AT THE CHEF’S TABLE AT THE CHEF’S TABLE Culinary Creativity in Elite Restaurants VANINA LESCHZINER Stanford University Press Stanford, California Stanford University Press Stanford, California ©2015 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Leschziner, Vanina, author At the chef ’s table : culinary creativity in elite restaurants / Vanina Leschziner pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index isbn 978-0-8047-8797-0 (cloth : alk paper) Celebrity chefs—United States Creative ability in cooking—United States I Title tx649.a1l47 2015 641.5092'2—dc23 2015004654 isbn 978-0-8047-9549-4 (electronic) Typeset by Bruce Lundquist in 10.5/15 Adobe Garamond Contents Acknowledgmentsvii Prefacexi 1.╇ Exploring the World of Elite Chefs Career Paths in High Cuisine 17 Categories and Classifications in Cuisine 49 Managing a Culinary Style 73 Cognitive Patterns and Work Processes in Cooking 99 Culinary Styles and Principles of Creation 123 Mapping Out Creative Patterns 147 Methodological Appendix 173 Notes 183 Bibliography 227 Index 247 Acknowledgments Writing a book is unlike professional cooking in most respects Above all, I could hardly expect this book to offer even a fraction of the pleasure I have had eating at many of the best restaurants in New York City and San Francisco during the fieldwork that led to the book But writing a book is like professional cooking in that the final product is associated with an author, even though it is the outcome of a collective endeavor Nobody was more indispensable for making this book possible than the chefs who gave of their time generously, allowed me to prod them with questions, and gave me access to their kitchens to watch how they worked, even during the busiest times Elite chefs are constantly approached for interviews by high-profile media so I am grateful that they agreed to my requests for interviews, even though they got nothing in return Unfortunately, the mores of sociological research prevent me from acknowledging chefs by name, which is particularly regrettable in the case of those chefs who, beyond agreeing to be interviewed, let me observe the kitchen during dinner service and invited me to observe other parts of their work (staff meetings, visits to farmers’ markets, work on new dishes) The biggest thanks are due to those who called up their friends to tell them that giving me an interview was worthwhile Without their help, I would not have had access to some of the chefs who were critical to a study of high cuisine in New York and San Francisco Much intellectual, professional, and emotional support made this book possible Nobody deserves more gratitude than John Levi Martin, who has long been a mentor John’s contributions to my work and well-being far exceed what could be acknowledged in these pages I could have not dreamt of Acknowledgments╇╇viii more or better intellectual and professional advice and support, nor of a more unwavering friendship I am also fortunate to have met Karen Cerulo, Paul McLean, and Ann Mische, whose input is all over this book I am grateful to Viviana Zelizer for her early feedback, and to Eviatar Zerubavel for his support during my time at Rutgers A special thank you to Karen, who is always there when I need her advice Over the years since this project started many people have contributed to it in all sorts of ways Some read and commented on one, various, or all chapters; others helped through discussions and conversations; still others offered advice or support; and quite a few provided welcome and necessary distractions along the way Thanks go to all my friends who have served as regular reminders that there is an exciting life besides book writing Here, I wish to thank those who have given feedback or support for this book: Shyon Baumann, Claudio Benzecry (a big thank you for reading the whole manuscript!), Joseph Bryant, Clayton Childress, Eduardo de la Fuente, Mustafa Emirbayer, Rick Fantasia, James Farrer, Priscilla Ferguson, Adam Green, James Jasper, Sherri Klassen, Anna Korteweg, Monika Krause, Jennifer Lena, Paul Lichterman, Omar Lizardo (a special thank you for various readings in addition to the whole manuscript!), Jeff Manza, Alexandra Marin, Neil McLaughlin, Ashley Mears, Daniel Menchik, Philippe Monin, Craig Rawlings, Arturo Rodríguez Morató, Krishnendu