with Spivak’s postcolonial, feminist, and translation theories Gentzler highlights that translation is crucial to Spivak’s work, providing the specificity often absent in Western postcolonial discussions This performance intricately links indigenous feminist writings, postcolonialism, and translation, engaging the reader both intellectually and emotionally.
In her exploration of "ethical singularity" and the concept of "learning from below," Spivak highlights the intricate translation processes and strategies involved in understanding power dynamics, particularly within Western metaphysics and humanism Through her interview with Devi, Spivak not only amplifies the author's voice but also presents a compelling appeal to American readers, urging them to recognize the parallels between their experiences and those of Indian tribals: “But I say to my American readers, see what has been done to them, you will understand what has been done to the Indian tribals” (Devi 1995: xi) This approach transcends mere narration, as Spivak effectively stages her theoretical insights through dialogue, critique, and translation, enriching the reader's comprehension of these complex issues.
Gentzler highlights Gayatri Spivak's role as a postcolonial theorist, emphasizing that she transcends the position of a mere mediator between Indian tribal narratives and English-speaking audiences Instead, Spivak acts as a performer, intertwining the creative and critical aspects of her work, including the translation process, while articulating her postcolonial and feminist viewpoints By incorporating the original text's author into the translation dialogue, Spivak asserts her presence rather than fading into the background, embodying a dual role as both self-effacing and ever-present, as noted by Gentzler (2001: 185).
In her work, Spivak exemplifies "double-writing," engaging in simultaneous tasks of translating, critiquing, and theorizing, which allows her to explore the intersections of translation, feminism, and postcolonialism Her book, Imaginary Maps, challenges readers with its stark and angular language, as noted by Sherry Simon, which emphasizes the complexity of translation rather than presenting it as a simple collection of exotic stories Gentzler highlights Spivak's techniques, pointing out that her deconstructive approach prevents formulaic interpretations and reveals the mediated nature of communication, alongside her political agenda By employing defamiliarizing language, Spivak both marks her intervention and acknowledges its limitations, viewing foreignizing not as a universal strategy but as a context-specific means to achieve her "ethical singularity." Through her engagement with Mahasweta Devi’s narratives, Spivak identifies this "ethical singularity" as a vital complement to collective struggles.
The essence of individuality in history is central to Mehasweta Devi's writings, as noted by Spivak, who highlights Devi's focus on the individual's role within historical discourse Devi's characters do not merely conform to historical narratives; instead, they create unique patterns that challenge the conventional flow of historiography and ethnographic accounts of tribal identity In "The Hunt," one of the stories in *Imaginary Maps*, the protagonist exists outside the confines of collective history, using their position of non-belonging to engage in acts of ritual resistance Gentzler effectively encapsulates the distinctiveness of this character, emphasizing the importance of individual agency in historical contexts.
In the story "The Hunt," Mary embodies an individual who stages her own resistance through a specific ritual, rather than representing a collective identity She symbolizes the remnants of history and the complexities of identity and culture Spivak's concept of "ethical singularity" emphasizes the importance of recognizing individuals beyond the dominant narratives shaped by historiography and power dynamics This approach necessitates a deep engagement with the individual, akin to a form of "love," which is crucial for the long-term success of political movements and transforms ethics into "the experience of the impossible."
In "Imaginary Maps," Spivak transcends mere translation of Mahasweta Devi's stories, embodying a form of resistance that highlights indigenous struggles often overlooked in Western narratives Her work aims to reveal these voices to English readers, advocating for a "slow, attentive mind-changing" and an ethical commitment to love that supports collective efforts for systemic change in laws, education, and healthcare Unlike Tymoczko's approach, Spivak employs translation and paratranslational methods to dismantle universal frameworks, allowing for the unique cultural specifics to emerge She critiques nationalism as a narrative that obscures countless instances of subaltern resistance throughout history, positioning Devi's narratives within this broader context to challenge dominant discourses.
