Tài liệu The complete guide to the toefl IBT reading part 7 doc

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sciences and even physical sciences When psychologists speak of a dependent variable in an experiment, they mean the same thing as a chemist does Of course, some psychological terminology consists of everyday words such as emo- tion, motivation, intelligence, ego, and anxiety, but psychologists use these words somewhat differently For example, a non-psychologist may use the word anxiety to mean nervousness or fear, but most psychologists reserve the term to describe a condition produced when one fears events over which one has no control si es es S Zz Ø Glossary jargon: the specialized language used by people in the same field

T/F 28 The author explains the special language of psychology in part by giving the reasons why it exists

T/F 29 In the author's opinion, the jargon used by psychologists is confusing and unnecessary

T/F 30 The author mentions a chemist to show how different the terminology of social science and physical science is

T/F 31 The word anxiety is given as an example of a word that has a more specialized meaning to psychologists than it does to non-psychologists — EXERCISE 4.2 Focus: Answering multiple choice purpose, method, and attitude questions about longer passages DIRECTIONS: Read the passages Then mark the answer choice that best answers the question Passage 1

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1978), Asteroids (Atari, 1979), and Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981) followed

Perhaps the most popular arcade game ever, Pac Man (Bally/Midway, 1980) was based on an ancient Japanese folk tale Some of these arcade games, and other games that were not seen in arcades, were available for play on personal computers It can even be said that computer games helped popularize the idea of owning a home computer and shaped the way computers were made Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak (who had met while designing games for Atari) designed the Apple II, the first popular personal computer, so that it could be used to play computer games at home

2 Today, there are four main types of devices that computer games can be

played on Personal computers, consoles, handheld consoles, and arcade

machines are all common platforms Personal computer (PC) games are designed to be played on standard home computers Often no special controls are needed—the game can be played with a keyboard or mouse—but some games are played with a joy stick Video feedback is received by the user through the computer monitor and audio feedback through speakers or head- phones Players can buy PC games at the store—usually stored on CD ROMs— or download them from the Internet Players of PC games can also play against live opponents on the Internet

3 Console games are often referred to as video games They are played in a specially made computer called a console PlayStation (SONY), GameCube

(Nintendo), and XBOX (Microsoft) are the three most famous types of consoles

Players interact with the game through a controller: a handheld device with buttons, analog sticks, or pads Games are generally stored on cartridges or - sometimes on disks Games are available for sale at many types of stores and for rent at video rental stores

4 Handheld consoles are portable, battery-powered consoles that can be played anywhere The most famous is the Game Boy, first released in 1989 The tiny screen, audio speakers, and controls are all part of one unit Like console games, handheld console games are usually stored on cartridges

5 Arcade games are played on a device composed of a video screen, a coin box, specially designed computer hardware, and a set of controls Controls include the classic joy stick and buttons, light guns, and pads on the ground that detect pressure These machines are located in public places and players must pay to play them

6 Some computer games can also be played on devices that are not primarily designed for game-playing A good example of this type of device is the cell phone Many games are now available for more than one platform Some games, such as Mario Brothers (1983), which was first developed as an arcade game, have been “ported” (modified) to work on all four platforms Today, games for personal computers and for consoles are routinely launched on the same day This is possible because of the increased computing capabilities of consoles They can now handle games that were formerly only playable on personal computers In fact, in a recent year, console games outsold personal computer games by about 380%

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7 Although there are exceptions, such as in South Korea, retail sales of computer games have been down in recent years In the three biggest markets— the U.S., the U.K., and Japan—sales peaked in the late 1990's and have been declining ever since However, this doesn’t mean that fewer people are playing computer games Today, many games are “shareware” that can be downloaded from the Internet for free These games pay for themselves by advertising or other means 1M Glossary t7) há a a

joy stick: a control device used to play games on computers Joy sticks can be used

to operate vehicles, fire guns, etc

1 The author uses the expression “make a splash” in paragraph 1 to indicate that the game Pong

2 The author mentions Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak in paragraph 1 because they

3 The author classifies computer games primarily by © the type of platform they are played on

4, Why does the author mention cartridges in paragraph 4? © This is the only way to store games