Ray, Erik Schneiderhan, Daniel Silver, Jeremy Tanner, and Andreas Wimmer I have also benefitted from the feedback of audiences at conferences where I presented parts of this book, including several American Sociological Association annual meetings, Eastern Sociological Society annual meetings, International Sociological Association Forums of Sociology, and also at invited presentations, colloquia, and workshops at McMaster University, Rutgers University, Sophia University, the University of California, Los Angeles, the University of Chicago, the University of St Andrews, the University of Â�Toronto, and Yeshiva University The research for this book was supported, at various stages of the process, by an award from the Graduate School at Rutgers University, a fellowship from the Center for Cultural Analysis at Rutgers University and a Connaught Fund start-up award and other research support from the University of Â�Toronto Acknowledgments╇╇ix Four graduate students helped with research for this book—thank you to Terran Giacomini, Sarah Knudson, Lance Stewart, and Lawrence Williams Two anonymous reviewers for Stanford University Press took the time and effort to read the manuscript carefully (and promptly), and provided thorough and insightful feedback that greatly helped to improve the book If I ever had an ideal of an editor, Kate Wahl, my editor at Stanford University Press, is that ideal personified Her advice and support has been constant and wonderful in every single instance, and her endless patience and positive disposition are beyond my comprehension Thanks are due also to Elspeth Â�MacHattie and Gigi Mark at Stanford University Press I wish to dedicate this book to the memory of my mother, Gisèle Ebel, who loved food and books almost as much as she loved people She put up with me as I worked through many drafts of this book, but regrettably, did not live to see that work finally come to fruition Bibliography╇╇242 guistics, Artificial Intelligence, and Education, edited by Rand J Spiro, Bertram C Bruce, and William F Brewer Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Sahlins, Marshall 1976 Culture and Practical Reason Chicago: University of Chicago Press ——— 1981 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Typecasting in the Feature-Film Labor Market.” American Journal of Sociology 108:1018–1074 Index Academia, 73, 126, 192n41, 223n70 Action: differentiation and, 205n45; in fields, 164–66; rational, 165, 203n21, 222n48; toolkit theory, 211n45, 221n43, 222n46; values and, 163 Adversarial cooperation, 161–62 Alter, Norbert, 208n20 Ansel, Dominique, 123 Apprenticeships, 13, 17, 26, 194n57 Artists, see Cultural production Autonomy, of fields, 126–27 Batali, Mario, 91, 92, 93 Bay Area restaurants, 2, 183n2, 194n64 See also San Francisco restaurant industry Bergesen, Albert, 207n8 Bonelli, Simone, 58 Boulud, Daniel, 92 Boundaries: between categories, 141; crossing, 50, 55, 56, 67–68, 135; of culinary fields, 8, 163, 185n20; of culinary styles, 49–50, 51, 53–54, 55–56, 67–68; geographic, 8, 163; moral, 87 Bourdieu, Pierre, 126, 138, 156, 165, 162, 186n12, 200n52, 205n44, 206n49, 207n6, 217n49, 218n57, 218n7, 225n9 Bras, Michel, 212n1 Breiger, Ronald, 212n4 Bruni, Frank, 57–58, 198n30 Business considerations: constraints on chefs, 6–7, 73, 104, 127, 137; in cultural production, 186n23, 213n10; failure rates of restaurants, 187n37; profit margins, 6–7, 31–32, 201n65; related businesses of chefs, 3, 23, 91, 92, 189n14 See also Chef-owners; Competition; Restaurant owners California cuisine, 2, 194n65 See also San Francisco restaurant industry California Culinary Academy, 30 Career paths: to becoming chefs, 18–22, 30, 33, 40, 41–42, 43; of chef-owners, 24, 33; in Europe, 41; in New York, 34–37, 35 (fig.), 36 (fig.), 38 (fig.), 39 (fig.), 40–43, 46, 47; in San Francisco, 34, 43–45, 44 (fig.); social context, 34; variations, 18 Careers, culinary: accidental beginnings, 17, 19–21, 45, 188n4; beginning, 13–14, 17–22, 187n33; choices, 46–47, 70; dish creation and, 7–8; ending, 23, 189n14; entering, 10, 17, 22, 23, 27, 45; episodic nature, 18, 47; in Europe, 17, 20, 41, 188n2, 191n34, 194n57; goals, 20; management of, 15–16, 47; moving from other careers, 45, 189n13; moving up in rank, 10–12, 11 (fig.), 14, 23–24, 43; outside of New York and San