Mahasweta Devi's text "Breast-Giver" illustrates how nationalist narratives often overlook the realities of marginalized individuals Her comprehensive approach employs dialogues and critiques, using specific translation techniques that highlight the unique experiences of the subaltern instead of merging them into a universal narrative This method positions the subaltern as a questioning presence, challenging conventional political and historical frameworks While Tymoczko views habitus as a guiding category for translators, Spivak sees it as a critical lens to analyze power structures, allowing for a deeper understanding of unrepresented subaltern subjects and their distinct identities.
Translation and Justice: From the Material to the Cultural
Walking through Hồ Chí Minh City, formerly known as Sài Gòn, offers a distinctive glimpse into Vietnam's official history, shaped by nearly a century of colonialism and the aftermath of the Southern Regime's fall in 1975 The remnants of colonial architecture, such as the cathedral and city hall, are now viewed more as decorative relics rather than reminders of the past, contributing to the city's reputation as the Pearl of the Far East These historical structures coexist with modern high-rises and bustling commercial areas, creating a landscape where the memory of experiential history is overshadowed by the present As the physical space of the city absorbs its historical context, the chronological narrative collapses, leaving visitors to navigate a reality where space dominates over time This transformation leads to a desensitized perception of the city's evolution, where the past and present blend into a simulacrum of history, reflecting Fredric Jameson's notion that contemporary life is increasingly defined by spatial categories rather than temporal ones.
Exploring the city's diverse street signs offers a unique encounter with history, not as a distant memory but as an ever-present reference This experience highlights the way time is spatialized, stripping history of its specific events and reducing its narratives to a uniform experience devoid of individual differences.
The historical narrative of a nation often amalgamates diverse pasts into a singular, sometimes violent, master story of nationalism and patriotism, fostering a collective amnesia Streets are predominantly named after national heroes, official artists, or significant historical events, reflecting this unified narrative This historical cartography stretches back thousands of years, tracing the journey from the mythical origins of the nation to its contemporary figures For instance, one can travel north along the Sài Gòn River, passing the street dedicated to the Trưng Sisters, the first national heroines who fought against Chinese invaders in the first century, before reaching the monument to Lê Thánh Tôn, the fifth king of the Later dynasty.
The Lê Dynasty, ruling in the late fifteenth century, set the stage for Vietnam's rich historical narrative, which includes figures like Nguyễn Đình Chiểu, the nineteenth-century anticolonial poet, and pivotal events such as the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, the French's final stronghold in Vietnam Key leaders like Lê Lợi, who vanquished the Chinese Ming occupation, and Nguyễn Huệ, the Tây Sơn Rebellion's leader, are commemorated along the city's grand avenues, leading to the statue of Hồ Chí Minh, a symbol of modern Vietnamese nationalism In this urban landscape, chronology becomes irrelevant; history is etched into the very fabric of the city, creating a timeless narrative of nationalism that resonates throughout Vietnam.
History is often perceived as a static narrative, yet its representation is dynamic and subject to change The Nguyễn dynasty, Vietnam's last imperial lineage, which concluded in 1945, is notably absent from historical maps Recently, a conference in Hà Nội convened historians to reevaluate the significance of the Nguyễn kings, leading to a consensus that supports the idea of naming a street in honor of one of these overlooked rulers This discussion highlights the ongoing debate about historical memory and representation in Vietnam.
The act of mapping cities in Vietnam serves as a powerful manifestation of postwar politics, illustrating how history is not linear but shaped by contemporary perceptions of inclusion and exclusion As I navigate familiar streets like Huỳnh Thúc Kháng and Ngô Đức Kế, I am constantly reminded of the anticolonial scholars they commemorate, reflecting a successful negotiation in the politics of remembering This process of naming and renaming, akin to the themes explored in Brian Friel's play Translations, highlights the imperialistic translation of history and identity, while also evoking the presence of historical figures who remain unrecognized in the current geo-historical landscape.