5 Mario Brothers is given in paragraph 6 as an example of a computer game that is no longer available

was released as a console game and a PC game on the same day can be played on any kind of platform

was developed as a PC game but later became an arcade game

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6 The author mentions cell phones in paragraph 6 because

cell phones and computer games were developed at about the same time computer game platforms are used only for entertainment, but cell phones have more important uses

there are many similarities between cell phone design and game platform design

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7 The author mentions South Korea in paragraph 7 because © PC games are still more popular than console games there

the popularity of computer games began to decline there in the mid 1990's several popular computer games were developed there

the market for computer games there has not behaved as it has in the biggest markets 000 my Passage 2

1 Blood is a complex fluid composed of several types of cells suspended in plasma, the straw-colored, liquid portion of the blood Disc-shaped red blood cells make up the majority of blood cells Hemoglobin in the red blood cells picks up oxygen in the blood and delivers it to the tissues of the body These cells carry carbon dioxide from the body’s cells to the lungs and deliver it to the tissues of the body These cells then carry carbon dioxide from the body’s cells to the lungs 2 Think of it as a railroad hauling freight The cargo (oxygen) is loaded into a

railroad car (hemoglobin) Then the locomotive (a red blood cell) carries the

cars where they are needed After unloading, the train returns with a different

cargo (carbon dioxide) and the process starts all over again

3 Blood cells are made up of two components The hemoglobin is in solution inside the cell The cell is surrounded by a membrane that holds in the hemoglobin A rough analogy would be a toy balloon The plastic would be the membrane, and the hemoglobin the air inside it The blood types that most of us know—A, B, O, and AB—are properties of the membrane The hemoglobin of a person with type A blood is identical to the hemoglobin of a person with type

B, O, or AB blood A balloon may be yellow, red, blue, or green, but the air

inside it is the same

4 Hemoglobin is the part of the cell that traps the oxygen and carbon dioxide It contains a compound called poryphyrin that consists of a carbon-based ring with four nitrogen atoms facing a central hole The nitrogen bonds to an iron atom, and the iron then captures one molecule of oxygen or carbon

dioxide

8 The author explains how the blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide by comparing the process to a train carrying freight

giving examples of how the body uses oxygen analyzing the composition of plasma

comparing blood and other fluids

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9 The author compares blood types to © the air inside a balloon

1 The 1960’s saw a rising dissatisfaction with the modernist movement in

architecture, especially in North America, where its failings were exposed in two

influential books, Jane Jacobs’s The Death and Life of Great American Cities in

1961 and Robert Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture in 1966 Jacobs highlighted the destruction of the richness and variety of America that occurred as a result of the urban renewal programs sponsored by the federal government She went on to say that these historic buildings were being replaced by massive, impersonal buildings Venturi implied that modernist structures were without meaning because they lacked the complexity and intimacy of historical buildings Both writers called for a new style of architecture 2 By the early 1980's, post-modernism had become the dominant style, par-

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Portland, Oregon, and his Humana Tower (1986) in Louisville, Kentucky, have

the bulk of skyscrapers but incorporate historical souvenirs such as colonnades, belvederes, keystones, and decorative sculpture Likewise, Robert Stern’s Observatory Hill Dining Hall (1984) at the University of Virginia in

Charlottesville, Virginia, combines the red brick and white wood of Thomas

Jefferson’s original plan for university buildings with modern building forms and walls with large windows Chinese-American architect | M Pei’s design for an addition to the Louvre Museum in Paris (1989) included a glass pyramid, referring to the Egyptian art in the Louvre and the fact that French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte played a major role in making Egypt a subject of study in the early 1800's