Francisco, 42–43, 45; pastry chefs, 13, Index╇╇248 186–87n31; paths of action, 47; restaurant status and, 24, 68–70; selfconcepts and, 9, 46–47, 70; sideways movement, 31, 32; skipping steps, 23, 24, 43, 189n21; upward mobility, 32; variations, 18, 24, 34–37, 40–42, 43, 45, 46–47 See also Job mobility; Training Celebrity chefs, 3, 15, 17, 81, 188–89n12, 215n28 See also Chefs Cerulo, Karen, 203n16, 216n37 Chapel, Alain, 93 Chef-owners: as businesspersons, 91, 92–93, 137; as career goal, 15; career paths, 24, 33; eating out, 82–83; executive chefs appointed, 12; financial partners, 32, 186n29; multiple restaurants, 3, 8, 15, 91; roles, 4, 91–92; status of restaurants, 31–32; successful, 92–93; variations among, 3; viewed by other chefs, 91–93 See also Restaurant owners Chefs: celebrity, 3, 15, 17, 81, 188–89n12, 215n28; competitors, 8, 79, 80, 81, 84–87, 161, 185n19, 206n51; cooperation among, 97, 161–62, 206n51; eating out, 79, 80–83, 85–87, 96–97, 131–33, 202n12; expediting role, 3–4, 13, 147; gender, 183n5; goals, 165–66; interviews, 5, 173–74; management roles, 3–4, 5, 6–7, 127; monitoring and emulating peers, 77–80, 81–83, 85–87; occupational identities, 22–23, 30, 46; palate changes, 70, 137, 138, 216n39; pressures on, 4, 9, 14–15, 75–77, 99–100; related business activities, 3, 23, 91, 92, 189n14; relationships with owners, 32–33; reputations, 4, 6, 15, 85, 125; roles in kitchen, 3–4, 6, 147, 207n9; routine work, 14–15, 33–34, 100; travel, 71, 77, 78, 80, 82, 83–84, 131, 203n20; visibility, 188n10 See also Careers; Culinary styles; Dish creation; Job mobility; Professional lineages; Selfconcepts; Social connections Chefs de cuisine, 12 See also Kitchen staff members Chefs de partie, 12 Chefs tournant, 12 Chez Panisse, 159 CIA, see Culinary Institute of America City College of San Francisco, 30 Cognition: automatic, 117–22, 208n18, 210nn38–39, binary categories, 141; connectionist model, 117–18, 209– 10n34; deliberative, 100–1, 106–7, 114, 118––19, 120–21, 209n28, 210n39; dual-process model, 118–20, 121–22; economy, 140–41; self-concepts and, 210–11n42, serial symbolic processing, 118, 122 Cognitive asymmetry, 83, 203n16, 216n37 Cognitive schemas, 117–18, 143–45, 168– 69, 204n27 See also Schemas Comfort food, 65, 80, 197n22 Competition: among chefs, 8, 79, 80, 81, 84–87, 161, 185n19, 206n51; among restaurants, 161; innovation and, 66, 71, 104, 109–10, 150; in New York, 206n51; social connections and, 161–62 Conformity, 74–77, 95, 157, 201–2n4 Connectionist model of cognition, 117–18, 209–10n34 Constraints: commercial, 6–7, 73, 104, 127, 137; creativity and, 4, 6–7, 169– 70; on culinary styles, 73, 127–28, 151, 213–14n16; on dish creation, 6–7, 8–9, 127; innovation and, 73, 75–77, 104, 152; perceptions of, Cookbooks: copyright protection, 73, 185n16; inaccuracies in, 87, 89; as sources of ideas, 87–89, 204n30; visual elements, 87–88, 89; writers, 87, 204n29 Cooking: as conceptual endeavor, 100, Index╇╇249 108, 115, 117, 120; equipment, 52, 53, 54; flexibility in, 50, 102; as practical endeavor, 100, 101–2, 115–16, 120; social dimension, 21–22 See also Culinary styles; Dish creation; Ingredients; Skills; Techniques Cooks, see Kitchen staff members Cooley, Charles H., 167, 222–23n56 Cooperation, among chefs, 97, 161–62, 206n51 Copyright protection, of cookbooks, 73, 185n16 See also Intellectual property rights Corporate restaurant groups, 81–82, 104, 129, 130–31, 214n21 Creativity: “aha” moments, 113, 210n41; chefs’ views of, 1; complexity, 170–71; constraints and, 4, 6–7, 75, 169–70; in cultural fields, 7; habitual action and, 62, 79, 114; social context, 7–8, 124–25, 126, 144 See also Dish creation; Innovation; Originality Critics: chefs’ views of, 185n15, 198– 99n38; influence, 198–99n38; views of innovation, 57–59, 68,179–80 See also Reviews Cronuts, 123, 125 Culinary field positions: central position, 158–60; culinary styles and, 135–38, 141, 165; culinary style status and, 124, 126, 127–28, 148, 158; self-concepts and, 10, 158, 160–61, 169–70; struggles for meaning, 145 Culinary fields: boundaries, 8, 163, 185n20; geographical boundaries, 8; heteronomy, 127; mental maps, 9; principles, 124–27, 138, 143–44, 145; structure, 124–25, 144–45, 160; values, 148, 163 See also Fields Culinary Institute of America (CIA), 17, 28–30, 191n36, 192n38 Culinary