Phạm Quỳnh, a significant historical figure, was often criticized by contemporaries like Huỳnh and Ngô for his support of cultural renovation, believing that Vietnam's independence from French colonialism required an understanding of French culture He advocated for Western learning not as a replacement for Vietnam's classical education, but as a complementary approach that emphasized the preservation of Vietnamese culture and language As a prolific translator of French literature and a writer on literary criticism, philosophy, and culture, Quỳnh passionately celebrated Nguyễn Du’s classic epic, The Tale of Kiều, embodying his belief in dynamic essentialism—preserving core Vietnamese cultural elements while embracing Western values However, radical revolutionaries viewed Quỳnh as a traitor, accusing him of using cultural discourse to distract from the pressing need for national liberation, with figures like Ngô Đức Kế denouncing his culturalism as “evil learning” in favor of a focus on practical sciences.
In 2008, Đặng Thai Mai, a notable Marxist literary critic from North Vietnam, labeled Phạm Quỳnh as “a traitor of the Vietnamese people in disguise of an intellectual,” among other derogatory titles Mai criticized Quỳnh for promoting French humanitarianism, history, and culture, suggesting that his political stance was a betrayal of Vietnamese identity and values.
Vietnamese collaboration blatantly endorsed colonialism and considered it an ethical and
Phạm Quỳnh faced two notable criticisms of his culturalism from contemporaries Ngô Đức Kế in 1924 and Huỳnh Thúc Kháng in 1930 His reflections on The Tale of Kiều were most prominently expressed in a speech delivered during the 200th anniversary of Nguyễn Du’s birth on December 8, 1924, which was subsequently published in the journal Nam.
Phong, of which Phạm Quỳnh served as editor-in-chief for almost its entire life, from
From 1917 to 1932, the journal operated until its closure two years after Phạm Quỳnh accepted a role at the imperial court in Huế in 1934 Phạm Quỳnh's vision aimed to create a humane project for the benefit of the Vietnamese people However, as Mai critiques, this perspective can be seen as a form of "học thuyết liếm gót" or bootlicking theory, masked within Phạm Quỳnh's ideals.
In a critical examination of cultural discourse, Marxist historian Trần Văn Giàu accuses Phạm Quỳnh of employing "treacherous manipulations" to divert Vietnamese youth from political engagement and patriotism, viewing culture as a tool for this conspiracy (Trần Văn Giàu, [1973] 2003: 1012).
Traveling through Sài Gòn evokes reflections on Vietnam's historical struggles against foreign invasions and the complex political paths taken by its people, often leading to internal conflicts Phạm Quỳnh exemplifies a historical figure who diverged from mainstream Marxist ideologies, facing exclusion from collective memory His early writings in the Nam Phong journal reveal a naive acceptance of colonialism; however, his significant contributions through translations and critical essays greatly advanced the Vietnamese language and fostered new literary sensibilities in the country.
3 Dương Quảng Hàm applauded Phạm Quỳnh’s translations because they helped
Phạm Thế Ngũ regarded Phạm Quỳnh as a pioneering figure in the novel genre due to his significant contributions to translation and literary criticism After 1975, Phạm Quỳnh's influence faded from Vietnam's cultural landscape, but Vương Trí Nhàn revisited his legacy in a 2005 essay that explored the role of intellectuals in the reception of Western cultures in early twentieth-century Vietnam This essay highlights the nuanced relationship between politics and culture in Vietnam, suggesting that political narratives often operate on the margins rather than dominating the discourse Through personal reflections on the past and contemporary translation theories, I strive to articulate new ideas that transcend entrenched biases, recognizing that Phạm Quỳnh's experiences were shaped by diverse external influences, including revolutionary and cultural politics imported from various countries.
Quỳnh's marginalization in the colonial context can be attributed to his cultural perspectives, which were alien to Vietnam's long history of resisting invaders During the Chinese colonial period, Vietnamese culture and politics were deeply intertwined with the Sino sphere, making collaboration in cultural matters unfeasible The focus was primarily on violent uprisings to expel foreign powers, emphasizing the need to dismantle their political and economic control rather than their cultural influence This context likely facilitated the acceptance of Marxism, which resonated with patriotic sentiments in Quỳnh's cultural theories, as highlighted by Vương Trí Nhàn (2005) More recently, Trần Văn Toàn (2008) recognized Phạm Quỳnh as a pivotal figure in broadening Vietnam's literary horizons and fostering new literary sensibilities through exposure to Western literature.