3 Another major tendency in post-modern architecture is the emphasis on

decoration, which modernism eliminated This can be seen in the works of

Phillip Johnson, who was once a champion of modernism but became an out- spoken advocate of post-modernism He wrapped the AT&T building (1984), which is now the SONY Building, in New York City, in pinkish granite and topped it with a tower that looks like an enormous piece of Chippendale furniture Some architects turned entire buildings into sculptures Frank Gehry’s monumental Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain (1997), resembles an enormous abstract sculpture made of glass and titanium steel Glossary Chippendale: an ornate style of furniture first developed in Britain in the eighteenth century

10 Which of these statements best expresses the opinion of Jane Jacobs and Robert Venturi as given in paragraph 1?

describe several features of skyscrapers

discuss how Pei’s pyramid refers to Napoleon Bonaparte and his study of Egyptian culture

show how post-modernism evolved from modernism

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12 The author probably uses the word souvenirs in paragraph 2 because

memories

13 The author presents details about the AT&T (now the SONY) building in New York City to show that it

resembles an abstract sculpture

influenced post-modern furniture design

was built when Johnson was a modernist architect has ornamental architectural features 0000 Passage 4

1 A few languages have only one class of nouns and treat all nouns the same way, but most languages have different classes of nouns One common way to clas- sify nouns is by gender In Indo-European languages, genders typically include

feminine, masculine, and neuter Latin has all three of these, but in many of its

modern descendants, such as Spanish and French, the neuter gender has all but disappeared However, a few words in French, especially pronouns with no clear gender, such as cela (this), are considered neuter by some grammarians

2 English is one language that uses natural gender (also called logical gender) Gender depends on biology Mother is feminine, father is masculine, and chair is

neuter There are, however, a few oddities Ships are sometimes referred to as she, and so are nations Animals can be neuter or follow natural gender:

“This is my dog Suzy She’s really smart.” “| saw a tiger at the zoo /t was really beautiful.”

3 Other languages use grammatical gender Languages that have only two genders, such as Arabic, Spanish, French, and Urdu, all use grammatical gender

So do some languages, such as German, Russian, and Greek, which have mascu-

line, feminine, and neuter nouns Sometimes grammatical gender is logical, especially for nouns that refer to people In Spanish, for example, hijo (son) is masculine and hija (daughter) is feminine However, while the assignment of gender to certain nouns seems obvious to a native speaker of these languages, it seems arbitrary and confusing to non-native speakers Why is chaise (chair) feminine in French but banc (bench) masculine? Why, in German, is Fels (rock)

masculine, Fenster (window) neuter, and Tur (door) feminine? And noun gender varies by culture In French, soleif (sun) is masculine, while /une (moon) is feminine The reverse is true in German: Sonne (sun) is feminine, but Mond (moon) is

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In some languages, such as modern Greek, it is impossible to predict the gender of a noun by the form of the noun Gender must simply be memorized In other languages, it is possible, or at least it is sometimes possible In Latin, most singular nouns that end in a are feminine, most singular nouns that end in

us are masculine, and most nouns that end in um are neuter There are, however, exceptions, such as agricola (farmer), which is masculine, and ulmus (elm

tree), which is feminine For some languages, there are complicated and often incomplete rules that relate form to gender This is true in German It may be useful to learn the rule that nouns that end in /ein and chen (meaning young or small) are all neuter The noun Mddchen (little girl) is, rather unexpectedly, neuter However, is it worth learning that, of the 107 single-syllable nouns end- ing in a nasal sound plus another consonant, 70% are masculine? A student may end up learning more rules than nouns