schools: chefs’ views of, 27–29, 30; enrollment and graduation trends, 191n34; in Europe, 188n2; externships, 10–11, 12, 13–14, 24, 28–29; graduates, 27–30, 192n38, 192n40; occupational identities fostered, 22–23; programs, 11–12; social connections made, 28, 192n40; status, 29–30, 191n36; tuition costs, 28 Culinary styles: authenticity, 7, 74, 220n23; balancing conformity and originality, 74–77, 95; boundaries, 49–50, 51, 53–54, 55–56, 67–68; categories in reviews, 51, 57, 59–60; changing, 30, 128, 136, 192n42, 214n17; chefs’ views of, 59–62; choices, 30, 31, 49–50, 61–62, 127–28, 144, 165; classifications, 50–51, 135–37, 140–41, 197n26; constraints, 73, 137–38, 151, 213–14n16; customer preferences and, 75–77; differentiation from other chefs, 9–10, 74, 79–80, 94–95, 152, 158, 199n40; evolution over time, 62, 70–71, 120, 137–38; field positions and, 124, 126, 127–28, 135–38, 141, 158, 165; ingredients associated with, 3, 49–50, 108–9; job mobility across, 23, 26–27, 68–70; local environment and, 8, 71, 77–78, 96; in New York, 3, 50, 71, 95, 148–53, 149 (fig.); obscuring influences, 79–80, 93, 95, 202n12; opposite, 55–56, 140–41; patterns, 148–56, 149 (fig.), 155 (fig.), 158; rejection of labels, 49, 60–61; restaurant classification and, 49–50, 71; in San Francisco, 3, 61, 95–97, 153–56, 155 (fig.), 194n65, 206n50; self-concepts and, 62, 64–71, 74, 142, 147–48, 160, 201n66; simple, 80–81, 86; social connections and, 128–29; social context, 7–8, 126; status, 23, 50, 51–52, 61, 124, 125, 127–28; strategic choices, 124, 127–28, 144, 158; techniques, 50–51; variations, 4, 64–67, 169 See also Innovation; Modernist cuisine; Traditional culinary styles Index╇╇250 Culinary trends, 71, 96–97, 139, 140, 206n50 Cultural entrepreneurship, 199n46 Cultural production: acknowledgment of influences, 73; commercial considerations, 186n23, 213n10; creativity, 4, 7; factors in innovation, 157; fields, 8–10, 124, 126–27, 156, 157, 162–64, 213n10; modes, 6, 7, 164, 170 Customers: competition for, 161; dietary restrictions, 75; exclusive, 161, 220n26; openness to innovation, 75, 152; preferences, 1, 55, 75–77, 112, 132, 209n25; social connections with chefs, 188n10; tourists, 185n19 Del Posto, 57 Desserts: innovative, 113; molten chocolate cake, 121, 123, 125, 211–12n49, 212n1 See also Pastry chefs Dewey, John, 164, 165, 210n40, 212nn51– 52, 222nn45–47, 222n52 Dietary restrictions, 75 Differentiation: action and, 205n45; of culinary styles, 9–10, 74, 79–80, 94–95, 152, 158, 199n40; pressures, 161–62; in fields, 143, 206n49; knowledge exchange and, 85–86, 96; logic of action, 66, 68, 139; by individuals, 202n9 DiMaggio, 196n13, 211n48 Dining out, see Eating out Disattention to knowledge exchange, 79–80, 85–87 Dish creation: audiences, 7; avoiding impression of copying, 7, 83, 87–88, 132–33; as chefs’ responsibility, 6; cognitive processes, 100, 105–12, 113–14, 117–20, 121; constraints, 1, 6–7, 8–9, 73, 75, 127; copying from other chefs, 73–74, 83, 84–85, 203n20, 203n23; culinary fields and, 7–8, 124–25; differentiation as priority, 9–10; Â�decoupling from creator, 123; execution and, 6, 104, 112, 184n14; experience levels and, 1, 101–2, 103–4, 110–11; flavor as priority, 3, 9, 138–40, 141–43, 149–50, 154–55; frequency, 112, 121; ideas from foreign travel, 77–78, 83–84, 131, 203n20; inability to acknowledge sources, 7, 73; influences on, 6–8, 79–80; inspiration, 7, 99, 105–6, 112–13, 121, 131–32; from mistakes, 121, 211–12n49; by newer chefs, 103–4, 110–12; principles, 1, 9–10, 100–3; reproducing old ideas, 104, 110, 112; skills, 110, 142–43; ––staff roles, 5, 129–30; in traditional styles, 9, 108–9, 149–50, 154 See also Innovation; Knowledge exchange; Originality Dish creation processes: deliberative, 106–8, 113–14, 115–16, 118–19; evaluating dishes, 101, 105; improvisation, 112–14; intuitive, 1, 101–2, 105–6, 108–9, 119–20; practical logic, 101–2; separation from routine work, 99–100; trial and error, 102, 114–17; variations, 4, 100, 105, 110, 120 Dishes: comfort food, 65, 80, 197n22; components, 216n42; names, 79; presentation, 59, 63–64, 139, 216n42; repertoires of, 112; social relations and, 124–25; status, 56, 80, 125, 197n22 See also Menus Dispositions, 104, 111, 118, 121–22, 165, 166, 207n6, 212nn51–52 Ducasse, Alain, 93 Dufresne, Wylie, 92–93, 133–34, 147, 159, 216n36 Eating