Last year, I introduced contemporary translation studies to Vietnam through an article published in a prominent literary journal in Hà Nội, co-authored with Phạm Quốc Lộc and Lê Nguyên Long (2009) In that same issue, we also included our translation of Susan Bassnett's essay, "Translating Genre" (2006) The historical context of culture in Vietnam, particularly during colonialism, has often led to its absence in the political sphere Consequently, rearticulating culture as a political agenda—whether nationalist or collaborationist—has been viewed as unconventional and ineffective.
VIETNAM IN TRANSLATION AND TRANSLATION IN VIETNAM: FROM
VIETNAM IN TRANSLATION AND TRANSLATION IN VIETNAM: FROM
PREMODERN CONFUSION TO COLONIAL AMBIVALENCE
2.1 Homi Bhabha and Colonial Ambivalence
In "The Location of Culture" (1994), Homi Bhabha rigorously examines the inherent ambivalence of colonial power, emphasizing that colonial authority in India, represented through translated religious texts, embodies a process of displacement and distortion This power does not rely on a universal English identity but undergoes cultural translation, producing Englishness as a sign of difference The translation process, while crucial, remains obscured, presenting colonial texts as immediate truths despite their complex origins Bhabha argues that this structure of colonial discourse represses translation, yet the repressed continually resurfaces, creating instability within colonial narratives Cultural translation becomes a strategy of subjugation that allows for resistance through mimicry and hybridity, revealing translation as a double-edged sword that undermines the very domination it supports Consequently, resistance emerges not as an agency of the colonized but as a byproduct of the ambivalence inherent in colonial presence.
In the complex dynamics of colonial representation, the authority of English literature not only manifests through repetition and displacement but also challenges the notion of transparency This resistance to recognition is not merely a political opposition or a rejection of another culture's content; rather, it stems from the ambivalence created by dominant discourses that highlight cultural differences while simultaneously reinforcing colonial hierarchies, normalization, and marginalization.
Benita Parry, in her book *Postcolonial Studies: A Materialist Critique*, argues that the voice of colonial power inherently generates an "auto-critique" that undermines its own authority This resistance, rooted in the foundational aspect of cultural translation, often becomes detached from the real experiences of the colonized, whose acts of defiance inspire insurgent practices.
Parry critiques Bhabha's notions of hybridity and translation, arguing that they inadequately define anticolonial resistance as merely a textual performance shaped by empire's dual inscription While reconciling Marxist and poststructuralist perspectives is valuable, Bhabha's view of resistance as discursive ambivalence is insufficient because it relies on a simplistic understanding of translation This article contends that cultural translation is not merely an imposed condition that leads to hybridity and instability; rather, it involves agency, subjective choices, and manipulations within power dynamics Contemporary translation studies reveal that translation encompasses not only meanings but also identities and cultural nuances, highlighting the ideological complexities involved Therefore, understanding colonialism as a site of cultural translation requires a thorough examination of how various colonial actors interact, reflect, and contest each other's roles.
Colonial authority is marked by the ambivalence of cultural translation, influenced by the colonizer's will and power The colonizer shapes the terms of this ambivalence, as no culture is homogeneous or offers a singular target for translation This heterogeneity means that translation becomes a metonymic act, highlighting certain aspects while representing the whole, as noted by Maria Tymoczko in "Translation in a Postcolonial Context." The concept of hybridity, as discussed by Bhabha, introduces a realm of foreign elements that complicate the relationship between cultures, yet it can obscure the ideological choices available in these interactions Partha Chatterjee's essay "The Disciplines in Colonial Bengal" further explores these dynamics.
The concept of hybridity, often vaguely defined, paradoxically creates a sense of uniformity among diverse products of dissemination, despite advocating for variability and context (Chatterjee, 1995: 20) To address this, hybridity should be viewed as a spectrum of choices and strategies shaped by translation, rather than an ambiguous state of indeterminacy In this context, colonial authority becomes hybridized as it is expressed in new cultural settings, prompting questions about the form and content of its hybridity Colonialism addresses these questions with varying levels of aggression through different institutions and policies.