Besides gender, there are many other classes of nouns According to the lin- guist Carl Meinhof, the Bantu language family has a total of 22 noun classes No single language in this family expresses all of them, but Sesotho has 18 and Swahili has 15 Tamil—spoken in Sri Lanka—divides nouns into rational versus nonrational In Ojibwa (a Native American language), there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns The names of all living things, as well as sacred things and things connected to the earth, belong to the animate class Still, the assignment is somewhat arbitrary, as the word for raspberry is animate but the word for strawberry is inanimate Fula (an African language) distinguishes between liquids and solids, and Indonesian distinguishes between things that can be folded and things that can’t be In Dyibal, an Australian Aboriginal language, the four classes of noun are (1) all animate objects except for women; (2) women, water, and fire; (3) edible fruits and vegetables; and (4) everything else Zande, an African language, has classes that include heavenly objects

(moon, rainbow), metal objects (ring, hammer), and edible plants (pea, sweet

potato) The Alambiak language, spoken in Papua New Guinea, has a class that

includes tall, long, or slender objects, such as arrows, fish, and snakes, and one that includes short, squat, or round things, such as turtles, houses, and shields

14 The author probably does NOT give an example of a language with one noun class because

15 The grammarians mentioned in paragraph 1 believe that the French word cela

can be either feminine or masculine

is not really a pronoun

is neither masculine nor feminine should not be considered neuter

0000

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16 The oddities that the author mentions in paragraph 2 © are exceptions to the general gender rules in English © prove that English follows grammatical gender © always follow natural gender

17 Which of these statements probably best expresses the author's opinion of rules about the gender of nouns in German?

18 The main point of paragraph 5 is to discuss © _ noun classes other than gender

19 The author gives Tamil as an example of a language that © distinguishes between animate and inanimate © has 22 noun classes

20 How does the author show that the way Ojibwa assigns nouns to a noun class is somewhat arbitrary?

Passage 5

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(35 meters) from the ocean Just in the last ten years, a series of harsh winter storms has eaten up over forty feet (10.3 meters) of the beach in front of the lighthouse

2 The United States has over 19,000 miles (33,600 kilometers) of beaches, and nearly half of the population of the United States lives within 50 miles (80 kilometers) of the coast Some estimates claim that between 80% and 90% of the U.S coastline is eroding And the problem is not confined to the United

States Egypt, Thailand, India, the U.K., Australia, and Japan—almost every coun-

try that has a coastline—share this problem

3 During storms, the action of heavy waves carries sand into the sea and leaves it on the ocean floor During calm periods, erosion reverses Sand is slowly moved landward by the action of gentler waves In recent times, however, the buildup of sand has not kept pace with erosion In many places, sand has been replaced by sediment

Lately, the leading cause of the increased rate of beach erosion has been global warming Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are generated by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels These gases are accumulating in the atmosphere, trapping in the sun‘s heat Forests are being cut down, leaving fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from the air Global warming has likely increased the frequency of severe storms that tear sand from beaches Average temperatures are likely to rise higher in the near future, melting glaciers and polar ice caps, causing the levels of the sea to rise, and making coastal erosion even worse

4 Clearly, something must be done Too many people live and vacation in

Miami Beach, Atlantic City, Malibu, Galveston, and Honolulu to simply allow

roads, houses, and resorts to fall into the sea Many engineers maintain that the best way to protect coasts is to build protective structures such as sea walls and breakwaters to protect beaches from the ravages of storms These structures have been tried in a number of places along the U.S coastline and in other countries, notably Japan

5 The problem with defensive structures is that they often don’t work One

study, in fact, has shown that these structures accelerate the erosion of beaches

Not only that, they can be unsightly, destroying the natural beauty of beaches

The states of Maine, North Carolina, and South Carolina have banned the

building of these structures

Some communities have tried another solution: beach replenishment (also called beach nourishment) These programs simply replace lost sand with sand

from deeper parts of the ocean or, in the case of some California beaches, with

sand brought in by trucks from the desert These programs are costly It costs over US$1 million to replenish one mile (1.61 kilometers) of beach Again, however, this method of preserving beaches is of dubious value Another study has shown that only 10% of replenished beaches have lasted more than five years In some locations, the supply of suitable sand is limited And the quality of the sand used for replenishment is seldom as high as the sand that it replaces