out: by chef-owners, 82–83; by chefs, 79, 80–83, 85–87, 96–97, 131–33, 202n12; by staff members, 82, 202–3n15 Education, see Culinary schools Elite restaurants, see Restaurant status Employment, see Careers; Job mobility; Labor markets Index╇╇251 Enjeu, 138, 216n41 Epstein, Seymour, 167 Ethnic restaurants, 81, 86, 199n43, 202n12 Europe: career paths, 41; chefs, 29, 41, 42, 93; chefs’ travel to, 83–84; culinary schools, 188n2; entry to culinary careers, 17, 20, 41, 188n2, 191n34, 194n57; stages, 13–14, 42 See also France Excellence: expectations of, 69, 99, 139–40, 158, 161; principles, 127, 138, 141, 143, 145, 150, 152; quality and, 139, 207n9 Executive chefs, see Chefs Executive sous-chefs, 12 Externs, 10–11, 12, 13–14, 24, 28–29 Fads, 139, 140–41 See also Culinary trends; Innovation Families, 17, 18–19, 21–22 Faulkner, Robert, 31, 195n69, 211n46 Ferguson, Priscilla, 185n20 Fields: action in, 164–66; autonomy, 126; cultural, 8–10, 124, 126–27, 156, 157, 162–64, 213n10; differentiation in, 143, 206n49; dynamics, 163–64; geographic boundaries, 8, 163; heteronomy and autonomy, 126–27; localized, 8; logics, 64–67, 102, 138–39, 144–45, 162, 164, 200n59, 207n6, 216n41; mental maps, 9; motives of members, 162–63, 164–65; navigating, 4, 9–10, 148, 168, 169; nonlocalized, 8; poles, 162–63, 225n9; schemas, 218n57; value spheres, 216n41 See also Culinary fields First cooks, 12 See also Kitchen staff members Flavor: balance, 64, 66, 138–39, 142–43, 154, 163; as priority for chefs, 3, 9, 138–40, 149–50, 154–55; senses used, 206–7n3 See also Fields, logics Foodstuffs: emotional associations, 22; status, 54, 125, 197n22; tastes and tex- tures, 100, 206nn1–2 See also Dishes; Ingredients Food trucks, 213n13 France: chefs, 20, 21–22, 93; entry to culinary careers, 20; family cooking, 21–22 See also Europe; Michelin Guide French cuisine: chefs’ preference for eating, 80; classic, 80, 108, 216n42; components, 216n42; dish names, 79; elements borrowed from other cuisines, 55–56, 197n21; ingredients, 3, 54, 196n17; nouvelle cuisine, 15, 53, 56, 93, 196n10, 196n17; status, 50, 194n65; techniques, 2–3, 51–52 French Culinary Institute, 28, 30 Friedland, Roger, 220n33, 221n39 Garde manger, 11, 13 Genealogies, 89–90, 204n34, 204–5n36 See also Professional lineages Generalism, 27 Girardet, Frédy, 93 Goffman, Erving, 187n33, 204n26 Gross, Neil, 169, 223n70 Habits, 62, 79, 102, 108, 109, 111, 114, 121–22, 166, 209n29, 212n50, 212n52 See also Dispositions Habitus, 164, 207n6, 208n17 Heteronomy, of fields, 126–27 High cuisine, see Careers; Chefs; Culinary styles; Restaurants High-status chefs, see Status Identities, of chefs, 160 See also Occupational identity; Self-concepts Impression management, 62 Ingredients: allergies, 75; associations with culinary styles, 3, 49–50, 54, 108–9; availability, 51, 55, 78, 95–96; contributions to flavor of dish, 64; dietary restrictions and, 75; ethical and environmental concerns, 61, 62, Index╇╇252 79, 135, 202n7; exotic or foreign, 51, 139; fresh and local, 3, 55, 95–96, 159, 202n7; geographic affinities, 100–101; gustatory logic, 101; in modernist cuisine, 52–53; quality, 139, 207n9; sources, 79, 110, 198n34; trends, 139 See also Innovation, in ingredients and combinations Innovation: assessments in reviews, 4, 57–59, 179–80; chefs’ views of, 63–67, 68, 77, 139–42, 149–50, 154–55; competition and, 66, 71, 104, 109–10, 150; constraints, 73, 75–77, 104, 152; critics’ views of, 57–59, 68, 179–80; customer receptivity, 75, 152; degree of, 58, 64–67, 103; –fads, 139, 140–41; incentives and constraints, 6, 74, 156–57; –at individual level, 62–63; information sources, 77–78, 79–90; at interorganizational level, 63; intuition in, 208n20; minimizing influences, 79–80, 87; motivations, 109–12, 157; at organizational level, 63; as performative action, 212n54; in presentation, 59, 63–64, 139; pressures for, 77, 103–4, 109–10; as priority for chefs, 65–67, 103–4; restaurant concepts, 49; scholarly view, 62–63; self-concepts and, 67, 74, 111–12, 120–21; spread of, 74–75, 78; status and, 156, 157; technical, 52–54, 63, 78, 139; by traditional chefs, 56; types, 58–59, 63–64 See also Creativity; Dish creation; Originality Innovation, in ingredients and combinations: borrowing from other cuisines, 54–56, 75, 196n17; critics’ views, 59, 179–80; examples, 63, 64, 101, 