Bhabha's concept of colonial ambivalence overlooks the complexities of the colonized's own ambivalence In contemporary postcolonial studies, there exists a paradox: while postcolonial criticism aims to deconstruct the portrayal of colonized cultures as static and homogeneous, it simultaneously addresses the totalizing Othering that characterizes the Western perception of these cultures.
Postcolonial theorization often centers on the colonizer, neglecting the complexities of the colonized perspective The concepts of hybridity and ambivalence, as articulated by Bhabha, reveal that these are not merely inherent conditions devoid of the colonizer's influence; rather, they represent the mechanisms through which the colonized navigate their dual realities Cultural translation plays a crucial role in this dynamic, intertwining with political strategy and manipulation, rather than existing solely as a product of colonial encounters It is essential to historicize cultural translation beyond the initial contact with Western powers, recognizing its ongoing presence in pre-colonial interactions among diverse cultures This approach illustrates that cultural translation is an active negotiation process, involving both colonizers and the colonized, each pursuing their own objectives of domination and resistance, thereby highlighting the subjectivity and agency within colonial spaces.
This article explores the historical hybridity and ambivalence in Vietnam prior to French colonization, arguing that cultural translation has been essential for Vietnamese survival and resistance When the French arrived in the nineteenth century, they encountered a rich linguistic and cultural landscape shaped by centuries of translation Ambivalence became a backdrop for the complex dynamics of colonial power, where domination and resistance involved intricate negotiations of identity In "The Hybrid Birth of Vietnam," the mythical origins of the Vietnamese people illustrate their ability to integrate foreign influences into their national identity, reflecting a prioritization of survival over cultural purity, as noted by William Duiker The sections "The Confucian Confusion" and "The Linguistic Confusion" delve into the cultural and linguistic hybridity experienced by the Vietnamese, employing Derrida's concept of post-Babel confusion to highlight the underlying heterogeneity of their language and culture These sections also analyze various research paradigms, revealing confusion among scholars regarding Vietnamese identities, while some secondary sources, particularly works by Vietnamese scholars during colonialism, provide insights into the intellectual experience of Confucianism under Western influence Collectively, these discussions establish a foundation for understanding the linguistic and cultural ambivalence that underpins the process of cultural translation in Vietnam.
The section titled “Diễn nôm and Premodern Translingualism in Vietnam” delves into how the Vietnamese shaped their identities through cultural translation in their interactions with Chinese language and culture It highlights the complex nature of translingualism, where the Sino-Vietnamese relationship defies simple categorization as home versus foreign This complexity underscores the fluidity inherent in the Vietnamese approach to survival and cultural adaptation The section emphasizes the multifaceted translations between domestic and foreign cultural elements, focusing on diễn nôm, a radical form of domesticating translation prevalent in premodern Vietnam Diễn nôm is explored as a versatile translation practice that served various purposes, from personal aspirations to nationalist movements, enabling medieval Vietnamese literati to create new sensibilities and identities that transcended Confucian norms Ultimately, diễn nôm exemplifies the Vietnamese mastery of translation, acting as an invisible force that challenged and undermined French colonial dominance.
The section "Cultural Translation: Redefining Ambivalence and Hybridity" revisits the theoretical discussions from earlier, emphasizing the enduring significance of diễn nôm in contemporary contexts It examines the complex power dynamics within colonial Vietnam, challenging the simplistic dichotomy of colonizer versus colonized The French colonial endeavors in Vietnam are framed within the broader landscape of global colonialism during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, highlighting how debates in Paris influenced French governance in Indochina However, the impact of Vietnamese agency on French colonialism is underscored, revealing that the colonizers' goals were often reshaped by diverse local perspectives and agendas This interaction led to a continuous negotiation of power relations, characterized by ambivalence and hybridity.