Glossary

Cape Cod: a peninsula stretching eastward from the coast of southern Massachusetts; it is a favorite place for vacationers

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22 23 2A 25 26 27

It can be inferred that the author of this passage

structures

The author illustrates the problem of beach erosion in part by

exploring the economic cost of beach erosion on one seaside community comparing the situation at Highland Light with similar places in other countries saying that the situation on Cape Cod is typical for most seaside communities 0 OO

The author probably mentions the fact that nearly half of the population of the United States lives within fifty miles (eighty kilometers) of the coast to show that

patterns of population distribution in the United States are changing beach erosion affects a vast number of people in the United States the problem in the United States is more severe than it is in many other countries beach erosion is not a concern for more than half of the population of the United States 0 O00

The author explains global warming by

The author cites the two studies in the passage in order to

replenishment are necessary

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SENTENCE RESTATEMENT QUESTIONS

You will see two or three sentence restatement questions in the Reading Section This type of question presents a sentence from the passage and then asks you to choose the sentence that best restates or summarizes the information in the original sentence The correct choice will not look like the original sentence It will use different grammar and different vocabulary, substituting synonyms for words in the original sentence

The special directions that are given for these questions tell you that you have to select the choice that has the essential information that is in the original sentence, The directions also tell you that incorrect choices omit important information from the original sentence or change the meaning of the original sentence To find correct choices, you must identify the sentence that summarizes or simplifies the information in the sentence from the passage In other words, a choice that eliminates details and examples from the original sentence may be a correct answer as long as it does not leave out important information

Look at the following section from one of the passages in the Reading Preview Test and the restatement question about it

Sample

Some organisms cross barriers with the intentional or unintentional help of

humans, a process called invasion An example is the New Zealand mud snail,

which was accidentally brought to North America when trout from New Zealand were imported to a fish hatchery in the United States It has caused extensive environmental damage in streams and rivers In the invasive

species’ native environments, there are typically predators, parasites, and competitors that keep their numbers down, but in their new environment, natural checks are left behind, giving the invaders an advantage over native species Invasive species may spread so quickly that

they threaten commercial, agricultural, or recreational activities

102

Which of the following sentences best expresses the essential information in the sentence in bold? (Incorrect answer choices omit important information or change the meaning of the original sentence in an important way.)

© Native species are at a disadvantage compared to invasive species because they face environmental dangers that invasive species have left behind ©) The greatest danger from invasive species is that they may spread parasites

among native species

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The first choice expresses part of the idea (that invasive species leave their native environment behind) but it does not include an important idea from the original sentence: Invasive species have an advantage over native species because they have left the dangers found in their home environments behind them

The second choice is correct This choice gives the main ideas of the original sentence: Invasive species have an advantage over native species because they have left the dangers (the “natural checks”) of their home environment behind However, native species do have to deal with natural checks This correct choice does not give the examples mentioned in the original sentence: predators,

parasites, and competitors There are also differences in grammar and vocabulary between this choice and the original However, this choice best restates and summarizes the original sentence

The third choice changes the meaning of the original sentence in an important way This choice says that invasive species are dangerous because they spread parasites among native plants However, the original sentence says that invasive species are at an advantage because they have left dangerous parasites behind

The fourth choice also significantly changes the meaning of the original This choice says that predators, parasites, and competitors prevent invasive species from increasing their numbers as fast as they would in their home environments In fact, it is the lack of these dangers in the new environment that gives them an advantage over native species

When you answer sentence restatement questions, ask yourself, “What is the important idea or ideas in the sentence?” (there may be two or three) Then read the four choices If the choice changes the meaning of the original, or does not express the main idea(s) completely, it is not the right choice

Remember: The right choice has the same meaning as the original sentence, but it may simplify and summarize the original sentence It may not omit important information EXERCISE 5.1 Focus: Recognizing correct and incorrect choices for sentence restatement questions