110, 111, 113; exotic or rare ingredients, 51, 139; by high-status chefs, 78 Institute of Culinary Education, 28, 30 Intellectual property rights, 73, 89, 185n16 See also Trade secrets International Culinary Center, 28 See also French Culinary Institute Interns, see Stages Intuition, 1, 101–2, 105–6, 108–9, 119– 20, 208n20 Italian cuisine: chefs’ preference for eating, 80; French cuisine and, 55–56; ingredients, 3, 54, 55, 56, 69, 108–9; innovations, 57–58, 113; low-status restaurants, 10, 69, 199n43; negative associations, 61; popularity, 192n42; techniques, 3, 52 Japanese cuisine, 50, 56, 71, 80, 197n21 Joas, Hans, 62, 208n21 Job mobility: across culinary styles, 23, 26–27, 68–70; detached concern and, 31; frequency, 14, 23, 26–27, 32, 33–34, 40–41, 46; of kitchen staff members, 14, 25–27, 32–33, 187n36; out of culinary occupation, 23; restaurant status and, 40–42, 43, 68–69; self-concepts and, 46–47; social connections and, 14, 23, 24, 25–26, 32, 45–46; vacancy chains, 34, 193n53; vertical, 23–24 See also Careers Johnson & Wales University, 28, 30, 191n36 Keller, Thomas, 92 Kitchen organization: expediting, 3–4, 13, 147; pastry departments, 13; stations, 12–13 Kitchen staff members: dishwashers, 10, 13, 17, 191–92n37; eating out, 82; in elite restaurants, 10–12, 186n28; first jobs, 17, 22, 188n1; hierarchy, 10–12, 11 (fig.), 13; hiring, 25, 28, 30, 190n26; immigrants, 11, 191–92n37; interviews, 5, 174–76; promotions, 24, 32; roles in dish creation, 5, 129–30; salaries, 31, 33; skills and characteristics, 25, 26–27, 28, 45–46, 190n26; in small kitchens, 13, 187n32; teamwork, Index╇╇253 17, 22; turnover, 14, 25–27, 32–33, 187n36; violence among, 13, 190n25; working conditions, 13, 33 See also Careers; Job mobility; Labor markets; Social connections of kitchen staff Knowledge exchange: among chefs, 73–74, 95, 96, 97, 129–31; diffusion of ideas, 214–15n25; disattention to, 79–80, 85–87; environmental influences, 96; monitoring and emulating peers, 77–80, 81–83, 85–87; norms, 73–74, 83, 84–85, 88, 89, 95, 203n20; open-source model, 89; within professional lineages, 89–90 Labor markets, 23–27, 34 See also Careers; Job mobility Lamont, Michèle, 184n12 Latour, Bruno, 124–25 Lineages, see Professional lineages Line cooks, 10, 11 See also Kitchen staff members Loyalty, 14, 25, 31, 32–33 MAD annual symposium, 214n24 Markets, 1, 2, 7, 50, 66, 74, 94, 202n9, 213n15, 219n14 See also Competition Marx, Karl, 185n18, 203–4n24, 212n3 Mead, George H., 167, 222–23n56 Media, 15, 50, 51, 57, 125, 188n8, 188n10, 191n34 See also Celebrity chefs; Reviews Mental maps, Menus: bringing back old dishes, 104; customer preferences, 55, 75–77, 112, 132, 209n25; formats, 78; frequency of changes, 112, 121, 209n31, 211n47; signature dishes, 75, 76, 112; staple dishes, 75; tasting, 64, 78; writing styles, 79, 198n34 See also Dishes Michelin Guide, 50, 57, 154, 197n25, 218–19n8 Middle-status chefs, see Status Mobility, see Job mobility Modernist cuisine: alternative terms, 195n9; bibliography, 196n11; ingredients, 52–53; in New York, 97, 133–34, 216n36; opposite styles, 140, 141; techniques, 52–54, 59, 63, 140, 217n44 See also Dufresne, Wylie Mohr, John, 197n23 Molten chocolate cake, 121, 123, 125, 211–12n49, 212n1 Moral purity, 141–42, 149, 150, 151–52, 154–56, 158 Moral understandings, 83, 84–85, 87, 89, 90 Movie industry, 126, 218n4 Murphy, Jennifer, 210–11n42 NASA, 49 Neo-institutionalism, 156, 185n18, 189n17, 207n8, 208n13, 215n26, 220n30 Network analysis, 153, 184n12, 189n17, 214–15nn25–27, 220–31 See also Social connections New American cuisine, 50, 51, 67, 110, 192n42, 196n18 New Nordic cuisine, 50, 125, 128, 220n20 Newspapers, see Reviews New York City Technical College, 30 New York magazine, 50, 57 New York restaurant industry: career paths, 34–37, 35 (fig.), 36 (fig.), 38 (fig.), 39 (fig.), 40–43, 46, 47; compared to San Francisco, 2, 3, 43–45, 94–97, 153–56; cooperation, 206n51; culinary schools, 28, 30; culinary styles, 3, 50, 71, 95, 148–53, 149 (fig.); Dufresne’s central position, 159; interviews, 5–6, 173–75; professional lineages, 92–93, 205n38, 205n40, 205n42; ratings, 153–54; size, 2, 183n1; social relations among chefs, 133–35, 153, 206n51 Index╇╇254 New York Times, 50, 57–58 See also Reviews Noma, 125 Norms: in innovation, 208n20; in knowledge exchange, 73–74, 83, 