2.2 The Hybrid Birth of Vietnam
The early history of Vietnam remains uncertain due to limited material sources and a reliance on mythological narratives While Chinese occupation began in 111 B.C., making historical texts more accessible, it raises questions about whether this period should be classified as Vietnamese or Chinese history In this context, Keith Taylor’s "The Birth of Vietnam" (1983) attempts to narrate Vietnam’s past from the pre-Chinese Đông Sơn civilization to the tenth century However, some scholars, like Trương Bửu Lâm, argue that the title is misleading, suggesting that the "birth" occurs when the civilization is already twelve hundred years old, referencing the popular but poorly substantiated belief in a "four-thousand-year-old civilization of Vietnam."
The term "Vietnam" was not utilized until the nineteenth century, indicating that the Vietnam referenced in the title pertains solely to the territory inhabited by the ancestors of modern Vietnamese, which, at the time of gaining independence from Chinese rule, encompassed little more than the Red River Delta Consequently, Taylor's book title may appear misleading regarding both the concept of birth and the name Vietnam However, it also reflects Taylor's innovative interpretation of these notions, suggesting a deeper understanding rather than simply misrepresenting historical facts.
In his book, Taylor presents a mythical narrative that highlights the origins of the Vietnamese people and nation, a story frequently referenced by historians across various political perspectives This myth recounts the tale of Lạc Long Quân, a hero who arrives in the Red River plain from the sea and marries Âu Cơ, the wife of a northern invader After vanquishing the enemy, Lạc Long Quân takes Âu Cơ to Mount Tân Viên, where she gives birth to the first of the Hùng kings, who are celebrated as the founding fathers of Vietnam.
Taylor identifies a significant theme in Vietnamese mythology, where a local cultural hero counters a northern threat by seizing its legitimacy This narrative foreshadows the complex historical dynamics between the Vietnamese and the Chinese.
WESTERN OTHERS (AND ‘OTHER’ WESTERNS): TRANSLATING
WESTERN OTHERS (AND ‘OTHER’ WESTERNS): TRANSLATING
BROKEBACK MOUNTAIN INTO VIETNAMESE CULTURE
In previous discussions, I explored the complexities of cultural translation as articulated by Homi Bhabha and Judith Butler I emphasized that cultural translation should not be viewed solely as a means of resistance or subversion without acknowledging the colonizer's reliance on it Recognizing cultural translation as a reflection of power dynamics reveals that both the colonizer and the colonized, as well as the subject and normative regulations, are active participants in this process.
In this chapter, I explore the textual performance of cultural translation, emphasizing the importance of recognizing the contingency inherent in translation projects To effectively implement a specific translating strategy, the translator must engage in what Maria Tymoczko (2007) describes as a holistic cultural analysis of the target language and culture This approach is exemplified in my analysis of translating Annie Proulx’s Brokeback Mountain into contemporary contexts.
Vietnamese culture includes cultural processes that displace translation and homosexuality from, respectively, official literary norms and gender practices
4.1 Story of the Other: Homosexuality
The Vietnamese history of resistance against foreign domination has fostered a strong sense of identity, distinguishing between home and foreignness, friends and enemies In times of conflict, clear boundaries between 'Us' and 'Them' emerge, which are further reinforced during peacetime, particularly in the context of globalization While globalization may blur economic borders, it simultaneously deepens cultural divisions, as different realities intertwine yet reinforce unique identities This phenomenon highlights the inherent binary between Self and Other in cross-cultural relations, where the Other is often viewed negatively, as seen in Vietnam's experience Furthermore, Western scholars frequently emphasize their own portrayal of the Eastern Other in postcolonial theories, overlooking the representation of the West within the East Edward Said's insights remind us that the East is not merely a passive subject awaiting Western interpretation.
The cultural landscape of Vietnam has been shaped by a long-standing resistance to foreign domination and postwar nationalism, leading to the creation of a Western Other characterized by negative signifiers such as cruel invaders and decadent imperialist cultures The Vietnamese language features a wealth of derogatory terms that highlight the enemy's perceived negative traits, with a rich system of third-person references like "thằng," "chúng," and "bọn chúng" that convey contempt These terms are naturally integrated into children's language through historical narratives taught in schools and disseminated in the media, exemplified by lines from popular poems learned in reading classes.