DIRECTIONS: Read the original sentence, and then read the sentence below it Mark the answer I if the second sentence is an incomplete restatement of the original sentence, X if the second sentence is incorrect according to the original sentence, and C if it is a correct restatement or simplification of the original sentence

1 Ranging from the size of a sparrow to the size of a small airplane, the Pterosaurs ruled the skies during the Jurassic period, but today there are no reptiles capable of flight

—_— Pterosaurs, which ranged in size from small to large, were flying lizards that lived during the Jurassic period

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——~ No one today knows the names of the architects of the Roman and Greek tem- ples or of the cathedrals of medieval Europe

3 First made famous by the Middleton study of 1923, the town of Muncie, Indiana, has been the subject of several sociological studies on life in a typical Midwestern city of the United States

——— Beginning in 1923, the town of Middleton has been studied several times by sociologists

4 In the twentieth century, the emphasis on team sports such as football and baseball became even more pronounced than it had been in the nineteenth century

—_— Team sports were more important in the nineteenth century than they were in the twentieth

5 Although often misrepresented in movies as a land of dense forests, the conti- nent of Africa is in fact mainly covered by rolling savannahs, deserts, and mountain ranges

—_— Arfrica’s most important features are savannas, deserts, and mountains, but in movies it is often pictured as being densely forested

6 Rock formations featuring only one type of rock are given the name of the place where the rock is well exposed, so you have Austin Chalk, Baltimore Gneiss, and Chattanooga Shale, but if the formation features more than one type of rock, the word formation is used after the place name, as in the Morrison Formation or the Martinsburg Formation

——— Rock formations that have one type of rock have two-word names, but those that have more than one type of rock have only one-word names

7 So complicated is international trade today that it is almost impossible to say in what country a product such as an automobile is manufactured because the components of that automobile were probably manufactured in a dozen or more countries all over the world

—— Itis difficult to determine where some goods are produced because the parts that make up these goods come from multiple countries

8 There is no official international board governing the rules for playing checkers as there is for chess, so there are slight variations in rules from country to country

——— The rules for chess are determined by an international governing board 9 Handel, always ready for experimentation in orchestrating his music, may have

written a few pieces for the clarinet, but it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that the clarinet became an important orchestral instrument ——— The clarinet became a leading orchestral instrument in the mid-nineteenth

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10 No single theory explains inflation, but when put together like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, these theories provide a pretty clear picture of why prices go up _ Considered together, various theories can explain inflation, but individual the-

ories are inadequate

11 Pasta has an advantage over bread as a staple of life in that it can be dried and preserved

_ If it is important to save food for later, pasta is better than bread because it can be dried

12 The painter Thomas Gainsborough rivaled Sir Joshua Reynolds in the quality of his artwork, but not in his social or financial success

Reynolds was much more successful financially and socially, but Gainsborough was a far more talented painter

13 Greek literature is no exception to the general rule that poetry develops earlier than literary prose

_ The literature of Greece is an example of literature in which literary prose developed before poetry

14 By studying photographs of deserts taken from space, geologist Farouk El-Baz discovered that sand dunes, like glaciers, move at a steady, predictable rate _ The geologist Farouk El-Baz learned to predict the movement of glaciers by

studying photographs taken from space

15 Around 1915 D W Griffith and other directors began to make longer films that provided the same powerful emotional appeal as theatrical melodramas while presenting visual spectacles far beyond what the theater could offer

Like melodramas, the longer films that were made by D W Griffith appealed strongly to the emotions

16 Contrary to popular belief, there is no validity to the stories one hears of initials carved in a tree by a young boy becoming elevated high above his head when he visits the tree as an old man

_ Over time, initials that are carved into a tree will be elevated by the growth of

the tree `

EXERCISE 5.2

Focus: Answering sentence restatement questions about sentences in the context of short passages

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