84–85, 88, 89, 95, 203n20; of regional cuisines, 138–39; social connections and, 73–74 “Nose-to-tail eating,” 61, 135, 220n20 Nouvelle cuisine, 15, 53, 56, 93, 196n10, 196n17 Occupational identity, 22–23, 26, 27, 30, 46, 190n29 See also Self-concepts Occupational mobility, 23, 194n59 Optical socialization, 204n25 Originality: balancing with conformity, 74–77, 95, 200n51, 201–2n4; as priority for chefs, 9–10, 109, 111–12, 138, 139–40, 152 See also Creativity; Dish creation; Innovation Owners, see Chef-owners; Restaurant owners Pastry chefs, 13, 123, 125, 186–87n31 Patents, 73, 185n16 See also Intellectual property rights Perbacco, 57–58 Podolny, Joel, 31, 189n18, 192n44, 215n33 Porchetta, 58 Pragmatists, 62, 164–66, 211n45 Prep cooks, 10, 11, 191–92n37 See also Kitchen staff members Prestige, 14, 15, 33, 47, 53, 56, 62, 128, 133–34, 138, 145, 162, 189–90n24, 218n2 See also Status Professional lineages: admired chefs, 90–93, 94–95, 158–60, 205n38; chefs one wishes to have worked with, 90, 92, 93–95, 205n38; compared to genealogies, 89–90, 204n34, 204–5n36; influences, 89–90; in New York, 92–93, 205n38, 205n40, 205n42; in San Francisco, 94–95, 96, 224n43 Rao, Hayagreeva, 184n7, 185n20, 197n20, 199n46, 215n32 Ratings, see Restaurant status; Reviews Recipes, 73, 87, 89, 114, 185n16 See also Cookbooks; Ingredients Redzepi, René, 125 Reflective understandings, see Self-concepts Regional cuisines, 4, 50, 52, 68, 138–39 183n6, 194n65, 196n18 See also French cuisine; Italian cuisine; Japanese cuisine Reputations, of chefs, 4, 6, 15, 47, 85, 125, 127, 134, 189–90n24 See also Prestige; Status Restaurant Magazine, 125, 197n25 Restaurant owners: chefs’ relations with, 32–33; corporate, 81–82, 104, 129, 130–31, 214n21 See also Chef-owners Restaurant reviews, see Reviews Restaurants: business pressures, 127, 137; competition, 161, 206n51; failure rates, 187n37; front-of-the-house staff, 43, 202–3n15; new concepts, 49; open kitchens, 188n10; profit margins, 6–7, 31–32, 201n65 See also Culinary styles; Eating out; Kitchen staff members; Menus Restaurant status: categories, 4, 184n7, 224n4, 225n7; chefs’ careers and, 34–37, 35 (fig.), 36 (fig.), 37 (fig.), 38 (fig.), 39 (fig.), 40, 41–43; costs by, 31–32; destination restaurants, 211n47; formal training of chefs and, 29; job mobility and, 40–42, 43; moving to lower-status restaurant, 31, 32, 40, 68–69; persistence, 189– 90n24; profitability and, 31–32 Reviews: chefs’ views of, 59–62, 198–99n38; content analysis, 58–59, 179–180, 198n32; culinary categories, 51, 57, 59–60; influence, 57, 197n25, 198–99n38; innovation discussed, 57–59, 179–180; Michelin Guide, 50, Index╇╇255 57, 154, 197n25, 218–19n8; negative, 55, 58, 59; online, 57, 197n25; ratings, 50, 57, 58, 153–54, 189–90n24, 197n25, 224n4; Zagat guides, 50 Robuchon, Joël, 93 Rosch, Eleanor, 219nn17–18 San Francisco Chronicle, 57 See also Reviews San Francisco magazine, 57 San Francisco restaurant industry: career paths, 34, 43–45, 44 (fig.); compared to New York, 2, 3, 43–45, 94–97, 153–56; culinary schools, 30; culinary styles, 3, 61, 95–97, 153–56, 155 (fig.), 194n65, 206n50; interviews, 5–6, 173–75; labor market, 45; local ingredients, 95–96; professional lineages, 94–95, 96; ratings, 153–54; reviews, 57; size, 2, 183n2; social relations among chefs, 96, 97; Waters’ central position, 159 Santoro, Marco, 221n38 Schemas: cognitive, 117–18, 143–45, 168–69, 204n27; in fields, 218n57; self-concepts as, 167; usefulness, 199–200n47 See also Self-concepts Self-concepts: careers and, 9, 46–47, 70; characteristics, 167; cognition and, 210–11n42; components, 166–67; consistency, 167–68, 223n63; culinary styles and, 62, 64–71, 74, 142, 147–48, 160, 201n66; development, 9, 167, 222–23n56; dynamics, 167–68; field positions and, 10, 158, 160–61, 169–70; innovation and, 67, 74, 111–12, 120–21; job mobility and, 46–47; as means for action, 153, 160, 167, 168–70; multiple, 168; professional, 46–47, 166–67, 168, 186n27; as self-theories, 168; social domains and, 168; status and, 151–53, 158 Self-theories, 168 Sens pratique, 143 Sifton, Sam, 57 Simmel, Georg, 186n21, 199nn41–42, 200n51, 201–2n4, 202n9, 202n14, 205n45, 212n4, 217n51 Skills: in dish creation, 110, 142–43; generalist, 27; of kitchen staff, 25, 26–27, 28, 45–46, 190n26; specialized, 26, 42; status as proxy for, 25, 189–90n24; technical, 