The poem "Mỹ lom khom bước cúi đầu" depicts a poignant scene where a small Vietcong girl, armed with a rifle, confronts a towering, handcuffed American soldier who is bowing his head in submission This powerful imagery highlights the theme of resistance and the stark contrast between the innocence of youth and the weight of conflict.
The poem utilizes contrastive imagery to emphasize the division between Us and Them, highlighting themes such as small versus big and victory versus defeat Emotionally charged terms like "o" and "thằng," which carry significant meaning in the original language, are lost in translation; "o" symbolizes femininity and intimacy, while "thằng" denotes a contemptuous reference to a lower-status male This dual victory showcases an indigenous girl overpowering an American male soldier, illustrating not only America's failure in Vietnam but also the humiliation of a superpower by a young girl This divisive portrayal reflects a broader system of differentiation that persists in postwar national identity, fostering cultural intolerance towards foreignness and hybridity while promoting a nationalist agenda of cultural integrity The foreign and hybrid elements are thus framed as adversaries.
After the Vietnam War, Vietnamese Amerasians and their mothers faced significant social marginalization, often labeled as “children of the enemy.” This stigma positioned them as the first visible representation of the Other within Vietnamese society during the postwar era.
1995) 2 Within such a cultural framework, the foreign, including its trace, is rendered intolerable, foregrounding the obsessive aspiration to purist cultural integrity
Cultural purity plays a crucial role in shaping national identity by symbolizing political independence and unity essential for new sovereignty A key aspect of this purifying movement is the focus on language, particularly the Vietnamese language, which often undergoes a process of cleansing that involves removing Classical Chinese vocabulary historically integrated into it.
The influence of foreign elements in language can lead to a form of 'contamination.' Classical Chinese vocabulary, characterized by its pedantic nature, often reflects a nostalgic longing for Vietnam's feudal past, a time viewed as contrary to the spirit of modernity.
The repression of the country's translation history is a result of ideological amnesia, which is paradoxically reinforced by the act of translation itself The establishment of quốc ngữ as the national language has marginalized classical Chinese writings, contributing to this cultural oversight.
Many Vietnamese people today rely on translations of Chinese classics, which aids in shaping a vision of a distinct Vietnamese culture In this context, translation plays a crucial role in both preserving and obscuring cultural memory.
In "Children of the Enemy: Oral Histories of Vietnamese Amerasians and their Mothers" (1995), Steven Debonis shares interviews with Amerasian children, highlighting their experiences of ostracism in post-war Vietnam Many recall being labeled as "Mỹ lai," a term used to describe those with darker skin and curly hair, reflecting the societal divisions that arose from historical contexts As children, we, the "pure blood" kids, were influenced by revolutionary ideologies, often participating in language drills aimed at translating Classical Chinese into "pure" Vietnamese This pursuit of linguistic purity gained traction during the 1979 war with China, evolving into a symbolic act of exclusion The political discourse in Vietnam has since been shaped by an Us-versus-Them mentality, with postwar culture emphasizing boundaries that separate the Self from the Other, particularly in resisting foreign influences from the Western capitalist world.
The system of differentiation constructs a discursive reality of the Other to define the ideal Self, simultaneously establishing an exterior point that allows culture to displace unwanted values and practices Rather than simply denying or criticizing these undesirable cultural elements, they are effectively deported to the realm of the Other, which is perceived as their original source.
Homosexuality often exemplifies the process of cultural displacement, as modern portrayals in film, literature, and news frequently frame it as a Western social movement, presenting it as a narrative of the Other.
Cao Xuân Hạo is a prominent critic of the "purifying movement" in the Vietnamese language, arguing that the distinction between classical Chinese and pure Vietnamese is both unnecessary and harmful He believes that classical Chinese has become so integrated into Vietnamese that it should no longer be viewed as a foreign language Removing this vocabulary would result in a self-displacement that ultimately diminishes the richness of the language rather than purifying it.