25, 26–27, 41 See also Techniques; Training Social attributes, 25, 189n22 Social connections of chefs: capitalizing on, 133–35; of celebrity chefs, 188–89n12, 215n28; of competitors, 161–62; as conduits of information, 129–31; culinary styles and, 128–29; with customers, 188n10; of experienced chefs, 86; externships, 13–14, 28; with higher-status chefs, 42, 194n61; influence of, 8, 14; –jobs obtained through, 14, 23, 25–26, 45; local, 134; made in culinary schools, 28, 192n40; making, 30, 131; managing relationships, 87, 95, 96; in New York, 133–35, 153, 206n51; norms regulated through, 73–74; occasions for meetings, 128–29, 131, 214n24; outside industry, 132, 215n28; with peers, 90–91, 128–29, 130–31, 135; roles, 129; in San Francisco, 45, 96, 97; stages obtained through, 42; status and, 133–35, 153, 194n61 See also Professional lineages Social connections of kitchen staff: camaraderie, 22, 32; job mobility opportunities, 24, 25–26, 32, 45–46 Social networks, 214–15nn25–27 See also Social connections of chefs, Social connections of kitchen staff, Network analysis Sous-chefs, 11 (fig.), 12, 24 See also Kitchen staff members Sous-vide cooking, 53, 54, 196n15 Staff, see Kitchen staff members Index╇╇256 Stages, 11, 13–14, 42, 194nn60–61 Status: of chefs, 15, 32, 151–53, 155–56, 158, 188n8; of culinary schools, 29–30, 191n36; of culinary styles, 23, 50, 51–52, 61, 124, 125, 127–28, 148; of foodstuffs, 54, 56, 80, 125, 197n22; innovation and, 63, 156, 157; international experience and, 42; occupational identities and, 27; past employment and, 25; as proxy for skill, 25, 189–90n24; social connections and, 133–35, 153, 194n61 See also Restaurant status Status signals, 189n18, 215n33 Structural equivalence, 214n25, 215n30 Swidler, Ann, 112, 201n62, 207n11, 211n45, 221n35, 221n43, 222n46 Symbolic capital, 22, 40, 133–34, 144, 198n34, 204n34 See also Social connections Tastes, 100, 206nn1–2, 206–7n3 See also Flavor Tasting menus, 64, 78 Techniques: associations with culinary styles, 50, 52, 53; classical, 2–3, 52, 53–54; French, 2–3, 51–52; innovative, 52–54, 63, 78, 139; modernist, 52–54, 59, 63, 140, 217n44; patents, 73; regional origins, 52; sous-vide cooking, 53, 54, 196n15; in traditional cuisines, 51–52 See also Skills Toolkits, 112, 211n45, 221n43, 222n46 See also Swidler Trade secrets, 73, 185n16, 201n1, 204n30 See also Intellectual property rights Traditional culinary styles: chefs’ preference for eating, 80–81; dish creation, 9, 108–9, 149–50, 154; innovation and, 56, 64–65, 140–41; restaurant classification, 4; techniques, 51–52 See also French cuisine; Italian cuisine; Regional cuisines Training: apprenticeships, 13, 17, 26, 46, 191n34, 194n57; in culinary styles, 128; in Europe, 41; externships, 10–11, 12, 13–14, 23, 24, 28–29; on-thejob, 23–24, 31, 190n26; restaurant status and, 29; stages, 11, 13–14, 42, 194nn60–61 See also Culinary schools Trust, 25–26, 45–46, 152 Typecasting, 26, 27, 30, 31, 190n29 Vacancy chains, 34, 193n53 Values: adversarial cooperation and, 161–62; of chefs, 157–58, 163; in culinary fields, 9, 127, 141, 145, 148, 163; in fields, 127, 138, 144, 145, 216n41, 220n28, 222n54, 225n9; moral 66, 83, 150, 152, 154–156, 157–158, 163; self-concepts and, 141, 166, 171; shared, 151, 153, 160–62, 184n12, 188n12 See also Moral purity, Moral understandings Vongerichten, Jean-Georges, 123, 124, 212n1 Vonnegut, Kurt, 134 Waters, Alice, 159, 219n19 Wd-50, 58, 133–34, 159, 197–98n30, 216n36 Weber, Max, 216n41, 220n28 Websites: gossip, 203n20, 203n23; restaurant reviews, 57, 197n25 Weick, Karl, 208n14, 208n15 Wells, Pete, 89 White, Harrison, 187n39, 197n23, 218n57 Zagat guides, 50 Zerubavel, Eviatar, 204n25, 204–5n36 Zuckerman, Ezra, 190n29, 219n13 ... located in Rhode Island.36 Somewhat further behind are the International Culinary Center, until recently called the French Culinary Institute, and the Institute of Culinary Education, both in. .. Cataloging -in- Publication Data Leschziner, Vanina, author At the chef ’s table : culinary creativity in elite restaurants / Vanina Leschziner pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index... career paths of chefs, the classification of their culinary styles, their social connections, the ways they exchange information, the work processes behind the creation of dishes, and the ways in